“Brain-Computer Interface”

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The human brain, often considered the most complex organ in the human body, has long been
compared to a powerful and intricate computer that has yet to be fully recreated or simulated.
Recent advancements in medicine and information technology have led to the development of
Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs), particularly non-invasive versions based on
electroencephalography (EEG). BCIs have evolved from simple EEG recordings into
efficient communication systems that acquire brain signals, analyze them, and translate them
into specific commands, allowing users to control external devices like computer keyboards,
mice, and joysticks. A true BCI system measures and uses signals from the central nervous
system (CNS), distinguishing it from systems like voice-activated or muscle-activated
technologies, which do not fall under the BCI definition. The need for such systems is
particularly evident for individuals with severe neurological diseases, such as amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis or brainstem stroke, who are unable to use their peripheral nerves or muscles
to interact with the environment. BCIs address this limitation by providing a direct
communication pathway between the brain and external devices, such as computers or
robotic limbs. This non-muscular communication channel bypasses traditional methods of
interaction, enabling users to control external devices independently of their muscles and
nerves, thus augmenting human capabilities in interacting with the physical world.

1.1 Problem Statement

Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) are a rapidly advancing technology that allows users to
control devices with their thoughts by measuring brain activity and translating it into
commands. BCIs are being used in a variety of applications, from entertainment with
neurogadgets like robotic spiders to medical advancements such as enabling people with
spinal cord injuries to regain mobility through electrical stimulation of muscles. The use of
neural networks and learning algorithms in signal processing helps address the variability in
brain activity between individuals, although lengthy training sessions are required for BCIs to
accurately interpret user commands. Despite being in the early stages of development, BCIs
show great promise in fields like medical rehabilitation, gaming, and entertainment. This
paper provides an overview of current BCI technologies, platforms, and applications under
exploration.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 1

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

1.2 Motivation
Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) have the potential to revolutionize various fields by
merging neuroscience, technology, and innovation. Their primary motivation stems from
their ability to drive medical advancements, especially by restoring independence and
communication for individuals with disabilities. BCIs also offer exciting possibilities in
cognitive and neuroscience research, enhancing our understanding of brain functions. Beyond
healthcare, they improve human-computer interaction, allowing for more intuitive and
immersive experiences, while also enabling cognitive and physical performance
enhancements. The motivation behind BCIs can be broadly understood through the following
key aspects:
1. Medical Advancements

2. Neuroscience and Cognitive Research

3. Improving Human-Computer Interaction
4. Enhancing Cognitive or Physical Performance
5. Next-Level Human-Machine Integration

1.3 Background
BCIs began in the 1970s, with early research focused on using brain signals to control

external devices. The first practical BCI systems were developed in the 1990s, primarily for

medical and research purposes. Technological Advancements as Increased research into

EEG, neural signal processing, and machine learning helped improve BCI technology.

Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) can be classified into three main types:

1. Invasive BCIs: These involve implanting electrodes directly into the brain, providing
high-resolution signals. They are used for medical applications, like controlling
prosthetics or assisting individuals with severe disabilities, but carry risks due to the
invasive nature.
2. Partially Invasive BCIs: Electrodes are placed on the surface of the brain, under the
skull but outside the brain tissue. They offer a balance between signal quality and
safety, with less risk than fully invasive systems.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 2

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

3. Non-Invasive BCIs: These use external sensors, like EEG, placed on the scalp to
detect brain activity. They are safe and comfortable but provide lower signal
resolution compared to invasive methods.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE SERVEY
1) Tang, Xin, et al. "Flexible brain–computer interfaces." Nature Electronics 6.2 (2023).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-022-00913-9
Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) have significant potential in neuroscience, medicine, and
virtual reality, but current systems face limitations due to the mechanical and geometrical
mismatch between rigid electronics and brain tissue. Flexible, stretchable, and soft electronics
offer a promising solution, as their properties are more compatible with the brain, enabling
the development of the next generation of BCIs. These advancements could impact
neuroscience, neuroprosthetic control, bioelectronic medicine, and brain-machine intelligence
integration. However, challenges in materials, device fabrication, and system integration must
be addressed to create flexible BCIs that are widely applicable and effective.

2) Peksa, Janis, and Dmytro Mamchur. "State-of-the-art on brain-computer interface

technology." Sensors 23.13 (2023): 6001.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s23136001
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art in brain–computer
interfaces (BCI). It begins by providing an introduction to BCIs, describing their main
operation principles and most widely used platforms. The paper then examines the various
components of a BCI system, such as hardware, software, and signal processing algorithms.
Finally, it looks at current trends in research related to BCI use for medical, educational, and
other purposes, as well as potential future applications of this technology. The paper
concludes by highlighting some key challenges that still need to be addressed before
widespread adoption can occur. By presenting an up-to-date assessment of the state-of-the-art
in BCI technology, this paper will provide valuable insight into where this field is heading in
terms of progress and innovation.

3) Maiseli, Baraka, et al. "Brain–computer interface: trend, challenges, and

threats." Brain informatics 10.1 (2023): 20.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40708-023-00199-3

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 3

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have garnered significant attention in recent years for their
potential to restore capabilities for physically challenged individuals, thereby improving their
quality of life. BCIs have had a transformative impact on various industries, including
entertainment, gaming, automation, education, neuromarketing, and neuroergonomics.
Despite their broad applications, global trends in BCI research remain underexplored in
literature. It proposes a typical BCI architecture aimed at addressing these issues to ensure the
technology's commercial viability.

4) Guger, Christoph, et al. "Brain-computer interface research: a state-of-the-art

summary 11." Brain-Computer Interface Research: A State-of-the-Art Summary 11.
Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. 1-11.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49457-4_1
With brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), people can send information directly from their
brains to computers. People can use BCIs to send messages or commands without moving. In
2010, we launched the Annual BCI Research Awards. People submit their projects to a jury
that scores each project on many criteria and then selects the best projects from that year.
This book contains project summaries written by most of the teams that were nominated for a
BCI Research Award in 2022. Each annual book also contains introduction and discussion
chapters written primarily by author BZA. This introduction chapter briefly overviews BCIs,
the process and scoring criteria we use for each annual award, this year’s jury, and the 12
projects that the jury nominated for an award.

5) Wu, Dongrui, et al. "Affective brain–computer interfaces (abcis): A

tutorial." Proceedings of the IEEE 111.10 (2023): 1314-1332.
DOI: 10.1109/JPROC.2023.3277471
Affective brain-computer interfaces (aBCIs) allow users to communicate directly with
computers by monitoring and regulating the emotional state of the brain, enhancing
cognition, communication, decision-making, and health. Over the past decade, aBCI research
and applications have rapidly advanced, but a comprehensive, up-to-date tutorial on the topic
has been lacking. This tutorial bridges that gap by introducing the basic concepts of BCIs and
detailing the components of a closed-loop aBCI system, including signal acquisition,
processing, feature extraction, emotion recognition, and brain stimulation. It also highlights
three key applications are cognitive workload recognition, fatigue estimation, and depression
diagnosis and treatment and addresses challenges such as brain signal acquisition, emotion
Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 4
 “Brain-Computer Interface”

labeling, dataset diversity, algorithm comparison, negative transfer in emotion recognition,

and privacy and security concerns.

Chapter 3
BCI WORKFLOW
The most commonly used platform for BCI research is electroencephalography (EEG), which
measures electrical signals produced by neurons in the brain through electrodes on the scalp.
Other platforms, such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS),
magnetoencephalography, and electrocorticography, also contribute to BCI development by
offering higher temporal resolution or the ability to detect deeper brain activity. A BCI
system typically consists of three fundamental components: signal acquisition, signal
processing, and application. These components work together to transmit brain signals to a
target application, such as a robotic arm. In some cases, control signals from the application
may be sent back to the brain to stimulate sensory functions like vision or hearing.

3.1 Signal acquisition

Signal acquisition in BCIs involves capturing electrophysiological signals that represent
specific brain activities, such as movement, speech, hearing, and vision. Common types of
signals used in BCI systems include electroencephalography (EEG), electrocorticography
(ECoG), local field potentials (LFP), and neuronal action potentials. BCIs can be categorized
into two types based on the signal acquisition method: invasive and non-invasive. Invasive
BCIs involve electrodes implanted under the scalp to directly record signals from the brain,
offering more accurate readings but requiring surgery. Non-invasive BCIs use electrodes
placed on the scalp, avoiding surgery but resulting in weaker brain signals that require
advanced amplification and signal processing techniques to overcome the poor signal-to-
noise ratio.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 5

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

Figure 3.1. Schematic diagram of a general BCI system.

3.2 Signal processing

In this stage, the BCI system extracts key electrophysiological features from acquired signals
to interpret brain activities and encode the user’s intent. Accurate feature extraction is
essential to ensure that the features are highly correlated with the user’s intentions, thereby
enhancing the system's performance. BCI systems typically use time-domain or frequency-
domain features, such as event-evoked potentials (e.g., P300), frequency power spectra (e.g.,
sensorimotor rhythms), or neuronal firing rates. Before designing the system, it’s crucial to
define the domain transformation and feature characteristics, while also removing any
confounding artifacts that may negatively affect the BCI’s performance in later stages.

Figure 3.2. BCI sensor mounting types: invasive (IM), semi-invasive (ECoG), and non-
invasive (MEG, EEG, fNIRS).

3.2.1 Feature extraction

In this stage, the BCI system extracts key electrophysiological features from acquired signals
to interpret brain activities and encode the user’s intent. Accurate feature extraction is
essential to ensure that the features are highly correlated with the user’s intentions, thereby
enhancing the system's performance. BCI systems typically use time-domain or frequency-

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 6

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

domain features, such as event-evoked potentials, frequency power spectra (e.g.,

sensorimotor rhythms), or neuronal firing rates. Before designing the system, it’s crucial to
define the domain transformation and feature characteristics, while also removing any
confounding artifacts that may negatively affect the BCI’s performance in later stages.

Figure 3.3. Shows the system to place the EEG surface electrode on the scalp.
3.2.2 Feature classification
The extracted features represent brain activities intended for desired actions. The
classification process helps to recognize patterns of the features corresponding to these
actions. For example, we can recognize features representing an instruction for moving a
robotic arm. This component is usually implemented using machine learning and
classification methods.

3.2.3 Feature translation

In the signal processing stage of BCI, classified features are converted into commands to
control external devices, such as cursor movement, volume control, or text input. A key
attribute of the translation algorithm is adaptability, enabling it to track changes in brain
activity and adjust outputs accordingly.

Electrocortical recordings are primarily obtained through electrodes placed directly on the
cortical surface, as seen in monkeys where signals are recorded from the scalp, and ECoG
electrodes capture data from local-field potentials (LFPs). While invasive recording methods
like ECoG are more reliable, they involve risks such as the need for surgery and longer
recovery times. Despite the painlessness of the brain itself, these procedures carry inherent
risks. Non-invasive BCIs, on the other hand, are safer as they don't require surgical
intervention, though they may be less reliable. Invasive systems, such as ECoG, provide more
precise signals and are valuable for decoding brain functions related to movement, vision,
and speech.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 7

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

(a) (b)
Figure 3.4 (a) Non-invasive BCI’s, Sample net of electrodes placed on the cortex surface.
(b) Invasive BCI’s Brain wave testing device.

Chapter 4
APPLICATIONS
Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology has the potential to improve quality of life,
particularly for individuals with disabilities, by allowing them to control devices with their
thoughts. As BCI advances, it promises to impact fields like mining, education, and robotics,
especially in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Researchers are addressing challenges to
enhance BCIs, which also show potential in thought decoding, memory enhancement,
telepathic communication, and medical treatments.

4.1 Extension of human memory

Stephen Hawking's theory of uploading the mind suggests using Brain-Computer Interfaces
(BCI) to decode and store memory signals in a computer. Advances in BCI technology show
that brain signals can reflect human intentions, potentially leading to portable memory
devices for transferring information to and from the brain. This could revolutionize fields like
psychology, but achieving it requires extensive research and development.

4.2 Decoding of thoughts

The brain controls a variety of internal functions like emotions, motor skills, and memory,
which are often not outwardly visible. In certain situations, as criminal investigations, there
may be a need to decode these thoughts. Law enforcement has explored using BCI to enhance
polygraphs and assess the truthfulness of suspects. Combining BCI with artificial intelligence

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 8

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

shows promise, but the advancement of this technology raises significant security and privacy
concerns, emphasizing the need for strict regulations to ensure its ethical and safe use.

4.3 Automation and control

BCI technology has the potential to revolutionize automation, helping individuals with
disabilities and impacting industrial manufacturing. Researchers are exploring the connection
of BCIs to secure wireless networks for automating systems, with the goal of enabling non-
contact control through advanced sensors. However, further research is needed to overcome
current limitations and ensure seamless interaction with intelligent sensors.

4.4 Localized brain–computer interface

In Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) systems, signal acquisition often captures both useful
brain activity and noise, making processing challenging. By localizing the system to specific
brain regions, such as the one that controls speech, we can isolate relevant signals, improving
performance and reducing the system's size and complexity.

4.5 Intelligence sharing

Can the BCI, in conjunction with the CBI, help to reprogram the brain, hence allowing
sharing of intelligence between individuals? Although it may be imagined as a fiction, the
fundamental principles of the technology suggest that brains may be reprogrammed
artificially. Achieving this milestone, however, requires solid understanding on the nature and
functioning of our brains a stage that has not been reached by the current state of knowledge.

4.6 Brain energy harvesting

The human brain, while making up only 2% of the body's mass, consumes about 20% of its
total energy, making it the third most energy-demanding organ. This high energy
consumption raises the possibility of using Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology to
harvest some of this energy to power low-energy external devices. Further research is needed
to determine how much energy can be harvested through BCI systems and explore its
potential for powering small devices.

4.7 Telepathy communication

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 9
 “Brain-Computer Interface”

Rao et al. demonstrated that combining Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI) with Computer-
Brain Interfaces (CBI) could enable telepathic communication, allowing individuals to
communicate without physical interaction or sensory channels. This brain-to-brain interface
is still in the early stages of development, but in the future, researchers may explore
connecting human brains over the Internet of Things (IoT), enhancing information exchange.
While BCI-IoT interfaces show promise, connecting brains through IoT remains a significant
challenge. Integrating BCI-IoT with other communication systems like mind-to-mind or
mind-to-machine interfaces could further expand human-machine-human communication, but
these advancements must be carefully guided by ethical principles.

Figure 4.1. Application of the BCI system.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 10

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

Figure 4.2. The setup of BCI-assisted soft robotic glove for stroke rehabilitation at (a) a local
hospital, with (b) depicting an illustrated overview. The setup comprises a EEG cap, EEG
amplifier, and soft robotic glove. 2022, Cheng N et al.

Chapter 5
Advantage and Disadvantage
A Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a technology that enables direct communication
between the brain and external devices by interpreting brain signals. BCIs capture electrical
activity from the brain through sensors or implanted electrodes and convert these signals into
commands to control devices like computers, robotic arms, or wheelchairs. BCIs are
particularly useful in medical applications, offering solutions for people with disabilities by
helping them regain mobility or communication. They also hold potential for cognitive
enhancements and improving human-computer interaction. However, challenges such as
technical limitations, high costs, and privacy concerns still need to be addressed as the
technology advances.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 11

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

Table.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Brain-Computer

Interface (BCI)
Advantages Disadvantages
Restoration of Independence: Allows High Cost: BCI systems can be expensive
individuals with disabilities to control devices to develop, maintain, and use.
and communicate.
Improved Communication: Facilitates Complexity: Developing and fine-tuning a
communication for people with speech or motor BCI system is technically challenging and
impairments. time-consuming.
Neurorehabilitation: Aids in recovery of Limited Accuracy: Signal interpretation
motor functions in stroke patients or brain can be imperfect, leading to errors in
injury victims. commands or actions.
Non-Invasive Options: Some BCIs are non- Signal Noise: Brain signals are often
invasive (e.g., EEG-based systems), making mixed with noise, making it difficult to
them safer. separate meaningful data.
Enhanced Human-Machine Interaction: Privacy Concerns: Brain data could be
Enables more intuitive and direct interaction misused if accessed or intercepted, leading
between humans and computers. to security risks.
Cognitive Enhancement: Can improve mental Ethical Issues: There are concerns about
functions like memory, attention, and problem- potential misuse, such as manipulating
solving. thoughts or behaviors.
Assistive Technology: Empowers those with Invasiveness in Some Systems: Some
mobility impairments to control devices like BCIs require surgery to implant electrodes
wheelchairs or robotic arms. (e.g., ECoG), posing health risks.
Immersive VR & AR: Enhances user Training Time: BCIs often require
experience in virtual and augmented reality extensive user training to achieve effective
applications. control.
Real-Time Control and Feedback: Provides Dependence on External Equipment:
quick interaction, allowing real-time control of BCIs often require external devices for
devices. processing, limiting mobility.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 12

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

Medical Applications: Offers new treatments Limited Long-Term Data: The long-term
for conditions like epilepsy, depression, and effects and reliability of BCI use over time
chronic pain. are not well understood.
Advancement in Neuroscience: Helps User Variability: Individual differences in
scientists understand brain function better, brain activity can make BCIs less effective
leading to breakthroughs in neuroscience. or difficult to personalize.
Potential for Brain-Machine Integration: Regulatory Challenges: Rapid growth of
Opens up possibilities for human augmentation BCI-technology regulatory frameworks to
and AI integration. ensure safety and ethical use.

Figure 5.1. BCI for human augmentation

Chapter 6
Result and Discussion
Currently, there is a significant gap between BCI research and its practical applications,
particularly in personalized BCIs, which are primarily focused on medical rehabilitation to
provide patients with tailored treatment parameters. In the future, the goal is to develop a
"one person, one program" approach that combines BCIs with other methods for personalized
treatment and rehabilitation plans. Beyond healthcare, personalized BCIs have potential
applications in various fields, including daily life, gaming, military, and transportation. For
instance, in daily life, they could evolve into wearable devices offering personalized services,
aiding the disabled or elderly. In transportation, personalized BCIs could optimize driving
routes and styles based on individual user preferences. In the military, they could assist in
customizing combat strategies. Ultimately, personalized BCIs could drive the practical

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 13

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

adoption of BCIs, offering tailored solutions to meet individual needs and improve user
satisfaction.
This report provides an overview of over fifty years of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)
development, highlighting the significant influence of electroencephalography (EEG) in
shaping these systems. Over time, both invasive and non-invasive BCIs have been developed
and tested, with EEG-based BCIs becoming the most popular due to their non-invasive
nature. These systems have a wide range of applications, from clinical uses for enabling non-
muscular communication for individuals with disabilities, to entertainment applications like
gaming. In recent years, there has been a growing focus on practical, real-world applications
of BCI technology, facilitating the transition from laboratory research to clinical products that
can be used in everyday life. Potentially, the BCI users might be individuals who are severely
disabled by disorders such as inter alia:
• Also (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis),
• Cerebral Palsy,
• Brainstem Stroke,
• Spinal-Cord Injuries,
• Muscular Dystrophies,
• Chronic Peripheral Neuropathies,
• Psychiatric Disorders

Chapter 7
Conclusion and Future Directions
In conclusion, Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology holds significant potential to
improve the quality of life, particularly for individuals with disabilities, by enabling direct
communication between the brain and external devices. While challenges such as signal
accuracy, adaptability, and invasiveness remain, ongoing advancements in BCI research offer
promising applications in medicine, industry, and beyond, shaping the future of human-
computer interaction.
This study offers a comprehensive exploration of personalized Brain-Computer Interfaces
(BCIs), focusing on key components such as personalized BCI paradigms, channel selection,
feature extraction, classification models, and neurofeedback. It merges traditional BCI
performance evaluation with user-centered assessments, investigating the use of personalized
BCIs in neuropsychiatric rehabilitation and emotion recognition. The paper emphasizes the

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 14

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

importance of individual-centric designs due to user variability and outlines the challenges
and opportunities in this field. It also presents an evolutionary model of BCI development,
from basic sensory interactions to advanced cognitive collaborations, highlighting the role of
neuroscience, information science, and engineering in future advancements. While BCIs have
made significant progress, many remain in the experimental phase, and improvements in
reliability and accessibility are needed for broader integration into everyday life, for both
disabled and healthy individuals.
The future of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology holds exciting possibilities, with
advancements focusing on improving signal quality and enhancing the adaptability of
algorithms to track brain activity more accurately. There is also a push toward developing
wireless, portable systems that offer greater convenience and accessibility. Integration with
artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things (IoT) will enable more seamless and
intelligent interactions between the brain and connected devices. BCIs are expected to play a
crucial role in healthcare, particularly in treating neurological conditions, aiding
rehabilitation, and improving cognitive function. As the technology evolves, addressing
ethical concerns, privacy issues, and the potential for brain-to-brain communication will be
essential to ensure responsible and impactful use of BCIs in various sectors.

Chapter 8
REFERENCES
[1] Flesher, Sharlene N., et al. "A brain-computer interface that evokes tactile sensations
improves robotic arm control." Science 372.6544 (2021): 831-836.
[2] Orban, Mostafa, et al. "A review of brain activity and EEG-based brain–computer
interfaces for rehabilitation application." Bioengineering 9.12 (2022): 768.
[3] Tang, Xin, et al. "Flexible brain–computer interfaces." Nature Electronics 6.2 (2023):
109-118.
[4] Kawala-Sterniuk, Aleksandra, et al. "Summary of over fifty years with brain-computer
interfaces—a review." Brain sciences 11.1 (2021): 43.
[5] Gao, Xiaorong, et al. "Interface, interaction, and intelligence in generalized brain–
computer interfaces." Trends in cognitive sciences 25.8 (2021): 671-684.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 15

 “Brain-Computer Interface”

[6] Maiseli, Baraka, et al. "Brain–computer interface: trend, challenges, and threats." Brain
informatics 10.1 (2023): 20.
[7] Mridha, Muhammad Firoz, et al. "Brain-computer interface: Advancement and
challenges." Sensors 21.17 (2021): 5746.
[8] Peksa, Janis, and Dmytro Mamchur. "State-of-the-art on brain-computer interface
technology." Sensors 23.13 (2023): 6001.
[9] Flesher, Sharlene N., et al. "A brain-computer interface that evokes tactile sensations
improves robotic arm control." Science 372.6544 (2021): 831-836.
[10] Yadav, Hitesh, and Surita Maini. "Electroencephalogram based brain-computer interface:
Applications, challenges, and opportunities." Multimedia Tools and Applications 82.30
(2023): 47003-47047.
[11] Orban, Mostafa, et al. "A review of brain activity and EEG-based brain–computer
interfaces for rehabilitation application." Bioengineering 9.12 (2022): 768.
[12] Drew, Liam. "Decoding the business of brain–computer interfaces." Nature
Electronics 6.2 (2023): 90-95.

Dept. of ECE, SECAB.I.E.T. 2025 Page 16