Determinants and Matrices

P-6 : The value of a determinant is not altered by

Determinants
adding to the elements of any row (or column) the same
Definition
multiples of the corresponding elements of any other row
(or column)
Let us consider three homogeneous linear equations
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0 , a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  0 a1 b1 c1
e.g., D  a2 b2 c2
and a 3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  0
a3 b3 c3
Eliminated x, y, z from above three equations we
obtain a1  ma 2 b1  mb 2 c1  mc 2
a1 (b 2 c 3  b 3 c 2 )  b1 (a 2 c 3  a3 c 2 )  c1 (a 2 b 3  a3 b 2 )  0 …..(i) and D'  a2 b2 c2 .
a1 b1 c1 a3  na1 b 3  nb1 c 3  nc1
The L.H.S. of (i) is represented by a 2 b2 c2
Then D'  D .
a3 b3 c3
P-7 : If all elements below leading diagonal or above
b c2 a2 c2 a2 b2 leading diagonal or except leading diagonal elements are
= a1 2  b1  c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3 zero then the value of the determinant equal to
Its contains three rows and three columns, it is called multiplied of all leading diagonal elements.
a determinant of third order. P-8 : If a determinant D becomes zero on putting
The number of elements in a second order is 2 2  4 x   , then we say that (x   ) is factor of determinant.
and the number of elements in a third order determinant
P-9 : It should be noted that while applying
is 3 2  9 .
operations on determinants then at least one row (or
Rows and columns of a determinant : In a column) must remain unchanged or, Maximum number
determinant horizontal lines counting from top 1st, 2nd,
of operations = order of determinant –1.
3rd,….. respectively known as rows and denoted by
R1 , R 2 , R3 , ...... and vertical lines counting left to right, 1st, P-10 : It should be noted that if the row (or column)
2nd, 3rd,….. respectively known as columns and denoted which is changed by multiplied a non-zero number, then
by C1 , C 2 , C 3 ,..... the determinant will be divided by that number.

Minors and Cofactors

Properties of determinants
(1) Minor of an element : If we take the element of
the determinant and delete (remove) the row and column
P-1 : The value of determinant remains unchanged, if containing that element, the determinant left is called the
the rows and the columns are interchanged. minor of that element. It is denoted by M ij .
Since the determinant remains unchanged when
a11 a12 a13
rows and columns are interchanged, it is obvious that any
theorem which is true for ‘rows’ must also be true for Consider the determinant   a21 a22 a23 ,
‘columns’. a31 a32 a33

P-2 : If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant M 11 M12 M 13

be interchanged, the determinant is unaltered in then determinant of minors M  M 21 M 22 M 23
numerical value but is changed in sign only. M 31 M 32 M 33
P-3 : If a determinant has two rows (or columns) a22 a23
identical, then its value is zero. where M 11  minor of a11 
a32 a33
P-4 : If all the elements of any row (or column) be a21 a23
multiplied by the same number, then the value of M12  minor of a12 
a31 a33
determinant is multiplied by that number.
a21 a22
P-5 : If each element of any row (or column) can be M13  minor of a13 
a31 a32
expressed as a sum of two terms, then the determinant
can be expressed as the sum of the determinants. Similarly, we can find the minors of other elements .
Using this concept the value of determinant can be
a1  x b1  y c1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
  a11 M 11  a12 M12  a13 M 13
e.g., a2 b2 c 2 = a2 b2 c 2 + a2 b2 c2
or,   a21 M 21  a22 M 22  a23 M 23
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
or,   a31 M 31  a32 M 32  a33 M 33 .

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 Determinants and Matrices

(2) Cofactor of an element : The cofactor of an R1

element a ij (i.e. the element in the i th row and jth and similarly if we consider ( x )  R2
column) is defined as (1)i j times the minor of that R3

element. It is denoted by C ij or Aij or Fij . Cij  (1)i j M ij R '1 R1 R1

Then ' (x )  R 2  R ' 2  R 2
a11 a12 a13
R3 R3 R' 3
If   a21 a22 a23 , then determinant of cofactors
a31 a32 a33 (iii) If only one row (or column) consists functions of
x and other rows (or columns) are constant, viz.
is
f1 (x ) f2 ( x ) f3 (x )
C11 C12 C13
C  C 21 C22 C23
Let ( x )  b1 b2 b3 ,
c1 c2 c3
C31 C32 C33
where C11  (1)1 1 M11   M11 , C12  (1)1  2 M12   M12 f '1 (x ) f '2 ( x ) f ' 3 ( x )
Then ' ( x )  b1 b2 b3
and C13  (1)1  3 M13   M13
c1 c2 c3
Similarly, we can find the cofactors of other elements.
n n n
f1 (x ) f2 (x ) f3 (x )
n
Product of two determinants And in general  (x )  b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Let the two determinants of third order be, where n is any positive integer and f n (x ) denotes the
a1 b1 c1 1 1  1 n th derivative of f (x ) .
D1  a 2 b2 c 2 and D2   2 2  2 .
(2) Integration of a determinant
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3
f ( x ) g(x ) h(x )
Let D be their product. Let ( x )  a b c , where a, b, c, l, m and n
a1 b1 c1 1 1  1 l m n
Then D  a 2 b 2 c 2   2 2  2 are constants.
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3 b b b
a f (x )dx a g( x )dx a h( x )dx
a11  b1 1  c1 1 a1 2  b1  2  c1 2 a1 3  b1  3  c1 3 b
 a (x )dx  a b c
 a21  b2 1  c2 1 a2 2  b2  2  c 2 2 a2 3  b2 3  c 2 3 l m n
a31  b3 1  c3 1 a3 2  b3  2  c 3 2 a3 3  b3 3  c3 3
 If the elements of more than one column or rows
We can also multiply rows by columns or columns by
are functions of x then the integration can be done only
rows or columns by columns.
after evaluation/expansion of the determinant.

Differentiation and integration of determinants Application of determinants in solving a system of

linear equations
(1) Differentiation of a determinant
(i) Let (x ) be a determinant of order two. If we write (1) Solution of system of linear equations in three
( x ) | C1 C 2 | , where C1 and C 2 denote the 1st and 2nd variables by Cramer’s rule : The solution of the system of
columns, then linear equations a 1 x  b 1 y  c 1 z  d 1 .....(i)
' ( x )  C '1 C2  C1 C2 a2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2 .....(ii)
where C'i denotes the column which contains the a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d 3 .....(iii)
th
derivative of all the functions in the i column C i . D1 D2 D
Is given by x  , y and z  3 ,
R1 D D D
In a similar fashion, if we write ( x )  , then
R2 a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
R' 1 R1 where, D  a 2 b2 c2 , D1  d 2 b2 c2
 ( x )  
R2 R 2 a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3

(ii) Let (x ) be a determinant of order three. If we a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1

write ( x )  C1 C 2 C3 , then D2  a2 d2 c 2 , and D3  a2 b2 d2
' ( x )  C '1 C 2 C3  C1 C ' 2 C3  C1 C2 C '3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
Provided that D  0

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 Determinants and Matrices

(2) Conditions for consistency : For a system of 3 Matrices

simultaneous linear equations in three unknown variable.
(i) If D  0 , then the given system of equations is Definition
consistent and has a unique solution given by
D1 D D A rectangular arrangement of numbers (which may
x , y  2 and z  3
D D D be real or complex numbers) in rows and columns, is
(ii) If D  0 and D1  D 2  D 3  0 , then the given called a matrix. This arrangement is enclosed by small ( )
system of equations is consistent with infinitely many or big [ ] brackets. The numbers are called the elements of
solutions. the matrix or entries in the matrix.
(iii) If D  0 and at least one of the determinants
D1 , D 2 , D 3 is non-zero, then given of equations is Order of a matrix
inconsistent.
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix
Some special determinants
of order m×n or simply m×n matrix (read as an m by n
matrix). A matrix A of order m×n is usually written in the
(1) Symmetric determinant
following manner
A determinant is called symmetric determinant if for  a11 a12 a13 ... a1 j ... a1n 
a h g  
 a 21 a 22 a 23 ... a 2 j ... a 2 n 
its every element aij  a ji  i, j e.g., h b f .  ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 
g f c A  or A  [a ij ]m n ,
 a i1 a i2 a i3 ... a ij ... a in 
(2) Skew-symmetric determinant : A determinant is  ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 
 
called skew symmetric determinant if for its every a m 1 a m 2 a m 3 ... a mj ... a mn 
0 3 1
i  1, 2,..... m
element a ij   a ji  i, j e.g., 3 0 5 where
j  1, 2,..... n
1 5 0
Here aij denotes the element of ith row and jth column.
 Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric
 3 1 5 
determinant is always zero. Example : order of matrix   is 2 × 3.
 The value of a skew symmetric determinant of even 6 2  7 
order is always a perfect square and that of odd order is A matrix of order m × n contains mn elements. Every row
always zero. of such a matrix contains n elements and every column
contains m elements.
(3) Cyclic order : If elements of the rows (or
columns) are in cyclic order. i.e., (i)
Equality of matrices
1 a a2
1 b b 2  (a  b )(b  c)(c  a)
1 c c2
Two matrix A and B are said to be equal matrix if
a b c 1 1 1 they are of same order and their corresponding elements
2 2
(ii) a b c  a2
2
b2 c2 are equal.
bc ca ab a3 b3 c3
= (a  b )(b  c)(c  a)(ab  bc  ca) . Types of matrices
a bc abc a a2 a3
(1) Row matrix : A matrix is said to be a row matrix
(iii) b ca abc  b b 2 b 3  abc(a  b )(b  c)(c  a)
or row vector if it has only one row and any number of
c ab abc c c2 c3
columns. Example : [5 0 3] is a row matrix of order 1× 3
1 1 1 and [2] is a row matrix of order 1×1.
(iv) a b c  (a  b )(b  c)(c  a)(a  b  c) (2) Column matrix : A matrix is said to be a column
a3 b3 c3 matrix or column vector if it has only one column and any
number of rows.
a b c
(v) b c a  (a 3  b 3  c 3  3 abc )  2
c a b
Example :  3  is a column matrix of order 3 × 1 and
  6 
[2] is a column matrix of order 1 × 1. Observe that [2] is
both a row matrix as well as a column matrix.

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 Determinants and Matrices

(3) Singleton matrix : If in a matrix there is only one (9) Triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is said to
element then it is called singleton matrix. be triangular matrix if each element above or below the
Thus, A  [aij]m n is a singleton matrix, if m  n  1 principal diagonal is zero. It is of two types
Example : [2], [3], [a], [–3] are singleton matrices. (i) Upper triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is
(4) Null or zero matrix : If in a matrix all the elements called the upper triangular matrix, if aij  0 when i  j .
are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is generally
3 1 2
denoted by O. Thus A  [aij]m n is a zero matrix if aij  0 for
Example : 0 4 3 is an upper triangular matrix of order
all i and j. 0 0 6
0 0  0 0 0 
Example : [0 ],  ,  , [0 0 ] are all zero 3 × 3.
0 0  0 0 0 
(ii) Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij ] is
matrices, but of different orders.
(5) Square matrix: If number of rows and number of called the lower triangular matrix, if aij  0 when i< j.
columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square
1 0 0 
matrix.
Example :  2 3 0  is a lower triangular matrix of order
Thus A  [aij]m n is a square matrix if m  n .
 4 5 2 
 a11 a12 a13 
3 × 3.
Example : a 21 a 22

a23  is a square matrix of order
a31 a32 a33 
Trace of a matrix
3×3.
(i) If m  n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
The sum of diagonal elements of a square matrix. A is
(ii) The elements of a square matrix A for which
called the trace of matrix A , which is denoted by tr A.
i  j, i.e . a11 , a 22 , a33 ,.... ann are called diagonal elements and n
the line joining these elements is called the principal tr A   aii  a11  a22  ... ann
i 1
diagonal or leading diagonal of matrix A.
Properties of trace of a matrix
(6) Diagonal matrix : If all elements except the
principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called a Let A  [aii]n n and B  [bij]n n and  be a scalar
diagonal matrix. Thus a square matrix A  [aij] is a diagonal (i) tr(A)   tr( A) (ii) tr( A  B)  tr( A)  tr (B)
matrix if aij  0, when i j . (iii) tr( AB )  tr(BA ) (iv) tr ( A)  tr ( A ' ) or
T
2 0 0  tr ( A )
Example : 0 3 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3× (v) tr (In )  n (vi) tr (0)= 0
0 0 4 
(vii) tr ( AB )  tr A . tr B
3, which can be denoted by diag [2, 3, 4].
(7) Identity matrix : A square matrix in which
Addition and subtraction of matrices
elements in the main diagonal are all '1' and rest are all
zero is called an identity matrix or unit matrix. Thus, the
square matrix A  [aij] is an identity matrix, if If A  [aij]m n and B  [b ij ] m n are two matrices of the
1, if i  j same order then their sum A+B is a matrix whose each
aij   element is the sum of corresponding elements i.e.,
0, if i  j
A  B  [a ij  b ij ]m n .
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In .
 1 0 0 Similarly, their subtraction A  B is defined as
1 0    A  B  [aij  bij]m n
Example : [1],    0 1 0  are identity matrices
,
 0 1   0 0 1
  Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only
of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively. when matrices are of the same order.
(8) Scalar matrix : A square matrix whose all non Properties of matrix addition : If A, B and C are
diagonal elements are zero and diagonal elements are matrices of same order, then
equal is called a scalar matrix. Thus, if A  [aij] is a square (i) A  B  B  A (Commutative law)
 , if i  j
matrix and a ij   , then A is a scalar matrix.
0, if i  j (ii) ( A  B)  C  A  (B  C ) (Associative law)
Unit matrix and null square matrices are also scalar (iii) A  O  O  A  A, where O is zero matrix which is
matrices. additive identity of the matrix.

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 Determinants and Matrices

(iv) A  ( A)  0  ( A)  A , where ( A) is obtained by If A,B and C are three matrices such that their
changing the sign of every element of A, which is product is defined, then
additive inverse of the matrix. (i) AB  BA , (Generally not commutative)
A  B  A  C (ii) ( AB )C  A(BC ) , (Associative Law)
(v) B C (Cancellation law) (iii) IA  A  AI , where I is identity matrix for matrix
B  A  C  A
multiplication.
(iv) A(B  C )  AB  AC , (Distributive law)
Scalar multiplication of matrices (v) If AB  AC   B  C ,(Cancellation law is not
applicable)
Let A  [aij]m n be a matrix and k be a number, then the (vi) If AB = 0, it does not mean that A= 0 or B = 0,
matrix which is obtained by multiplying every element of again product of two non zero matrix may be a zero
A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it is matrix.
denoted by kA.
Thus, if A  [aij]m n , then kA  Ak  [ka ij ] m n . Positive integral powers of a matrix
Properties of scalar multiplication
If A, B are matrices of the same order and  ,  are The positive integral powers of a matrix A are
defined only when A is a square matrix.
any two scalars then
Also then A 2  A. A , A 3  A. A. A  A 2 A .
(i)  ( A  B)  A  B (ii)
Also for any positive integers m and n,
(   ) A  A  A
(i) Am An  A m  n
(iii)  (A)  (A)   (A) (iv) (A)  (A)   ( A)
(ii) ( A m )n  A mn  ( An )m
 All the laws of ordinary algebra hold for the
addition or subtraction of matrices and their (iii) In  I, Im  I
multiplication by scalars. (iv) A 0  In , where A is a square matrix of order n.

Multiplication of matrices Transpose of a matrix

Two matrices A and B are conformable for the The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by
product AB if the number of columns in A (pre- changing its rows into columns or columns into rows is
multiplier) is same as the number of rows in B (post called transpose of matrix A and is denoted by A T or A .
multiplier). Thus, if A  [aij]m n and B  [bij]n p are two
From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is
matrices of order m × n and n  p respectively, then their
m × n, then order of A T is n × m.
product AB is of order m  p and is defined as
Example:
 b1 j 
n b   a1 b1 
a a a 
( AB )ij   airbrj  [ai1 ai2 ... ain ] 2 j  = (ith row of A)(jth column
 
Transpose of matrix  1 2 3
 is a2 b 2 
r 1 b 1 b 2 b 3  2 3
bnj  a3 b3  3  2
of B) Properties of transpose : Let A and B be two matrices
.....(i) then, (i) ( A T )T  A
where i =1, 2, ..., m and j =1, 2, ...p
Now we define the product of a row matrix and a (ii) ( A  B)T  A T  B T , A and B being of the same
column matrix. order
b  (iii) (kA )T  kA T , k be any scalar (real or complex)
 1
Let A  a1a2 .... an  be a row matrix and B  b 2  be a (iv) ( AB )T  B T A T , A and B being conformable for the

bn  product AB
column matrix. (v) ( A1 A2 A3 ..... An 1 An )T  An T An 1T ....... A3 T A2 T A1T
Then AB  a1b1  a2 b 2  ....  anbn 
(vi) I T  I
…..(ii)
Special types of matrices
Thus, from (i), ( AB) ij  Sum of the product of elements
of ith row of A with the corresponding elements of jth
(1) Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A  [aij] is
column of B.
Properties of matrix multiplication called symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all i, j or A T  A .

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 Determinants and Matrices

a h g 2 3
Example : A 
Example :  h b f

4 5 
 g f c  2 3
then| A |   10  12  2  A is a non-singular
(2) Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix 4 5
A  [aij] is called skew- symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all matrix.
T
i, j or A   A . (4) Hermitian and Skew-hermitian matrix : A square
matrix A  [aij] is said to be hermitian matrix if
 0 h g
Example :   h 0 f

aij  a ji ; i, j i.e ., A  A .
  g  f 0 
 3 3  4 i 5  2i 
 a b  ic  
All principal diagonal elements of a skew- symmetric Example :   , 3  4 i 5  2  i
matrix are always zero because for any diagonal element.  b  ic d  5  2i  2  i
 2 
a ij  aij  a ij  0
are Hermitian matrices. If A is a Hermitian matrix
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric then aii  aii  a ii is real i, thus every diagonal element
matrices of a Hermitian matrix must be real.
(i) If A is a square matrix, then A  A T , AA T , A T A are A square matrix, A = |aij| is said to be a Skew-
symmetric matrices, while A  A T is skew- symmetric Hermitian if aij   a ji. i, j i.e . A   A . If A is a skew-
matrix. Hermitian matrix, then aii  aii  aii  aii  0 i.e. aii must
(ii) If A is a symmetric matrix, be purely imaginary or zero.
T n 1 T
then  A, KA, A , A , A , B AB are also symmetric matrices,  3i  3  2i  1  i 
where n  N , K  R and B is a square matrix of order that  0 2  i  
Example :   , 3  2 i  2i  2  4 i
of A. 2  i 0  
 1  i 2  4i 0 
(iii) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then
are skew-hermitian matrices.
(a) A 2 n is a symmetric matrix for n  N . (5) Orthogonal matrix : A square matrix A is called
(b) A 2 n 1 is a skew-symmetric matrix for n  N . orthogonal if AA T  I  A T A i.e., if A 1  A T
(c) kA is also skew-symmetric matrix, where cos   sin  
kR. Example : A   
 sin  cos  
(d) B T AB is also skew- symmetric matrix where  cos  sin  
B is a square matrix of order that of A. is orthogonal because A 1   A
T

 sin  cos  
(iv) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then
In fact every unit matrix is orthogonal. Determinant
(a) A  B, AB  BA are also symmetric matrices, of orthonogal matrix is – 1 or 1.
(b) AB  BA is a skew- symmetric matrix, (6) Idempotent matrix : A square matrix A is called
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix, when AB  BA . an idempotent matrix if A 2  A .
(v) If A, B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then 1 / 2 1 / 2 
Example :   is an idempotent matrix,
(a) A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric matrices, 1 / 2 1 / 2 
(b) AB  BA is a symmetric matrix. because
(vi) If A a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column 1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2 
A2      A.
matrix, then C T AC is a zero matrix. 1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2 
(vii) Every square matrix A can unequally be 1 0  0 0 
Also, A  and B    are idempotent
expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric 0 0  0 1 
matrix matrices because A 2  A and B 2  B .
1  1  In fact every unit matrix is indempotent.
i.e., A   ( A  A T )   ( A  A T ) .
2  2  (7) Involutory matrix : A square matrix A is called an
(3) Singular and Non-singular matrix : Any square involutory matrix if A 2  I or A 1  A
matrix A is said to be non-singular if | A |  0, and a square Example:
matrix A is said to be singular if | A |  0 . Here | A | (or 1 0 
A  is an involutory matrix because
det(A) or simply det |A| means corresponding 0 1 
determinant of square matrix A. 1 0 
A2   I
0 1 

6
 Determinants and Matrices

In fact every unit matrix is involutory. If A  [aij]m n then A  [b ji]nm where b ji  aij
(8) Nilpotent matrix : A square matrix A is called a
i.e., the ( j, i) th element of A   the conjugate of (i, j)th
nilpotent matrix if there exists a p  N such that A p  0 .
element of A.
0 0 
Example: A     1  2i 2  3 i 3  4 i
1 0  Example: If A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i ,
0 0   8 7  8i 7 
is a nilpotent matrix because A 2     0 , (Here P
0 0  1  2 i 4  5 i 8 
= 2) then A   2  3 i 5  6 i 7  8 i
 

Determinant of every nilpotent matrix is 0. 3  4 i 6  7 i 7 

(9) Unitary matrix : A square matrix is said to be
Properties of transpose conjugate
unitary, if A' A  I since | A  | | A | and | A ' A | | A '|| A |
(i) ( A  )  A
therefore if A  A = I, we have | A '|| A |  1 .
(ii) ( A  B)  A   B 
Thus the determinant of unitary matrix is of unit
modulus. For a matrix to be unitary it must be non- (iii) (kA )  K A , K being any number
singular. (iv) ( AB )  B A
Hence A  A  I  A A   I
(10) Periodic matrix : A matrix A will be called a Adjoint of a square matrix
periodic matrix if Ak 1  A where k is a positive integer. If,
however k is the least positive integer for which Let A  [aij] be a square matrix of order n and let C ij be
Ak 1  A, then k is said to be the period of A.
cofactor of a ij in A. Then the transpose of the matrix of
 f ( x ) g( x )
(11) Differentiation of a matrix : If A    cofactors of elements of A is called the adjoint of A and is
h( x ) l( x )  denoted by adj A
dA  f (x ) g ( x )
then   is a differentiation of matrix A. Thus, adj A  [Cij]T  (adj A)ij  C ji  cofactor of a ji in A.
dx h(x ) l( x ) 
 a11 a12 a13 
x2 sin x  dA  2 x cos x 
Example : If A    then   If A  a21 a22 a23 ,
 2 x 2  dx  2 0 
a31 a32 a33 
(12) Conjugate of a matrix : The matrix obtained T
from any given matrix A containing complex number as  C11 C12 C13  C11 C 21 C31 
its elements, on replacing its elements by the then adj A  C21 C 22
 
C23   C12 C22

C32 ;
corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called C31 C32 C33  C13 C23 C33 
conjugate of A and is denoted by A . where C ij denotes the cofactor of a ij in A.
 1  2i 2  3 i 3  4 i
p q
Example: A   4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i  Example : A   , C11  s, C12  r, C21  q , C22  p
 8 7  8i 7   r s
T
 1  2i 2  3 i 3  4 i  s  r  s  q
 adj A     
then A   4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i   q p   r p 
 8 7  8i 7  Properties of adjoint matrix : If A, B are square
Properties of conjugates matrices of order n and In is corresponding unit matrix,
then

(i) A  A (ii)  A  B   A  B
(i) A(adj A) | A | In  (adj A) A
(iii) (A)   A ,  being any number (Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix)
(iv) ( AB )  A B , A and B being conformable for (ii) | adj A | | A | n 1 (iii) adj (adj A) | A | n 2 A
multiplication 2
(iv) | adj (adj A) | | A | (n1) (v) adj ( A T )  (adj A)T
(13) Transpose conjugate of a matrix : The transpose
of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transposed (vi) adj ( AB )  (adj B)(adj A)
conjugate of A and is denoted by A  . The conjugate of the (vii) adj( A m )  (adj A)m , m  N
transpose of A is the same as the transpose of the
(viii) adj(kA )  k n 1 (adj A), k  R
conjugate of A i.e. ( A)  ( A )  A .
(ix) adj (In )  In (x) adj (O)  O

7
 Determinants and Matrices

(xi) A is symmetric  adj A is also symmetric. matrix of order r. The determinant of the square sub-
(xii) A is diagonal  adj A is also diagonal. matrix of order r is called a minor of A order r. Consider
any matrix A which is of the order of 3×4
(xiii) A is triangular  adj A is also triangular.
1 3 4 5
(xiv) A is singular  |adj A|= 0
say, A  1 2 6 7 . It is 3×4 matrix so we can have
1 5 0 1
Inverse of a matrix
minors of order 3, 2 or 1. Taking any three rows and three
columns minor of order three. Hence minor of order
A non-singular square matrix of order n is invertible if 1 3 4
there exists a square matrix B of the same order such that
3  1 2 6 0
AB  In  BA .
1 5 0
In such a case, we say that the inverse of A is B and
Making two zeros and expanding above minor is
we write A 1  B . The inverse of A is given by zero. Similarly we can consider any other minor of order
1
A 1  .adj A . 3 and it can be shown to be zero. Minor of order 2 is
| A|
obtained by taking any two rows and any two columns.
The necessary and sufficient condition for the 1 3
existence of the inverse of a square matrix A is that Minor of order 2   2  3  1  0 . Minor of
1 2
| A|  0 .
order 1 is every element of the matrix.
Properties of inverse matrix: Rank of a matrix: The rank of a given matrix A is said
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, to be r if (1) Every minor of A of order r+1 is zero.
then (2) There is at least one minor of A of order r which
(i) ( A 1 ) 1  A does not vanish. Here we can also say that the rank of a
(ii) ( A T ) 1  ( A 1 )T matrix A is said to be r ,if (i) Every square submatrix of
order r+1 is singular.
(iii) ( AB )1  B 1 A 1
(ii) There is at least one square submatrix of order
(iv) ( Ak )1  ( A 1 )k , k  N [In particular r which is non-singular.
2 1 1 2
(A )  (A ) ] The rank r of matrix A is written as  ( A)  r .
(v) adj( A 1 )  (adj A)1
1 Echelon form of a matrix
(vi) | A 1 |  | A | 1
| A|
(vii) A = diag (a1 a2 ... an )  A 1  diag (a11a21 ...an1 ) A matrix A is said to be in Echelon form if either A is
the null matrix or A satisfies the following conditions:
(viii) A is symmetric  A 1 is also symmetric.
(1) Every non- zero row in A precedes every zero
(ix) A is diagonal, | A |  0  A 1 is also diagonal. row.
(x) A is a scalar matrix  A 1 is also a scalar matrix. (2) The number of zeros before the first non-zero
(xi) A is triangular, | A |  0  A 1 is also triangular. element in a row is less than the number of such zeros in
the next row.
(xii)Every invertible matrix possesses a unique
If can be easily proved that the rank of a matrix in
inverse.
Echelon form is equal to the number of non-zero row of
(xiii) Cancellation law with respect to the matrix.
multiplication
Rank of a matrix in Echelon form : The rank of a matrix
If A is a non-singular matrix i.e., if | A |  0 ,then in Echelon form is equal to the number of non-zero rows in
A 1 exists and AB  AC  A 1 ( AB )  A 1 ( AC ) that matrix.
 ( A 1 A)B  ( A 1 A)C
 IB  IC  B  C Homogeneous and non-homogeneous systems of linear
equations
 AB  AC  B  C | A |  0 .

A system of equations AX = B is called a homogeneous

Rank of matrix system if B  O . If B  O , it is called a non-homogeneous
system of equations.
Definition : Let A be a m×n matrix. If we retain any r e.g., 2 x  5y  0
rows and r columns of A we shall have a square sub-

8
 Determinants and Matrices

3 x  2y  0 (iii) Consistent (with infinitely m any solutions) if

is a homogeneous system of linear equations | A |  0 and (adj A) B is a null matrix.
whereas the system of equations given by
e.g., 2 x  3y  5 Cayley-Hamilton theorem
xy  2
is a non-homogeneous system of linear equations. Every matrix satisfies its characteristic equation e.g.
(1) Solution of Non-homogeneous system of linear let A be a square matrix then | A  xI |  0 is the
equations characteristics equation of A. If x 3  4 x 2  5 x  7  0 is the
(i) Matrix method : If AX  B , then X  A 1 B gives a characteristic equation for A, then A 3  4 A 2  5 A  7 I  0 .
unique solution, provided A is non-singular. Roots of characteristic equation for A are called
But if A is a singular matrix i.e., if | A |  0 , then the Eigen values of A or characteristic roots of A or latent
system of equation AX  B may be consistent with roots of A.
infinitely many solutions or it may be inconsistent. If  is characteristic root of A, then  1 is characteristic root
(ii) Rank method for solution of Non-Homogeneous of A 1 .
system AX = B
(a) Write down A, B Geometrical transformations
(b) Write the augmented matrix [A : B]
(c) Reduce the augmented matrix to Echelon form by (1) Reflexion in the x-axis: If P ' (x ' , y ' ) is the reflexion
using elementary row operations.
1 0 
(d) Find the number of non-zero rows in A and [A : of the point P(x , y ) on the x-axis, then the matrix  
B] to find the ranks of A and [A : B] respectively.  0  1
describes the reflexion of a point P(x , y ) in the x-axis.
(e) If  ( A)   ( A : B), then the system is inconsistent.
(2) Reflexion in the y-axis
(f)  ( A)   ( A : B)  the number of unknowns, then
1 0 
the system has a unique solution. Here the matrix is  
 0 1
If  ( A)   ( A : B)  number of unknowns, then the
(3) Reflexion through the origin
system has an infinite number of solutions.
 1 0 
(2) Solutions of a homogeneous system of linear Here the matrix is  
 0  1
equations : Let AX  O be a homogeneous system of 3
linear equations in 3 unknowns. (4) Reflexion in the line y = x
0 1 
(a) Write the given system of equations in the form Here the matrix is  
AX  O and write A. 1 0 
(b) Find | A | . (5) Reflexion in the line y = – x
 0 1 
(c) If | A |  0 , then the system is consistent and Here the matrix is  
 1 0 
x  y  z  0 is the unique solution.
(6) Reflexion in y  x tan θ
(d) If | A |  0 , then the systems of equations has
cos 2 sin 2 
infinitely many solutions. In order to find that put z  K Here matrix is  
(any real number) and solve any two equations for x and  sin 2  cos 2 
y so obtained with z  K give a solution of the given (7) Rotation through an angle 
system of equations. cos   sin  
Here matrix is  
 sin  cos  
Consistency of a system of linear equation AX = B,
where A is a square matrix Matrices of rotation of axes

In system of linear equations AX  B, A  (aij)n n is said We know that if x and y axis are rotated through an
to be angle  about the origin the new coordinates are given
(i) Consistent (with unique solution) if | A |  0 . by
x  X cos   Y sin  and y  X sin   Y cos 
i.e., if A is non-singular matrix.
(ii) Inconsistent (It has no solution) if | A |  0 and  x  cos   sin    X  cos   sin  
    
(adjA) B is a non-null matrix.  y   sin  cos    Y   sin  cos  
is the matrix of rotation through an angle  .

9
 Determinants and Matrices

 If A and B are two matrices such that AB exists,

then BA may or may not exist.

 Minimum number of zeros in a triangular matrix is

n(n  1)
given by where n is order of matrix
2
 The sum of products of the element of any row
with their corresponding cofactor is equal to the value  A triangular matrix a  [aij]n n is called strictly
of determinant triangular if aij  0 for 1  i  n .

i.e   a11 C11  a12 C12  a13 C13  a11 C11  a 21 C 21  a31 C 31  The multiplication of two triangular matrices is a
triangular matrix.
where the capital letters C11 , C12 , C13 etc. denote the
cofactors of a11 , a12 , a13 etc. 1
 If A is involuntary matrix, then (I  A ) and
2
In general, it should be noted 1 1
(I  A) are idempotent and (I  A ) . (I  A)  0 .
2 2
ai1 C j1  ai2 C j2  ai3 C j3  0, if i  j
 Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0.
or a1iC1 j  a2 iC 2 j  a3 iC 3 j  0, if i  j  Properties of determinant of a matrix

 If ' is the determinant formed by replacing the (i) | A | exists  A is square matrix
elements of a determinant  by their corresponding (ii) | AB | | A || B |
cofactors, then if   0 , then C  0 , '  n 1 , where n
is the order of the determinant. (iii) | A T | | A |

 The system of following homogeneous equations (iv) | kA |  k n | A |, if A is a square matrix of order n

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0 , a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  0 , a3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  0
(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order
is always consistent. then
a1 b1 c1 |AB|=|BA|
If   a2 b2 c 2  0 , then this system has the
(vi) If A is a skew symmetric matrix of odd order
a3 b3 c3 then
unique solution x  y  z  0 known as trivial solution.
| A| 0
But if   0 , then this system has an infinite number of
solutions. Hence for non-trivial solution   0 . (vii) If A  diag (a1 , a 2 ,..... an ) then | A |  a1 a2 ... an

 No element of principal diagonal in a diagonal (viii) | A | n | A n |, n  N .

matrix is zero.
 If a minor of A is zero the corresponding
 Number of zeros in a diagonal matrix is given by submatrix is singular and if a minor of A is not zero
n 2  n where n is the order of the matrix. then corresponding submatrix is non-singular.

 A diagonal matrix of order n  n having  The adjoint of a square matrix of order 2 can be
d 1 , d 2 ,....., d n as diagonal elements is denoted by easily obtained by interchanging the diagonal elements
diag [d 1 , d 2 ,..., d n ] . and changing signs of off diagonal elements.

 Diagonal matrix is both upper and lower  The rank of the null matrix is not defined and the
triangular rank of every non-null matrix is greater than or equal
to 1.
 The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is also
a diagonal matrix and  The rank of a singular square matrix of order n
cannot be n.
diag
(a1 , a 2 ,.... an )  diag (b1 , b 2 ,.... bn )  diag (a1b1 , a 2 b 2 ,.... an bn ) .  A Homogeneous system of equations is never
inconsistent.
 The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a
scalar matrix.

10