Computer Networks

1. Describe different network topologies.

Network topology refers to the arrangement of nodes and connections in a network. The most
common topologies are:

 Bus Topology: A single central cable (backbone) connects all nodes.

o Advantages: Cost-effective, easy to install.
o Disadvantages: Limited cable length, difficult fault isolation.
 Star Topology: All nodes are connected to a central hub or switch.
o Advantages: Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
o Disadvantages: Hub failure leads to network failure.
 Ring Topology: Each node is connected to two other nodes, forming a ring.
o Advantages: Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions.
o Disadvantages: A break in the ring can disrupt the entire network.
 Mesh Topology: Every node is interconnected.
o Advantages: Highly reliable, multiple paths for data transmission.
o Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to install.
 Tree Topology: Combines bus and star topologies.
o Advantages: Scalable, easy to manage.
o Disadvantages: Complex wiring, central hub failure affects the network.

2. Compare between UPT & STP.

Aspect UTP (Unshielded Twisted pair) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Shielding There are no shielding in UTP. STP is shielded with metal foil or
bread.
Cost These are cheaper than STP. These are expensive in cost.
Installation These are easier to install. These are difficult to install.
Interference UTP prone to electromagnetic STP reduces interference
interference effectively.
Data Rate These are suitable for lower data These are suitable for higher data
rates. rates.
Usage Used in – LAN, Telephone lines Used in – Industrial environment,
etc. high EMI areas etc.
3. Explain the function of different layers in OSI Model.
There are total 7 layers in the OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model and each layer
has specific role in handling data. These are mentioned below:

Layer 1 : Physical Layer :- The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical
Layer. It transmits raw bit streams over a physical medium.

FUNCTIONS:
• Bit Synchronization: Provides bit synchronization through a clock controlling sender
and receiver.
• Bit Rate Control: Defines transmission rate, i.e., number of bits sent per second.
• Physical Topologies: Specifies network topologies: bus, star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission Mode: Defines data flow between connected devices: Simplex, half-
duplex, full duplex.

Layer 2 : Data Link Layer (DLL) :- The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node
delivery of the message.

FUNCTIONS:
• Framing: Enables sender to transmit meaningful bits by attaching special bit patterns
to frame beginning and end.
• Physical Addressing: Adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of sender and/or
receiver in frame headers.
• Error Control: Detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: Coordinates data rate to prevent data corruption.
• Access Control: Determines control over a shared communication channel by the MAC
sub-layer.

Layer 3 : Network Layer :- The network layer works for the transmission of data from
one host to the other located in different networks.

FUNCTIONS:
• Routing: Determining suitable route from source to destination.
• Logical Addressing: Uniquely identifying each device inter-network. Sender and
receiver's IP addresses placed in header.

Layer 4 : Transport Layer :- The transport layer provides services to the application layer
and takes services from the network layer. It provides reliable data transfer (e.g., TCP,
UDP). The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.

FUNCTIONS:
Segmentation and Reassembly:
• Accepts message from session layer.
• Breaks message into smaller units with associated headers.
• Reassembles message at destination station.

Service Point Addressing:

• Transport layer header includes service point or port address.
• Ensures message is delivered to correct process.

Layer 5 : Session Layer :- Session Layer in the OSI Model establishes and manages
connections, terminates of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

FUNCTIONS:
•Session Management: Allows two processes to establish, maintain, and terminate a
connection.
•Synchronization: Synchronization layer adds checkpoints in data for error identification
and data re-synchronization.
•Dialog Controller: Dialog Controller enables communication in half-duplex or full
duplex between two systems.

Layer 6 : Presentation Layer :- Translates data between the application and network
formats (encryption, encoding). That’s why its another name is Translation Layer.
Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

FUNCTIONS:
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/Decryption: Data translates into ciphertext and plain text. Key value used
for encryption/decryption.
• Compression: Reduces network bit transmission.
 Layer 7 : Application Layer :- Provides network services to end-users (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

FUNCTIONS:
•Network Virtual terminal(NVT): Enables user login to remote host.
•File Transfer Access & Management(FTAM): Facilitates file access, retrieval, and
management from remote computer.
•Mail Services: Provides email service.
•Directory Services: Offers distributed database sources and global information access.
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4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Packet Switching over circuit
switching?
PACKET SWITCHING:
Advantages of Packet Switching:
• Efficient Resource Utilization: Allows multiple users to share network resources
efficiently.
• Adaptability and Fault Tolerance: Reroutes data around damaged or congested nodes,
making it more resilient to network errors.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Does not require dedicated channels for each communication,
reducing bandwidth and infrastructure costs.
• Scalability and Flexibility: Allows easy addition of new nodes and adaptation to
changing network conditions.
• Store and Forward Technique: Each packet is stored and forwarded to the next node.
• Suitable for Bilateral Traffic: Handles data in both directions.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

• Variable Latency and Congestion: Introduces delays and congestion under heavy
network load.
• Potential for Packet Loss: Potential for packet loss or delay, problematic for real-time
applications.
• Complexity: More complex to implement and manage than circuit switching, requiring
sophisticated routing and congestion control mechanisms.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Advantages of Circuit Switching:
• Guaranteed Bandwidth: Provides a dedicated path for reliable, predictable
communication.
• Simple Data Routing: All packets follow the same path.
• Low Per-Packet Overhead: Reduces per-packet overhead.
 Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:
• Inefficient Resource Utilization: Reserved bandwidth during non-transmission,
leading to wasted resources.
• Lack of Adaptability and Fault Tolerance: Limited adaptability to network errors and
failures.
• High Cost: High cost due to need for dedicated channels and infrastructure.
• Wasted Bandwidth: Reserved bandwidth even when data isn't transmitted.
• Not Suitable for Bilateral Traffic: Uncomfortable for handling bilateral traffic.

5. Distinguish between TDM & FDM.

TDM: TDM is a technique that divides available time on a channel into discrete time
slots, allocating each space to a different signal or data stream.
FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a low-spectral efficiency multiplexing
technique used in analog systems for transmitting multiple signals simultaneously over a
single channel, primarily in telecommunications and networking scenarios.

TDM FDM
TDM stands for Time division FDM stands for Frequency division
multiplexing. multiplexing.
TDM works with digital signals as well as While FDM works with only analog
analog signals. signals.
TDM has low conflict. While it has high conflict.
Wiring or chip of TDM is simple. While it’s wiring or chip is complex rather
than simple.
TDM is efficient. While it is inefficient.
In TDM, time sharing takes place. While in this, frequency sharing takes
place.
In TDM, synchronization pulse is While in it Guard band is necessary.
necessary.
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6. Briefly explain the importance of ARP & RARP.
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to discover
the physical address of a network, enabling data transmission from an IP address to a
destination machine.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) maps IP addresses to MAC addresses for local
network communication.

Importance of Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

• ARP is used to map an IP address to a MAC address in a local area network (LAN).
• It is essential for devices on a network to communicate, as IP addresses are logical
addresses, while MAC addresses are physical hardware addresses.
• ARP helps in sending data to the correct destination by resolving the IP address to its
corresponding MAC address.
• Without ARP, devices would not know where to send packets, making communication
over a network impossible.

RARP: Reverse ARP is a networking protocol that allows client machines to request IPv4
addresses from the gateway-router's ARP table, enabling new or unmemorable
machines to obtain their own IP address.
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) maps MAC addresses to IP addresses,
primarily used for diskless workstations to obtain their IP address.

Importance of Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP):

• RARP performs the opposite function of ARP by mapping a MAC address to an IP
address.
• It is useful for diskless workstations and devices that do not have the capability to store
an IP address.
• These devices broadcast a RARP request on the network, and a RARP server replies with
the corresponding IP address.
• RARP is crucial in scenarios where devices boot up without a pre-configured IP address.

Computer Network Tutorial (GreekforGreeks)

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