Quaternary

Volume 2

Chapter 14

Neogene
Two Cretaceous Subduction Events https://doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.36.2019.14
Published online 6 December 2019

in the Central Cordillera: Insights from

Paleogene
the High P–Low T Metamorphism

Camilo BUSTAMANTE1* and Andres BUSTAMANTE 2

Cretaceous
1 [email protected]
Universidad EAFIT
Carrera 49 n.° 7 sur–50
Abstract The scarcity of high–pressure metamorphic rocks at the Earth’s surface due to Medellín, Colombia
the specific conditions required for their formation and preservation makes it difficult
2 [email protected]
to access the information about subduction zones that they can provide. The northern Universidade Federal de Pernambuco
Andes are characterized by several occurrences of blueschists and, in minor propor- Departamento de Geologia

Jurassic
Recife, PE, Avenida da Arquitetura s/n, CEP
tions, eclogites, whose origins are yet to be unraveled. The metamorphic rocks found 50740–550
herein include the Pijao amphibolitized eclogites, Barragán blueschists and associated Recife–PE, Brasil
* Corresponding author
garnet–amphibolites, and Jambaló blueschists found in Colombia as well as the Raspas
Metamorphic Complex in Ecuador. All these rocks have been correlated into a single

Triassic
Early Cretaceous high–pressure metamorphic belt based on regional geochemistry
and geochronological data. A compilation of the most recent whole–rock geochemistry
and Ar–Ar and Lu–Hf ages from the three high–pressure sequences in Colombia indi-
cates that at least two different subduction events have been recorded in the Central
Cordillera of Colombia. The first event, involving subduction and collision, occurred at

Permian
ca. 130–120 Ma and is represented by the Pijao, Barragán, and Raspas high–pressure
rocks, which have N–MORB–like protoliths and are contemporaneous with the end of
the arc–related magmatism of the northern Andes, related to an oblique convergence

Carboniferous
between the Farallón Plate and the continental margin of South America. The second
event of subduction is represented only by the Jambaló blueschists at ca. 70–60 Ma,
whose protolith is akin to basalt formed in a plume–influenced intra–oceanic arc that
was accreted to the continental margin. No reliable correlation is possible for these
rocks as yet.

Devonian
Keywords: blueschist, eclogite, northern Andes, high–pressure metamorphism.

Resumen Las rocas metamórficas de alta presión son escasas en la superficie de la

Tierra debido a sus condiciones especiales de formación y conservación. Esta escasez
dificulta el acceso a la información que este tipo de rocas puede proporcionar sobre

Silurian
las zonas de subducción. Los Andes del norte se caracterizan por varias ocurrencias de
esquistos azules y, en menor proporción, eclogitas cuyo origen aún no es claro. Entre
estas ocurrencias se incluyen las eclogitas anfibolitizadas de Pijao, los esquistos azules
y anfibolitas granatíferas asociadas de Barragán, y los esquistos azules de Jambaló en
Ordovician

Colombia, así como el Complejo Metamórfico Raspas en Ecuador. Todas se han correla-
cionado como un único cinturón metamórfico de alta presión del Cretácico Temprano
sobre la base de datos regionales de geoquímica y geocronología. Una recopilación
de los datos más recientes de geoquímica en roca total y las edades Ar–Ar y Lu–Hf de
Cambrian

Citation: Bustamante, C. & Bustamante, A. 2019. Two Cretaceous subduction events in the Cen-
tral Cordillera: Insights from the high P–low T metamorphism. In: Gómez, J. & Pinilla–Pachon,
A.O. (editors), The Geology of Colombia, Volume 2 Mesozoic. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Pu-
blicaciones Geológicas Especiales 36, p. 485–498. Bogotá. https://doi.org/10.32685/pub.esp.36.2019.14
Proterozoic

485
BUSTAMANTE & BUSTAMANTE

las tres manifestaciones de alta presión en Colombia registra al menos dos eventos
de subducción diferentes en la cordillera Central de Colombia. El primer evento de
subducción y colisión ocurrió a ca. 130–120 Ma y está representado por las rocas de
alta presión de Pijao, Barragán y Raspas, las cuales tienen protolitos tipo N–MORB
y son contemporáneas con el final del magmatismo de arco de los Andes del norte,
relacionado con una convergencia oblicua entre la Placa de Farallón y el margen con-
tinental de Suramérica. El segundo evento de subducción solo está representado por
los esquistos azules de Jambaló con edades de ca. 70–60 Ma, cuyo protolito es afín a
basaltos formados en un arco intraoceánico con influencia de una pluma mantélica y
acrecionados a la margen continental. Hasta ahora no existe una correlación confiable
entre estas rocas y otras similares.
Palabras clave: esquisto azul, eclogita, Andes del norte, metamorfismo de alta presión.

1. Introduction al., 1997; Maya & González, 1995). The Pijao and Barragán
rocks are within the Arquía Complex (Figure 5).
Blueschists and eclogites represent some of the main lithologi- The tectonic significance of the abovementioned rocks is still
cal vestiges from which we can understand convergent margin under debate as relatively few geological data from selected oc-
processes since they are unequivocal evidence for paleo–sub- currences have been used in existing interpretations. These rocks
duction zones and collision between lithospheric plates (e.g., have been interpreted as being related to subduction events (Asp-
Ernst, 1988; Maruyama et al., 1996). Unfortunately, these rocks den & McCourt, 1986; Aspden et al., 1995; Bourgois et al., 1987)
are rarely exposed at the Earth’s surface owing to the difficul- and exhumed during the Early Cretaceous, according to cooling
ties involved in their exhumation and preservation, which are ages varying between 132 and 110 Ma (Aspden & McCourt,
attributed to their high density and low buoyancy when com- 1986; Feininger, 1982). Furthermore, rocks from the Raspas Met-
pared with lower crustal materials (Agard et al., 2009). amorphic Complex (Ecuador) and those in the Central Cordillera
The Mesozoic to Cenozoic orogenesis in the northern Andes (Colombia) have been correlated due to their similar tectonic po-
including Ecuador and Colombia is characterized by a series sitions and regional geochemical data and thereby assigned Early
of collisions of island arcs and oceanic plateau with the South Cretaceous metamorphic ages (Spikings et al., 2015; Villagómez
American continental margin, accompanied by the formation & Spikings, 2013; Villagómez et al., 2011). Other studies (Busta-
of several subduction zones and the thrusting of oceanic crustal mante et al., 2011, 2012) have suggested that blueschists from the
fragments, both on the continental margin and in the intra–oce- Jambaló area have a volcanic arc protolith and a Late Cretaceous
anic domains (e.g., Cardona et al., 2012; Ramos, 2009; Restrepo to Paleogene age of metamorphism.
& Toussaint, 1988; Spikings et al., 2015). These processes have Although high–pressure rocks of the Central Cordillera have
resulted in the formation of ophiolitic complexes along with long been recognized, no tectonic model combining their occur-
low–, medium, and high–pressure metamorphic rocks via the rences has been developed as yet. This study, therefore, aims
amalgamation of tectonostratigraphic terranes (Kerr et al., to give an updated review of the high–pressure metamorphic
1997; Pindell & Kennan, 2009; Ramos, 2009). Blueschist and rocks of Colombia, describing their distributions, ages of meta-
eclogite defining suture zones have been identified in the Cor- morphism, and differences in protoliths. We challenge current
dillera Real of Ecuador (Raspas Metamorphic Complex sensu models that consider a single Lower Cretaceous high–pressure
Feininger, 1980) and in the Central Cordillera of Colombia metamorphic belt in Colombia and Ecuador with an exclusively
(Figure 1; Arquía Complex sensu Maya & González, 1995). N–MORB protolith (García–Ramírez et al., 2017; Spikings et
The Arquía Complex is located in the Central Cordillera al., 2015; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013). Pressure and tempera-
of Colombia, where high–pressure metamorphic rocks crop ture constraints, together with metamorphic ages and whole–rock
out in the Pijao, Barragán, and Jambaló areas (Figures 2, 3, 4 geochemistry, suggest that Barragán and Pijao eclogites have
respectively; Bustamante et al., 2011, 2012; Feininger, 1982; N–MORB protoliths with Early Cretaceous metamorphic ages
Núñez & Murillo, 1978; Orrego et al., 1980a). The Jambaló (Bustamante et al., 2012; García–Ramírez et al., 2017), whereas
rocks are limited in their distribution to the east by the Caja- the Jambaló area records Late Cretaceous metamorphism with a
marca Complex, comprising Jurassic metapelitic and amphi- volcanic arc–like protolith (Bustamante, 2008). Thus, we propose
bolic schists (Blanco–Quintero et al., 2014; Bustamante et al., a tectonic model for the Cretaceous to Paleogene evolution of the
2017a), and to the west by Lower Cretaceous volcanic rocks of western margin of the northern Andes, with special emphasis in
the Quebradagrande Complex (Figure 5; Botero, 1963; Kerr et the high–pressure metamorphic record.

486
 Two Cretaceous Subduction Events in the Central Cordillera: Insights from the High P–Low T Metamorphism

Western Cordillera

75° W

70° W
Central Cordillera

Caribbean Sea 10° N Eastern Cordillera

Panama
Venezuela

Pacific Ocean Quindío Bogotá 5° N

Pijao

Cretaceous
Valle Barragán
del Cauca
Jambaló Colombia
Cauca

0°
Quito

Ecuador
Brazil

Raspas Peru

0 100 200 300 km

Figure 1. Map of Colombia showing the distribution of high–pressure rocks along the Central Cordillera. The Raspas Metamorphic Complex
(Ecuador) is also shown as a reference.

Armenia Formation
75° 55' W

75° 50' W

75° 45' W

75° 40' W

75° 35' W

75° 30' W

La Pobreza Formation

Cinta de Piedra Formation

4° 25' N

Quebradagrande Complex

Amaime Formation
lt
Fau

Cordoba Stock
4° 20' N
o

Pijao
nim

Arquía Complex
Jeró
San

Amphibolitized eclogites (?)

t Ibagué Batholith
ul 4° 15' N
Fa
ué Cajamarca Complex
ag
Ib
Town
0 5 10 km
Fault
4° 10' N

Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Pijao area (Alcárcel & Gómez 2019).

487
BUSTAMANTE & BUSTAMANTE

76° 20’ W

76° 15’ W
75° 53’ W

75° 52’ W

75° 51’ W
?
Tacueyó
To El Palo

o
rc
?

ba
m
Cu
3° 00’ N

To
?
Toribío

r
Rive
?
?

baló
4° 01’ N

Jam
?
Barragán
?

San Francisco
2° 55’ N

Unsampled
?

area

4° 00’ N

Greenschists
Blueschists
2° 50’ N
Keratophyres
Metaultramafics
Epidosites
Mylonitized quartzites
Marbles
Quartz monzonite
Fault
3° 59’ N
Jambaló Town

Greenschists River
Blueschists Road
0 3 km
Amphibolitized eclogites (?)
Metaultramafics
Metapelites
Town Figure 4. Simplified geological map of the Jambaló area.
Fault
? Inferred fault
Road

0 1 km
pling and methodologies are provided in Bustamante (2008)
for the Barragán and Jambaló blueschists, and in García–
Figure 3. Simplified geological map of the Barragán area. Ramírez et al. (2017) for the Pijao eclogites. Table 1 compiles
the mineralogy, geochemistry, and ages of northern Andes
high–pressure rocks available up to the present study. Ta-
2. Materials and Methods ble 2 compiles whole–rock geochemical data reported from
Barragán blueschists (Bustamante et al., 2012), Pijao eclog-
Whole–rock geochemistry and geochronology have been ites (García–Ramírez et al., 2017), and Jambaló blueschists
previously published and peer reviewed: Details of the sam- (Bustamante, 2008).

488
 Two Cretaceous Subduction Events in the Central Cordillera: Insights from the High P–Low T Metamorphism

Miocene
Miocenevolcanic
volcanicrocks
rocks

76° 30' W
76° 30' W

75° 30' W
75° 30' W
Caribbean
CaribbeanSea
Sea
Mesozoic
Mesozoicoceanic–related
oceanic–relatedrocks
rocks

Cauca–Almaguer Fault
aguer Fault
Mesozoic
Mesozoicigneous
igneousrocks
rocks

High–pressure
High–pressuremetamorphic
metamorphicrocks
rocks(Cretaceous
(Cretaceous– –Paleogene)
Paleogene)

Cauca–Alm
Ultramafic
Ultramaficrocks
rocks(Cretaceous?)
(Cretaceous?)
11

Pacific
Pacific 33 Quebradagrande
QuebradagrandeComplex
Complex(Cretaceous)
(Cretaceous)
Ocean
Ocean
22 Arquía
ArquíaComplex
Complex(Paleozoic
(Paleozoic– –Cenozoic)
Cenozoic)

Cajamarca
CajamarcaComplex
Complex(Paleozoic
(Paleozoic– –Mesozoic)
Mesozoic)
1. 1.
Western
Western
Cordillera
Cordillera Paleozoic
Paleozoic– –Triassic
Triassicgneisses
gneisses
2. 2.
Central
Central
Cordillera
Cordillera

Cretaceous
3. 3.
Eastern
Eastern
Cordillera
Cordillera Proterozoic
Proterozoichigh–grade
high–grademetamorphic
metamorphicrocks
rocks
6° 6°
30'30'
NN

Figure 5. Geological map of the occurrences of high–pressure

Medellín
Medellín rocks in the Central Cordillera and their tectonic position relat-
ed to the Quebradagrande and Cajamarca Complexes (Maya &
González, 1995).

San
SanJerónimo
Jerónimo
Cauca–
Cauca–
5° 5°
30'30'
NN
Almaguer
Almaguer
Fault
Fault
3. Results
Fault
Fault
Herein, we briefly summarize present knowledge of the high–
Pacific
Pacific Manizales
Manizales pressure metamorphic rocks from the Central Cordillera and
Ocean
Ocean provide the current geochronological data along with the
Silvia–Pijao
Silvia–Pijao
Fault
Fault whole–rock geochemistry that has been used to define the pro-
tolith.
4° 4°
30'30'
NN

Pijao
Pijao 3.1. Pijao Eclogites
Barragán
Barragán
García–Ramírez et al. (2017) and Avellaneda et al. (2017) re-
ported eclogites south of the Pijao region (Figures 2, 5) and
San
SanJerónimo
Jerónimo described meter–scale lenses of eclogites, amphibolitized
uer ault
lt
Fau

Fault
Fault
eclogites, and garnet–bearing amphibolites enveloped by chlo-
lmaguer F

3° 3°
30'30'
NN Cali
Cali
rite–actinolite schists in faulted contact with amphibolites.
ca–Almag

The geochemistry reported by García–Ramírez et al. (2017)

indicates a basaltic protolith for the Pijao eclogites (Figure 6),
Cauca–A

similar to that of the Barragán blueschist and amphibolite–fa-

Cau
ulltt
au

cies rocks. Chondrite–normalized rare earth elements (REE)

Fa
aF

Jambaló
Jambaló
define a flat pattern (Figure 7a), further supporting this find-
atía
li–Patí

Silvia–Pijao
Silvia–Pijao
ing. A subtle Nb anomaly is seen in the trace element variation
Cali–P

Fault
Fault
Ca

2° 2°
30'30'
NN plots normalized to N–MORB (Figure 8a; Table 1; Sun & Mc-
Donough, 1989).
A garnet–derived 176Lu/177Hf isochron age of 128.7 ±
3.5 Ma (MSWD = 4.0) has been reported for Pijao eclog-
ite samples (Table 1; García–Ramírez et al., 2017). García–
Ramírez et al. (2017) interpreted this age as that at which
the Pijao rocks reached eclogite facies, which is related to a
1° 1°
30'30'
NN Pasto
Pasto slab roll–back process characterizing the western margin of
the northern Andes since the Jurassic (Spikings et al., 2015).
0 0 7070
kmkm García–Ramírez et al. (2017) also suggested that along with
the Pijao eclogites, the entire Arquía Complex (Maya &

489
BUSTAMANTE & BUSTAMANTE

Table 1. Mineralogy, geochemical constraints, and ages of the high–pressure rocks of northern Andes, including the Raspas Metamorphic
Complex (Ecuador).

Region Pijao1 Barragán2 Jambaló3 Raspas4, 5

Rock Type Ecl (?) and Amp–ecl BS Amp–ecl (?) BS Ecl BS

Gln, Lws, Ilm, Pg, Gln, Brs, Act, Pg,

Hbl, Pl*, Phg, Qtz, Hbl, Pl*, Phg, Qtz, Gln, Phg, Pg, Qtz,
Phg, Ep, Czo, Chl, Ep, Czo, Chl, Pl*, Omp, Grt, Brs, Qtz,
Mineralogy Ep, Czo, Zo, Ttn, Rt, Ep, Czo, Zo, Ttn, Carb, Ttn, Rt, Grt,
Pl*, Carb, Ttn, Pmp, Carb, Ttn, Rt, Zrn, Zo, Rt, Ap, Ilm
Grt, Omp Rt, Scp Ap, Pl*, Ilm
Py Ap, Grt, Ilm, Py

Geochemistry MORB1 MORB2 MORB + OIB MORB + seamounts6

Age ca. 130 Ma1, A ca. 120 Ma2, B 71–63Ma3, C ca. 130 Ma6, D

(Ecl) eclogite; (BS) blueschist; (Amp–ecl) amphibolitized eclogites; (MORB) Mid Ocean Ridge Basalt; (OIB) Ocean Island Basalts; (Act) actinolite; (Ap) apatite; (Brs)
barroisite; (Carb) carbonate; (Chl) chlorite; (Czo) clinozoisite; (Ep) epidote; (Gln) glaucophane; (Grt) garnet; (Hbl) hornblende; (Ilm) ilmenite; (Lws) lawsonite; (Omp)
omphacite; Opaque minerals; (Pg) paragonite; (Phg) phengite; (Pl) plagioclase* (An contents varying from 2 to 28); (Pmp) pumpellyite; (Py) pyrite; (Qtz) quartz; (Rt)
rutile; (Scp) scapolite; (Ttn) titanite; (Zo) zoisite; (Zrn) zircon.

1
García–Ramírez et al. (2017); 2Bustamante et al. (2012); 3Bustamante et al. (2011); 4Aspden et al. (1995); 5Bosch et al. (2002); 6John et al. (2010).

A
Whole rock from metabasites using Lu–Hf method. Age of metamorphism; BMuscovite and separates from graphite–chlorite–muscovite–quartz schist associated
with the blueschist–facies rocks using 40Ar/39Ar method. Age of exhumation event; CParagonite and phengite from a blueschist using 40Ar/39Ar method. Age of meta-
morphism; DWhole rocks and mineral separates from an eclogite using Lu–Hf method. Age of metamorphism.

González, 1995) has the same basaltic protolith and was sub- ± 0.3 Ma (Table 1); the error–weighted average of these three
jected to the same slab roll–back process. plateau ages is 120.7 ± 0.3 Ma (MSWD = 0.29).
Both the geochemistry and geochronology were interpret-
3.2. Barragán Blueschists ed by Bustamante et al. (2012) to indicate a basaltic protolith
metamorphosed under high–pressure conditions at ca. 120 Ma,
Discontinuous outcrops of blue–gray fine–grained epidote– representing the exhumation event associated with the devel-
glaucophane and chlorite–lawsonite schists occur in the Ba- opment of a mylonitic foliation.
rragán region. These outcrops are associated with hornblende
and chlorite schists and metapelites made up of muscovite, 3.3. Jambaló Blueschists
graphite, and quartz, together with serpentinized ultramafic
rocks (Figures 3, 5). Possible amphibolitized eclogites mainly The Jambaló blueschists constitute a series of blueschist–facies
comprising hornblende and garnet have also been described in lenses embedded in greenschist–facies rocks. These rocks are
the area (González, 1997; McCourt & Feininger 1984). associated with impure marbles, serpentinized peridotites, and
Whole–rock geochemistry of the blueschist– and amphib- quartzites (Figures 4, 5).
olite–facies rocks (Bustamante et al., 2012) indicates a basal- Geochemical results suggest that the Jambaló blueschists
tic protolith (Figure 6). Chondrite–normalized REE patterns have a slightly more differentiated protolith compared with the
(Figure 7b) show a slight depletion in the lightest rare earth high–pressure rocks from Pijao and Barragán (Figure 6). Addi-
elements (LREE) and an almost flat pattern in the middle tionally, chondrite–normalized REE patterns of the blueschists
rare earth elements (MREE) and heavy rare earth elements show a slight enrichment of LREE (Figure 7c). Eu anomalies
(HREE). Within the trace element variation plots normalized are slightly negative in these blueschists (Eu/Eu* from 0.7 to
to N–MORB (Figure 8b; Sun & McDonough, 1989), Nb and 1.2). Trace element variation plots normalized to N–MORB
Th show negative anomalies. (Sun & McDonough, 1989) are characterized by negative Nb,
Bustamante et al. (2012) reported 40Ar–39Ar ages using Zr, Hf, Ti, and Ta anomalies (Figure 8c).
muscovite and separates from a graphite–chlorite–muscovite– Orrego et al. (1980b) reported a minimum whole–rock
quartz schist associated with the blueschist facies rocks, obtain- (from sericite schist) K–Ar age for the metamorphism of 125
ing plateau ages of 119.4 ± 3.8 Ma, 120.1 ± 1.0 Ma, and 120.8 ± 15 Ma, and De Souza et al. (1984) obtained ages of 104 ± 14

490
 Table 2. Whole–rock geochemistry from the Pijao eclogites1, Barragán blueschists2, and Jambaló blueschists2.

Region Pijao Pijao Pijao Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Jambaló Jambaló Jambaló Jambaló Jambaló Jambaló Jambaló Jambaló
Rock Amp– Amp– Amp– Amp– Amp–
Ecl (?) Ecl (?) Ecl (?) BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS BS
type Ecl Ecl Ecl Ecl Ecl
ARQ– ARQ– ARQ–
Sample 187A 187AA 187BA 188A 189A 195BS 196BS 196ABS 196DBS 197ABS 199BS 121B 123A 124G 124J 125I 125K 125M 129A
214 378 379
SiO2 49.3 47.2 49.0 47.7 50.8 50.0 51.3 49.4 50.0 48.4 48.4 49.1 49.2 48.3 51.7 50.4 56.9 52.0 53.3 53.1 56.3 51.4
Al2O3 13.5 15.2 14.1 15.1 14.3 15.0 13.4 14.7 14.5 14.5 15.4 13.9 16.3 14.4 15.6 17.8 15.6 18.1 17.2 19.8 17.8 14.4
Fe2O3 4.5 2.4 2.7 14.5 10.8 10.6 12.2 12.2 11.2 10.3 11.7 10.8 10.4 12.7 9.7 9.8 9.5 8.8 9.1 10.9 8.1 9.5
MnO 0.230 0.160 0.200 0.519 0.222 0.176 0.230 0.190 0.187 0.157 0.200 0.161 0.168 0.158 0.441 0.139 0.123 0.145 0.240 0.080 0.103 0.129
MgO 7.680 7.480 8.390 7.990 7.910 8.240 6.010 8.720 6.180 9.280 6.740 6.600 8.590 7.600 3.490 3.270 4.020 4.480 5.410 2.590 4.680 5.330
CaO 8.0 13.4 9.0 8.8 10.3 11.2 9.4 8.8 8.4 8.1 8.7 10.8 4.2 7.6 5.8 11.6 2.9 3.5 3.7 1.7 1.6 4.0
Na2O 2.6 2.4 3.6 2.6 2.4 2.3 3.9 2.6 2.0 2.7 3.4 2.4 0.2 3.3 4.8 2.6 4.5 5.6 5.1 3.4 5.7 5.2
K 2O 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 <0.01 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.5 2.9 0.7 0.2
TiO2 2.390 1.230 1.860 1.300 1.230 1.270 2.040 1.370 1.980 1.400 1.730 1.480 1.240 1.920 1.430 1.460 1.710 1.480 1.530 2.080 1.170 1.840
P2O5 0.210 0.100 0.160 0.100 0.080 0.120 0.220 0.100 0.200 0.140 0.130 0.200 0.090 0.190 0.290 0.410 0.290 0.230 0.210 0.150 0.130 0.230
LOI 0.70 3.10 0.50 1.40 2.08 1.23 1.15 2.05 5.21 4.52 3.45 3.27 8.48 3.87 6.60 2.58 3.80 4.18 3.50 3.20 3.74 7.84
Total 99.8 99.9 99.9 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.0 100.3 99.9 100.1 99.8 99.3 98.9 100.1 100.1 100.4 100.2 99.2 99.7 99.8 100.0 100.0
Sc 41 39 44 44 43 45 42 44 46 43 47 42 35 42 29 20 27 25 30 31 28 37
V 428 263 377 285 275 305 395 331 418 315 386 334 290 380 214 184 238 185 252 170 194 278
Co 51.8 45.1 47.6 72 61 40 53 41 51 45 51 51 48 52 33 36 32 51 34.4 39.5 34 35
Ni 19.3 54 17 90 80 70 60 80 80 80 90 80 120 120 30 70 – 30 59.7 3.5 30 30
Cu 33.2 104.8 33.1 30 20 30 30 80 60 50 50 110 <10 70 – 50 – – 3.3 1.1 50 30
Zn 24 16 17 110 80 90 140 130 150 100 130 110 130 140 70 80 130 130 125 41 110 130
Ga 18.1 14.3 18.5 14 16 18 18 19 21 17 21 18 18 19 17 25 20 22 18 24.7 19 20
Rb 0.8 2.8 0.3 4 2 4 <1 3 <1 11 3 12 <1 7 5 6 20 16 11.1 91.1 14 3
Sr 104.4 182.3 109.7 37 113 152 113 120 9 73 142 201 73 91 166 574 68 80 113.2 69.5 83 163
Y 49.3 27 41.2 37.5 29.2 30.3 48.8 33.2 51 30.9 41.9 38.3 21.9 40.8 33 23.5 35.8 48.6 39.7 32.7 23.8 38.4
Zr 164.2 82.4 117.4 59 62 69 134 68 123 80 107 88 53 120 126 224 186 264 139 230.2 147 175
Nb 3.0 2.5 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.0 2.5 0.9 4.2 3.4 4.1 3.6 2.2 5.0 5.3 15.4 7.2 9.5 6.2 9.1 4.9 7.7
Cs 0.9 0.3 <0.1 0.2 <0.1 0.1 <0.1 0.2 <0.1 0.8 0.2 0.7 <0.1 0.4 1.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.2 0.5 0.3
Ba 22 11 20 78 374 323 17 38 38 73 49 383 18 110 66 71 119 108 222 259 191 25
La 5.5 3.6 3.8 3.4 2.2 2.5 5.0 2.0 5.9 4.5 7.3 6.0 2.8 6.5 10.4 22.3 15.6 14.8 11.5 17.4 12.4 9.2
Ce 16.30 10.40 12.80 7.28 6.45 6.81 16.00 7.13 15.60 12.10 17.10 13.00 8.69 17.30 25.90 46.60 35.40 40.40 24.20 36.60 28.10 24.00
Pr 2.82 1.64 2.18 1.59 1.26 1.35 2.63 1.35 2.69 1.88 2.86 2.29 1.42 2.72 3.62 5.86 4.71 5.65 3.81 4.52 3.36 3.38
Nd 15.5 8.5 11.5 8.8 7.5 8.1 14.4 8.0 14.6 9.9 14.5 11.7 8.1 14.4 17.5 24.4 20.4 24.3 17.8 19.8 14.2 16.2
Sm 5.21 2.74 4.24 2.95 2.70 2.79 4.87 2.93 4.81 3.13 4.46 3.69 2.82 4.62 4.59 5.31 5.02 6.04 4.52 4.42 3.51 4.74
Eu 1.90 1.07 4.24 1.08 1.12 1.14 1.81 1.27 1.85 1.27 1.76 1.49 1.10 1.77 1.83 1.98 1.70 1.95 1.53 1.07 1.18 1.58
Gd 7.20 4.02 5.69 3.95 3.79 3.86 6.52 4.15 6.33 4.04 5.85 5.07 3.45 5.80 5.27 5.17 5.45 6.76 5.61 4.88 3.81 5.32
Tb 1.310 0.690 1.050 0.830 0.760 0.790 1.300 0.890 1.250 0.800 1.140 0.990 0.630 1.140 0.940 0.840 0.990 1.270 1.020 0.910 0.710 1.020
Dy 8.88 4.34 6.95 5.91 5.10 5.24 8.51 5.84 8.17 5.23 7.39 6.42 3.90 7.35 5.92 4.74 6.23 8.01 6.19 5.48 4.55 6.74
Ho 1.870 0.910 1.520 1.270 1.060 1.070 1.750 1.150 1.640 1.050 1.450 1.290 0.780 1.470 1.180 0.860 1.280 1.630 1.310 1.160 0.890 1.400

491
Two Cretaceous Subduction Events in the Central Cordillera: Insights from the High P–Low T Metamorphism

Cretaceous
 BUSTAMANTE & BUSTAMANTE

Ma and 217 ± 10 Ma using the same method in glaucophane.

Jambaló

129A

0.631

0.635

1.290
4.16

4.14

4.30

1.20
0.52
107
BS
The K–Ar method has several limitations concerning the dating
Jambaló of metamorphic rocks since argon losses or excesses cannot

125M

0.396

0.377

1.010
2.66

2.55

3.70

3.09
0.75
171
BS be determined and the thermal history of minerals (i.e., white
micas) cannot be discriminated (Clauer & Chaudhuri, 1999;
Jambaló

Dallmeyer & Takasu, 1992). In addition, the use of glaucophane

0.550

0.570

1.200
125K

3.58

3.52

6.60

5.10
1.10
220
BS

K–Ar geochronology may be unreliable since potassium con-

tents could be attributed to very fine inclusions of K–bearing
Jambaló

0.550

0.520

0.600
125I

3.96

3.33

3.90

1.70
0.60
107
BS

minerals (i.e., K–micas and barroisite). Recently, Bustamante et

al. (2011) reported Ar–Ar ages in white micas from six samples
Jambaló

0.721

0.683

1.390
124J

4.88

4.53

6.40

3.74
1.38
230
BS

of blueschist–facies rocks. The age range obtained was very

different ca. 70 to 60 Ma (Table 1) and was interpreted as the
Jambaló

0.542

0.550

1.460
124G

3.74

3.48

4.50

3.64
0.93
record of the mylonitic event responsible for the exhumation of
322
BS

the blueschist–facies rocks.

Jambaló

Although high–pressure metamorphic rocks are presented as

123A

0.327

0.290

2.210
2.35

2.03

4.90

1.48
0.34
333
BS

independent bodies, the available geochemistry data of the pos-

sibly amphibolitized eclogites (Avellaneda et al., 2017; García–
Jambaló

0.532

0.516

1.120
Table 2. Whole–rock geochemistry from the Pijao eclogites1, Barragán blueschists2, and Jambaló blueschists2 (continued).

121B

3.51

3.45

3.30

1.00
0.39
258
BS

Ramírez et al., 2017) and their estimated ages suggest a strong

correlation with Barragán rock occurrences (Bustamante et al.,
Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán Barragán

199BS

0.652

0.624

0.680
4.34

4.13

3.40

0.37
0.24
BS

97

2012) that could represent subduction–collision complexes (e.g.,

Avellaneda et al., 2017; Bustamante et al., 2012) and need not
197ABS

0.342

0.353

0.400
2.30

2.26

2.00

0.20
1.83

be related to the roll–back processes proposed by Spikings et al.

BS

93

(2015) and García–Ramírez et al. (2017).

196DBS

0.589

0.566

0.760
3.86

3.73

2.50

0.24
0.29
163
BS

4. Discussion
196ABS

0.639

0.609

0.550
4.26

4.06

3.00

0.28
0.70
BS

90

4.1. Age of Metamorphism and Protoliths

196BS

0.463

0.457

0.440
3.12

2.92

2.40

0.23
0.14
BS

66

The most recent and precise ages of the high–pressure meta-

morphic rocks of the Central Cordillera compiled in this re-
195BS

0.730

0.700

0.520

view (Table 1) indicate that at least two different high–pressure

4.87

4.69

3.60

0.29
0.25
BS

94

metamorphic events occurred during the Cretaceous – Paleo-

gene in the northern Andes, and are recorded at the western
Amp–

189A

0.514

0.512

0.030
3.44

3.27

2.20

0.06
0.05
Ecl

flank of the Central Cordillera. The first occurred between 128

and 120 Ma (Early Cretaceous) and is represented by the Ba-
Amp–

188A

0.787

0.766

0.670
5.19

5.02

3.90

0.19
0.09
137
Ecl

rragán blueschists (Bustamante et al., 2012) and Pijao eclogites

(García–Ramírez et al., 2017). The second occurred between
Bustamante (2008)
187BA
Amp–

0.495

0.509

0.040
3.24

3.21

1.90

0.06
0.04
Ecl

70 and 60 Ma (Late Cretaceous to Paleogene) when the Jam-

3

baló blueschists were formed (Bustamante et al., 2011). This

187AA
Amp–

0.482

0.464

0.860

hypothesis opposes models that consider the entirety of the

3.17

3.10

1.90

0.06
0.04
230
Ecl

high–pressure metamorphic rocks of the Central Cordillera to

2

have been formed in a single Early Cretaceous event (De Souza

Amp–

187A

0.635

0.656

1.460
4.06

4.14

2.10

0.05
0.11
208
Ecl

et al., 1984; García–Ramírez et al., 2017; Orrego et al., 1980b;

Spikings et al., 2015; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013).
Ecl (?)

ARQ–

0.680

0.680

García–Ramírez et al. (2017)

Pijao

<0.1
<0.1
<0.2
<0.1
4.47

4.87

3.50
379

Available whole–rock geochemistry from the Pijao, Ba-

rragán, and Jambaló high–pressure rocks shows that a basal-
Ecl (?)

ARQ–

<0.01
0.410

0.400

0.100
Pijao

<0.1
<0.2
<0.1
2.80

2.75
378

tic protolith is common for the three, although in Jambaló a

basaltic andesite may have been present (Figure 6). Despite
Ecl (?)

ARQ–

similar mafic protoliths, we postulate that the Barragán and Pi-

0.850

0.790

0.300
Pijao

<0.1
<0.2
<0.1
5.38

5.62

4.60
214

jao high–pressure rocks share the same N–MORB signature

(Figures 7, 8) as suggested in the Zr–Nb–Y diagram (Figure
Sample
Region
Rock
type

Tm
Yb
Lu

Th
Hf
Ta
Er

9). The Jambaló rocks may represent an intra–oceanic arc that

1

492
 Two Cretaceous Subduction Events in the Central Cordillera: Insights from the High P–Low T Metamorphism

5 100
Pijao a
Pijao
Jambaló
1 Comendite Phonolite
Barragán Pantellerite

Sample/Chondrite
Zr/TiO2*0.0001

Rhyolite
Trachyte
0.1 10
Rhyodacite/Dacite
Trachyandesite
Andesite
Basanite/
Andesite/Basalt Alkaline–basalt Nephelinite

Subalkaline Basalt La Pr Pm Eu Tb Ho Tm Lu
1

Cretaceous
Ce Nd Sm Gd Dy Er Yb
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10
Nb/Y 100
b
Barragán
Figure 6. Classification of basic rocks based on the Nb/Y versus
Zr/TiO2 diagram, after Winchester & Floyd (1977).

Sample/Chondrite
10
grew over plume–modified oceanic crust (Bustamante, 2008).
Thus, the Early Cretaceous metamorphic event may be linked
to the subduction of the Farallón Plate, whereas the Late Creta-
ceous metamorphism is linked to the Caribbean Plate.

4.2. Tectonic Implications and Possible La Pr Pm Eu Tb Ho Tm Lu

1
Correlations Ce Nd Sm Gd Dy Er Yb

The Early Cretaceous high–pressure metamorphic event re- 100

c
corded in the Central Cordillera (Figure 10; Barragán and Jambaló
Pijao rocks) may represent an event of subduction–accretion
that occurred before the collision of the Caribbean Plate with
Sample/Chondrite

the western margin of South America (Avellaneda et al., 2017;

Bustamante et al., 2012). Until the high–pressure metamorphic
event occurred, between 128 to 120 Ma according to the data 10

presented above, the western margin of the northern Andes was

characterized by an oblique convergence with the Farallón Plate
which may have caused a transpressive margin and the ending
of the arc–related magmatism that dominated between the Early
Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (ca. 200 to 130 Ma sensu Busta- La Pr Pm Eu Tb Ho Tm Lu
mante et al., 2016). These tectonic scenarios differ from those 1
Ce Nd Sm Gd Dy Er Yb
proposed by García–Ramírez et al. (2017), who suggest the slab
roll–back process during the same time interval as the western Figure 7. Chondrite–normalized REE patterns of the high–pressure
margin of the northern Andes, caused by the eclogitization of metamorphic rocks. Diagram after Nakamura et al. (1974). (a) Pijao.
the subduction slab and, hence, an increase in its density. The (b) Barragán. (c) Jambaló.
slab roll–back model was previously proposed to explain the
magmatic evolution of the northern Andes from the Jurassic un-
til Early Cretaceous (Cochrane et al., 2014; Leal–Mejía, 2011; Spikings et al. (2015) suggest that the Lower Cretaceous
Spikings et al., 2015). However, this mechanism involves the high–pressure metamorphic sequence (including the Jam-
progressive increase of back–arc extension, triggering the ex- baló blueschists) originated as a MORB and metamorphosed
humation of high–pressure rocks and even ultra–high–pressure within the same subduction zone, followed by its exhumation
rocks (Brun & Faccenna, 2008). between 120 and 112 Ma. Additionally, they report that the

493
 BUSTAMANTE & BUSTAMANTE

1000 2Nb
a
Pijao Pijao
Barragán
100
Jambaló
Sample/N–MORB

Raspas

10
AI

1 AII

B
Cs Ba U K Ce Pr P Zr Eu Dy Yb
0.1 C
Rb Th Nb La Pb Sr Nd Sm Ti Y Lu
D
1000
b
Barragán
Zr/4 Y
100
Figure 9. Zr/4–2Nb–Y diagram for classifying tholeiitic basalts from
Meschede (1986).
Sample/N–MORB

10

et al., 2011) are discarded in that model as the geochemical

1 constraints are, in fact, not based on the high–pressure rocks,
but in associated garnet–amphibolites grouped in the Arquía
Complex (Maya & González, 1995).
A second subduction zone, active during the Early Creta-
Cs Ba U K Ce Pr P Zr Eu Dy Yb
0.1
Rb Th Nb La Pb Sr Nd Sm Ti Y Lu ceous, was the location of the high–pressure metamorphism
1000
of the Jambaló rocks (Figure 10). The basaltic rocks compris-
c ing their protolith may have formed in an intra–oceanic arc
Jambaló
originated over a plume modified lithosphere, according to the
100 results of Bustamante (2008). This intra–oceanic arc further
Sample/N–MORB

collided with the continental margin of NW South America

which contributed to an increase in its thickness as recorded in
10 the Eocene high Sr/Y arc–related magmas distributed along the
Central Cordillera (Bustamante et al., 2017b). This may be the
only record of Caribbean–related high–pressure metamorphism
1 in the northern Andes.
The blueschists and eclogites of the Raspas Metamorphic
Complex in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador have MORB
Cs Ba U K Ce Pr P Zr Eu Yb
and seamount–like protoliths. These rocks reached their met-
Dy
0.1
Rb Th Nb La Pb Sr Nd Sm Ti Y Lu
amorphic peak conditions at ca. 130 Ma (John et al., 2010).
Their geochemical trends and the age of metamorphism re-
Figure 8. Multi–element plot normalized to primitive mantle after
corded within the Barragán high–pressure rocks, when com-
Sun & McDonough (1989). (a) Pijao. (b) Barragán. (c) Jambaló. pared with the Raspas Metamorphic Complex (Figure 9),
allowed Spikings et al. (2015) to propose that these high–
pressure belts shared the same geological history. Although
such a comparison may be valid based on the abovementioned
high–pressure rocks of the Raspas Metamorphic Complex in similarities, caution should be taken when evaluating this
Ecuador may be correlated with those of the Central Cordil- high–pressure metamorphic belt since the pressure–tempera-
lera of Colombia, due to their similar tectonic position, litho- ture–time (P–T–t) paths of its constituents have never been
logical similarities, and degree of metamorphism. However, compared. It is clear that the Jambaló schists should not be
the Ar–Ar ages obtained in the Jambaló rocks (Bustamante considered as a continuation of the same high–pressure belt

494
 Two Cretaceous Subduction Events in the Central Cordillera: Insights from the High P–Low T Metamorphism

a ca. 130 Ma Weste

rn ma
ed eclogites), and Jambaló (blueschists). The first two share
rgin o
f Colo
mbia
the same N–MORB–like protolith, and an Early Cretaceous
metamorphic age, whereas extensive geochemical data of the
–Ecu
ador
Farall
ón Pla
Futu
re Ca
te Jambaló blueschists is instead indicative of a protolith formed
ribbe
an P
latea
u in a plume–influenced intra–oceanic arc, whose metamorphism
occurred between the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene.
From these high–pressure lithologies in the Central Cordil-
Eclogitized plate
(Raspas Complex generation)
lera, it is postulated that two subduction events occurred during
the Cretaceous. The first, characterized by episodes of subduc-
b ca. 120 Ma West
Barra
ern m
argin tion–accretion, would have provoked high–pressure meta-
of Co
HP un gán–Pija
its o lomb
ia morphism in an oblique subduction regime, forcing the slab
Raspa
C o
Metam s
o r p
roll–back process otherwise not plausible during this time. The
Farall mplex hic

Cretaceous
ón Pla
te second episode of subduction produced the Jambaló blueschists
in an intra–oceanic arc, involving further collision with the con-
tinental margin and increasing its thickness, as recorded in the
Plate eclogitization continues adakite–like magmatism of the Central Cordillera.
(Barragán–Pijao high–pressure units)
Possible correlations of the Pijao and Barragán rocks with
similar rocks of the Raspas Metamorphic Complex in the East-
c ca. 60 Ma West ern Cordillera of Ecuador are possible as they are geochemi-
ern m
argin
of Co cally similar and contemporaneous. However, P–T–t paths are
required to form these conclusions. Conversely, the Jambaló
Ba lomb
HP unrragán–Pija ia
its o
Carib
bean
Ja
Bluesmbaló
Raspa
chists Co Metamorp
s rocks have no similarities with Pijao and Barragán rocks, which
Plate
impede their correlation.
au mplex hic

Acknowledgments
We express our gratitude to the Servicio Geológico Colom-
Figure 10. Cartoons (not to scale) of the proposed model for the
biano for inviting us to contribute to this book. Interesting
generation of high–pressure metamorphic rocks at the northern
Andes (including Raspas Metamorphic Complex) at three instances: discussions with Agustín CARDONA (Escuela de Procesos y
ca. 130 Ma, ca. 120 Ma, and ca. 60 Ma. The figure suggests the re- Energía, Universidad Nacional de Colombia) helped improve
lationships between oblique convergence and the exhumation of the style and conclusions of this work. The writers benefited
the high–pressure metamorphic units (HP units). (a) Farallón Plate from many discussions with Caetano JULIANI (Instituto de
subducts beneath South American Plate. Eclogitization of Farallón Geociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil) and Antonio
Plate results in Raspas Metamorphic Complex generation. (b) Fa-
rallón Plate eclogitization continues to form Barragán–Pijao high–
GARCÍA CASCO (Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología,
pressure units. (c) Caribbean Plateau replaces Farallón Plate and Universidad de Granada, Spain). Comments from Victor A.
begins its subduction process to form the Jambaló blueschists. RAMOS and Franco URBANI helped improve the quality of
In the portion shown, the eclogite facies is not reached. Oblique this manuscript.
convergence continues.
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Explanation of Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Symbols:

HREE Heavy rare earth element N–MORB Normal mid–ocean ridge basalt
LREE Light rare earth element REE Rare earth element
MREE Middle rare earth element

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BUSTAMANTE & BUSTAMANTE

Authors' Biographical Notes

Camilo BUSTAMANTE obtained his Andres BUSTAMANTE is a geologist
undergraduate degree in geology in (Universidad EAFIT) and PhD in min-
2007 (Universidad EAFIT) and PhD in eralogy and petrology (Universidade de
mineralogy and petrology in 2016 (Uni- São Paulo). He is currently a professor
versidade de São Paulo). He is currently of metamorphic petrology and geologi-
a professor of igneous petrology at the cal mapping at Universidade Federal de
Universidad EAFIT in Colombia. His Pernambuco, in the northeastern region
main research area is the tectono–mag- of Brazil. His main research interests are
matic and metamorphic evolution of the focused on high–pressure metamorphic
northern Andes. processes in South America.

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Bogotá, Colombia
2020