TECHNO COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AGARTALA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

ANALOG CIRCUITS LAB (PC EC 407)

Prepared by:
TANDRA SUTRADHAR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

TECHNO COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AGARTALA
MAHESHKHOLA, AGARTALA, TRIPURA (W) - 799004
 Techno College of Engineering Agartala
Affiliated to Tripura University (A Central University), approved by AICTE, MHRD, Govt. of India
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

1. Institute Vission:
The Techno College of Engineering Agartala strives to develop institutional excellence in technical education
and research to graduate talented, skilled and trained engineers, with admirable traditional cultural values to
meet the technological and socioeconomic needs of our state, nation and the world at large.

2. Institute’s Mission:

a) To produce creative and technically strong engineers by providing high-quality technical education
with emphasis on technical academic excellence, innovative research and development programmes
with core human values.
b) To continuously upgrade the faculty in curriculum design, teaching pedagogy, usage of ICT
(Information and Communication Technology) and various processes pertaining to academics,
research and University administration
c) Techno College of Engineering Agartala is committed to providing an education that combines
rigorous academics with joy of discovery.
d) The Institute encourages its community to develop a unique culture that instils responsibility and
accountability in partnership with various stakeholders such as parents, society, business and
education community.

3. Department Vision:

The Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering at TCEA envisions to develop students into
proficient Engineers with strong technical, interpersonal, analytical, managerial and professional ethics
through an efficient teaching-learning process and innovative quality research.

4. Department Mission:

The department's main goals remain the conduct of basic and applied research to improve the status of students
for rewarding careers in professional practice. Additionally, faculty members offer a variety of services to
organizations and society, including evaluating technical resources and advocating for answers to pressing
societal issues that go beyond engineering education to develop skills that last a lifetime.
The mission of the department is:
To disseminate high-quality technical education and information that is rationalized.
To accomplish overall development and self-sustainability through various research activities.
To provide lifelong education that focuses on instilling moral and ethical principles using an honest and
scientific methodology.
To create research and curricula with a new emphasis on addressing significant engineering challenges for
well-functioning societies.

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5. Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO 1: Demonstrate comprehensive knowledge of analytical foundations to Electronics and Communication

Engineering in terms of founding principles of design, computing and communication.

PEO 2: Demonstrate critical thinking and problem-solving abilities to handle the real-world problems by
applying theoretical foundations and practical skills in different fields of Electronics and Communication
Engineering.

PEO 3: “Recognize the place of Electronics and Communication in the ecosystem that enables Computing
Technology”.

PEO 4: “Exhibit qualities of teamwork, appreciation of collaboration that entails inter-disciplinary

endeavours and the potential impact of technology on society.”

PEO 5: Develop creativity, Research related skills, self- learning, entrepreneurial and leadership skills in
order to meet the ever-changing needs and challenges in the profession.

6. Program Outcomes (PO):

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, Engineering fundamentals, and
electronics engineering to the solution of engineering problems.

PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review literature and analyze electronics engineering problems to
design, conduct experiments, analyze data and interpret data.

PO3. Design /development of solutions: Design solution for electronics engineering problems and design
system component of processes that meet the desired needs with appropriate consideration for the public
health and safety, and the cultural, societal and the environmental considerations.

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions in electronics engineering.

PO5.Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
and IT tools including prediction and modeling to electronics engineering activities with an understanding of
the limitations.

PO6.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to electronics engineering
practice.

PO7.Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the electronics engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge and need for sustainable development.

PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethic and responsibilities and norms of
the electronics engineering practice.

PO9. Individual and team work: Function affectively as an individual and as a memberor leader in diverse
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings in electronics engineering.

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
committee and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write affective reports and design
documentation; make effective presentations in electronics engineering.

PO11. Project Management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge & understanding of the electronics
engineering principles and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader
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in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments in electronics engineering.

PO12. Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and the preparation and ability toengage in independent
research and lifelong learning in the broadest contest of technological changes in electronics engineering.

7. Program Specific Outcome (PSOs)

PSO1. Apply the grasp of physics, math, engineering principles, and electronics engineering to the
resolution of engineering issues. Plan, carry out experiments and interpret data. Electronics
engineering issues must be identified, formulated, reviewed in literature & analysed.

PSO2. Design systems that meet the desired requirements while taking into account public health
and safety, as well as cultural, societal, and environmental factors.

PSO3. Provide reliable findings in electronics engineering, use research-based knowledge and
research techniques.

CONTENT

Sl. No. Description Page No

1 Syllabus 4
2 Course outcome 5
3 Do’s and Don’ts 5
4 Rules & guidelines for conducting lab-work 6
5 Lab safety guidelines to controlling electrical hazards 7
6 List of experiments 8

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 Techno College of Engineering Agartala
Affiliated to Tripura University (A Central University), approved by AICTE, MHRD, Govt. of India
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS

List of Experiments

1. Study of diode rectifier circuits (half wave, full wave, bridge rectifiers without filters and with filters).

2. Study of transistor biasing methods for BJT (CE, CB, CC).

3. Study of transistor biasing methods for FET (CS, CG, CD).

4. OP AMP Applications as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator Circuits.

5. Integrator and Differentiator Circuits using IC 741

6. Schmitt Trigger Circuits using IC 741.

7. IC 741 Oscillator Circuits – Phase Shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators.

8. Study of Transistorized oscillators – Phase shift

9. Study of Class A Power Amplifier (Transformer less).

10. Study of Class B Complementary Symmetry Amplifier.

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 TECHNO COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AGARTALA
Electronics & Communication Engineering

Course Overview:

This course provides the basic knowledge over the construction and functionality of the basic
electronic devices such as diodes, transistors and OP-Amp. It also provides the information
about the uncontrollable and controllable electronic switches and the flow of current through
these switches in different biasing conditions. This course is intended to describe the different
configurations and modes of controllable switches and how these electronic devices can be
configured to work as rectifiers, clippers, clampers, oscillators and amplifiers.

COURSE OUTCOME

CO Number CO Description K-level

CO1 Construct and analyze different rectifier circuits using diode K-2
CO2 Explain the knowledge of transistor biasing methods. K-2
CO3 Construct and analyze different op-amp circuits. K-3
CO4 Analyze transistorized Phase shift, Wein-bridge , Hartley, Collpit K-4
oscillators
CO5 Analyze the output of Class A Power Amplifier (Transformer less), K-4
Class B Complementary Symmetry Amplifier.

DO’s & DON’Ts

Do’s

 Maintain silence and discipline.

 To avoid accidental electrical shock, wear footwear, preferably shoes.

 Proper dress code must be maintained while entering in the Lab.

 Students should carry lab observation book and record book completed in all aspects.

 Read and understand how to carry out an experiment thoroughly before coming to the
laboratory.

 Students should be at their concerned table; unnecessary movement is restricted.

 Switch off the power supply and function generators while soldering the circuit.

 Report any broken plugs/apparatus or exposed electrical wires to the faculty

member/laboratory technician
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  immediately.

 The practical result should be noted down into their observation and result must be shown to
the faculty

 member in-charge for verification.

 After completing the experiments, students should return the components and apparatus and
keep the chairs properly.
Don’ts

 Do not come late to the Lab.

 Do not leave the lab without the permission of the Faculty In-Charge.

 Do not eat while working in the laboratory.

 Do not handle any equipment before reading the instructions/Instruction manuals.

 Do not keep the hot soldering irons carelessly on the table which may cause burns or damage
cables.

 Do not misbehave in the laboratory.

 Do not remove anything from the kits/experimental set up without permission.

 Do not mishandle the equipment.

 Do not leave the lab without verification of components/apparatus by lab Instructor.

 Do not use mobile phone in the laboratory while working in the laboratory.

RULES & GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING LAB-WORK

1. Students are not allowed to touch any equipment, chemicals or other materials in the
laboratory area until you are instructed by Teacher or Technician.
2. Before starting Laboratory work follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you
do not understand a direction or part of a procedure, ASK YOURCONCERN TEACHER
BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.
3. Before use equipment must be read carefully Labels and instructions set up and use the
equipment as directed by your teacher.
4. If you do not understand how to use a piece of equipment, ASK THE TEACHERFOR HELP!

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5. Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all instructions,
both written and oral.
6. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed in the Laboratory.
7. Students are not allowed to work in Laboratory alone or without presence of the laboratory
staff or teacher.
8. Any failure / break-down of equipment must be reported to the teacher.
9. Protect yourself from getting electric shock.

ELECTRONICS SAFETY RULES FOR THE STUDENTS

1. Never work on a circuit while power is applied.

2. Do not connect power to a circuit until the circuit is finished and you have carefully checked your

work.

3. If you smell anything burning, immediately disconnect the power and examine your circuit to find

out what went wrong.

4. Keep your work area dry.

5. Always wear safety goggles.

6. Be careful around large capacitors; they can continue to hold voltage long after they are disconnected

from power.

7. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet. Also, turn

instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.

8. Don’t connect power to a circuit until you’re done working on it and rechecked the work.

9. Always ensure that all electronics equipment is properly grounded

10. If it’s damaged, replace it. For instance, replace cables instead of repairing with insulating tape.

11. Be especially careful when you solder because a hot soldering iron can easily burn you.

12. Always work in a well-ventilated space.

13. Have safety equipment such as a fire extinguisher, a first-aid kit, and a phone nearby.

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 TECHNO COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AGARTALA
Electronics & Communication Engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl. No Title of the Experiment Page No.

From To
STUDY OF CLIPPING & CLAMPING CIRCUIT.
1 40 42
2. HALFWAVE RECTIFIERS WITH/WITHOUT FILTERS. 43 46
3. FULLWAVE CENTER TAPPED RECTIFIERS WITH/WITHOUT 47 50
FILTER
FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT WITHOUT AND
4. WITH FILTER 51 56
FET CHARACTERISTICS
5. 57 62
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CS AMPLIFIER
6. 63 65
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CD AMPLIFIER
7. 66 68
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
8. 69 71
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
9. 72 74
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
10. 75 76
DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
11. 77 78
INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT
12. 79 80
DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT
13. 81 82
RC OSCILLATORS
14. 83 89
TRANSISTOR POWER AMPLIFIERS
15. 90 93

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PART –A
ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE
WEEK 1
Experiment 1: Identification, specifications, testing of R, L, C components (Color
Codes), potentiometers, switches (SPDT, DPDT and DIP), coils, Gang condensers,
relays, bread boards, PCBs, identification, specifications and testing of active devices,
diodes, BJTs, Low power JFETs, MOSFETs, power transistors, LEDs, LCDs,
optoelectronic devices, SCR, UJT, DIACs.
1. RESISTOR:
Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current in an
electric circuit. It is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is Ω (omega).
They are available in different values, shapes and sizes.
Every material has some resistance. Some materials such as Rubber, Glass and air have
very high opposition to current to flow .These materials are called insulators. Other
materials such as Copper, Silver and Aluminum etc, has very low resistance, they are
called Conductors.

Resistor Colour Codes

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 Colour-code bands on a resistor.

Applications:
It is widely used in electronic circuits to limit the current

2. CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries
store energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them, some are
marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed above for
resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with an “C”
on a circuit board.

Symbol:

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Applications:
1. In tuned circuits.
2. As bypass capacitors to by pass ac through it.
3. Blocking capacitor to block dc components.

3. INDUCTORS
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component
which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such
as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a
magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-
varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday‟s law of
electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created
it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color
coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure
inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.

Applications:
1. Filter chokes for smoothing and pulsating currents produced by rectifiers.
2. Audio frequency chokes, to provide high impedance at audio frequencies.

4. POTENTIOMETERS:
The variable resistors are usually called Rheostats and the smaller variable resistors
commonly used in electronic circuits are called potentiometers called pot.

symbol

The arrow indicates a movable contact on a continuous resistance element. Apotentiometer

can be either linear or non-linear.
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Applications:
Pots are used to change the volume of sound and brightness of picture.

5. SWITCHES:
A switch is a device which can connect two points in a circuit (or) disconnect two points. If
the switch is acting so has to connect two points. It is said to be in ON position. If the switch
is acting so has to disconnect two points. It is said to be in OFF position.

SPDT:- (Single Pole Double Throw):

If there are two independent circuits to be connected using two throws but still connecting
one poll then it is called single pole double throw.

DPDT: (Double Pole Double Throw):

This switch is capable of connecting the receiver to either Antenna-I or Antenna-II at the
same time and it connects two poles hence the DPDT switch.

6. GANGED CONDENSERS:
In tuning circuits it is desired to change the value of capacitance readily, this is done by
means of variable capacitors. The most common variable capacitor is the air ganged
capacitor. By rotating the shaft, we can change the distance between movable and fixed sets
of plates like that capacitance value is changed.
Applications:
Used in tuning circuits
7. RELAYS:
Switches closes its contacts by the mechanical activation of its lever, the relay do this by an
electromagnetic coil pulling its contacts current and wound over a core of soft magnet. The
moving armature of core causes the contact closure.

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 Relays can have several poles and several contacts. Types of Relays are
1. Reed Relays
2. Solid State Relays
3. Over load relays etc.
Applications:
In telephone networks

8. BREAD BOARDS:
This is the platform on which any circuit can be ringed up to provide interconnections
between electronics components and devices.
The advantage of bread board is, the components can be connected (or) disconnected
easily. It has holes both horizontally and vertically as shown in the figure.
The horizontal holes at the top and bottom are having internal shorts where as in the

remaining part vertical holes are shorted internally.

9. PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD ):

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Components (e.g. capacitors, resistors or active

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 devices) are generally soldered on the PCB.

10. DIODE:
A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by combining P & N type
semiconductor materials. The doped regions meet to form a P-N junction. Diodes are
unidirectional devices that allow current to flow through them in one direction only.
The schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in fig-1. The P-side of the diode
is called the anode (A), while the N-side of the diode is called the cathode (K).

Figure: symbol of P-N diode.

Identification:

APPLICATIONS:
• Rectifiers, Clippers and Clampers.
• Signal detector.
• Digital logic gates.
•
11. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT):

A transistor has three doped regions there are two types of transistors one is npn and other is
pnp. Notice that for both types, the base is narrow region sandwiched between the larger
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collector and moderate emitter regions.
In npn transistors, the majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and collector,
while the majority current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in the pnp
transistor where the majority current carriers are holes in the emitter and collector, and the
majority current carriers are free electrons in the base.
1. Emitter 2. Base 3. Collector

Schematic symbols for transistors (a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor.

In order for a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must
be forward biased and the collector base junctions must be reverse biased.
Transistor lead Identification:
There are three leads in a Transistor called collector, emitter and base. When a transistor is
to be connected in a circuit it is necessary to identify the leads of transistor before connecting
in a circuit. The identification of the leads of transistor varies with manufacturer.There are
three systems in general.

When the lead of a transistor is in the same plane and unevenly as in above fig., they are
identified by the position and spacing of leads. The central lead is the base lead. The collector
lead is identified by the large spacing existing between it and the base lead. The remaining is
the emitter.
When the leads of a transistor are in the same plane but evenly spaced, the central lead is the
base, the lead identified by dot is the collector and the remaining lead is the emitter.

When the leads of a transistor are spaced around the circumference of a circle, the three
leads are generally in E-B-C order clockwise from a notch.
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SPECIFICATIONS:
In all cases, the maximum ratings are given for collector-base voltage, collector emitter
voltage, emitter base voltage, collector current and power dissipation.
Power dissipation rating Pd (Max):
The product of VCE and IC gives the power dissipation, Pd of the transistor. The product of
VCE x IC must not exceed the maximum power dissipation rating, Pd (Max) of the transistor
is nearly 1Watt.
Derating factor:
Manufacturers usually supply derating factors for determining the power dissipation rating

at any temperature above 25 0C. The derating factor is specified in Watt/0C. For example if

a transistor has a derating factor of 2 mW/0C, then for each 10oC rise in junction temperature
the power rating of the transistor is reduced by 2 mW.
Breakdown voltage ratings;
A data sheet lists the breakdown voltage ratings for the emitter- base, collector-base, and
collector-emitter junctions. Exceeding these voltage ratings can destroy the transistor.
BVCBO is 60V, BVCEO is 40V and BVEBO is 6V.

Testing of BJTs:
Checking a transistor with an ohmmeter:
To check the base-emitter junction of an npn transistor, first connect the ohmmeter and then
reverse the ohmmeter leads. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should be low since
the base emitter junction is forward biased. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should
read high because the base emitter junction is reverse biased. For a good pn junction made of
silicon the ration RR/RF should be equal to or greater than 1000:1.
To check the collector-base junction, repeat the process described for the base-emitter
junction.
Shorted and open junctions:
A low resistance across the junction in both directions implies that the emitter-base or
collector-base junctions are shorted. If the ohmmeter indicates a high resistance in both
directions, then the junctions are open. In both cases the transistor is defective and must be
replace.

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 Checking a transistor with a Digital Multimeter (DMM):
Insert the transistor in the provided slots, position the knob of DMM in hFE mode and check
the hFE value.
Applications:
• Amplifiers.
• Oscillators.
• Switches.
12. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETS):
The field effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal device similar to the bipolar junction
transistor. The FET, however, is a unipolar device, which depends on only one type of charge
carriers; either electrons or holes. There are basically two types of FETs. The junction field
effect transistor, abbreviated JFET, and the metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor,
abbreviated MOSFET.
A junction field effect Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which current
conduction is by one type of carriers i.e., electrons or holes.
There are two basic types of FET‟s
1. Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
2. Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET)
Schematic symbol of JFET

Specifications:
i. A.C. drain resistance (rd): Drain resistance has a large value, ranging from 10kΩto
1MΩ
ii. Transconductance (gm): It is expressed in mA/V
iii. Amplification factor (µ): It is product of A.C drain resistance and transconductance.

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 Pinch off voltage:
The value Vp is the start of the interval VP to VDS max during which ID remain constant. As
VDS is increased from 0V to Vp called the pinch off voltage, ID increases from 0 to the
maximum drain current that can be attained without destroying the JFET, the voltage IDSS.
VGS(off):
Maximum drain current flows when VGS = 0 and minimum drain current when
VGS = VGS (off).
Testing:
In case of FET, drain to source should be a fixed resistance in either direction. Gate
to drain or gate to source should be an open circuit or a very high resistance.
Applications:
Used in tuners of radio and TV receivers
Amplifiers and Voltage variable resistor.

13. MOSFETs:

The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor has a gate, source and drain just like
JFET. Like a JFET, the drain current in a MOSFET is controlled by the gate-source voltage
VGS. There are two basic types of MOSFETs. The enhancement type and depletion type. The
enhancement type MOSFET is usually referred to as an E-MOSFET and the depletion type
MOSFET is referred to as a D-MOSFET.
The key difference between JFETs and MOSFETs is that the gate terminal in a MOSFET is
insulated from the channel. Because of this, MOSFETs are sometimes referred to as insulated
gate FETs or IGFETs. Because of the insulated gate, the input impedance of a MOSFET is
many times higher t that of a JFET.
Types of MOSFET’S:
(a) n-channel D- MOSFET (b) P-channel D-MOSFET
(c) n-channel E-MOSFET (d) p-channel E-MOSFET

Specifications:
A typical MOSFET is the 3N200 made by BEL. It has two independent gates against only
one in a common MOSFET. Its specifications are drain to source voltage VDS= 0.2V to 20
V. Gate 1 to source voltage V G1S = 0.6 V to +3 V
Gate 2 to source voltage V G2S = 0.6 V to +6 V Drain to gate 2 voltage VDG2 = +20V
Drain current ID = 50 mA
Transistor dissipation PT = 330 mw Derating = 2.2 m2/0C
Testing:
1. In case of MOSFET, drain to source should be a fixed resistance in either

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 direction
2. Gate to drain or gate to source should be an open circuit or a very high
resistance (greater than FET).

The device under test in the given circuit is a depletion type N- channel JFET, with the gate
circuit kept open, the magnitude of the drain current is sufficient to make the ID R2 drop large
enough. So that the BJT is forward biased and driven into its ON state. Therefore the lamp
glows. The switch SW is now closed. The bias on the FET gate then causes depletion of its
channel.
This lowers the IDR2 drop to the point where conduction through the BJT output circuit fails
to keep the bulb glowing. All this will happen if the FET is in good condition. On the other
hand, a short circuited FET will deep the lamp On in either position of switch SW, while an
open FET will fail to switch the indicator lamp ON.
Power Transistors:
The two types of power transistors made with of the alloy junction type and the silicon planar
type. However, large power means a high current circulating through the device, requiring
bigger areas for a given current density, the active emitter and collector areas can be over 10

Identification:

SL100
Specifications:
One way to distinguish transistors is by the number marked on them. Thus low frequency,
low power transistors bears the numbers AC125, AC126, BC147 and BC148. An example
of a high frequency, low power transistor is BF115; power transistors are BD138, AD149,
2N3055 etc. Similarly, germanium and silicon transistors are distinguished by the first letters
A and B respectively.

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 BVCEO : maximum value of voltage across collector-emitter circuit with base open.
BVCBO : maximum value of voltage across collector-base circuit with emitter open.
BVEBO : maximum value of voltage across emitter-base circuit with collector open.
ICmax : maximum value of DC collector current.
PT : max. power dissipation in absence of heat sinks at ambient temperature.
FT : gain bandwidth ICBO: leakage current.
Testing:
Follow the same procedure as the ordinary BJT-testing using multimeter.
The characteristics of a BJT under different configurations can be observed directly on a
CRT screen. The transistors leads are simply inserted in the three sockets of a device called
a curve tracer.
14. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES LEDS:

As opposed to other diodes that give off heat when conducting, LEDs emit light. In the
latter, the recombination of charge carriers across the PN junction releases optical energy
when the electrons fall from the conduction to the valence band. The heat emission is
negligible in light emitting materials like gallium arsenic phosphide and gallium
phosphoide.
LEDs must, of course, be covered in a transparent or translucent material. The wavelength
of the radiation for a given colour is given by the relation  = 1.23/Eg. Where Eg is the
energy gap between conduction and valence bands. Its value is 1.45 evfor GaAs, 3 ev for
GaAsP and 2.25 ev for Gap. The colours obtained from these materialsare red, yellow and
green respectively.

Figure: symbol of LED.

Identification:

Longer terminal is cathode and the other is Anode.

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 Specifications:
1. VF operating : 1.3 v to 2.5 v
2. Forward voltage (max): 5 v.
3. Forward current: 5 mA to 15 mA
4. Reverse breakdown : 10 v to 12 V
5. Operating life: 100,000 hours.
6. Turn on time: 10-20 nsec.
7. Turn off time: 80-100 nsec.

Testing:
The diode is simply put across a multimeter to see if the reading is different when the polarity
is reversed. The LED will glow and show a resistance between 30 ohms and 50 ohms when
forward biased.
15. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of flat panel display which uses liquid crystals in its primary
form of operation. LEDs have a large and varying set of use cases for consumers and businesses, as
they can be commonly found in smartphones, televisions, computer monitors and instrument panels.

Identification:

LCDs were a big leap in terms of the technology they replaced, which include light-emitting diode (LED)
and gas-plasma displays. LCDs allowed displays to be much thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT)
technology. LCDs consume much less power than LED and gas-display displays because they work on
the principle of blocking light rather than emitting it. Where an LED emits light, the liquid crystals in an
LCD produces an image using a backlight.

22 | P a g e
16. SCR
The basic structure and circuit symbol of SCR is shown below. It is a four layer three terminal
device in which the end P-layer acts as anode the end N-layer acts as cathode and P-layer nearer
to cathode acts as a gate. As leakage current in silicon is very small compared to Germanium
SCRs are made of silicon and not Germanium.
Identification:

When the leads of the SCR are in the same plane but evenly spaced the central lead is the Gate,
left side of the gate is Anode and the other is Cathode.
Specifications:
The following is a list of some important SCR specifications:
1. Latching Current (IL):
Latching current is the minimum current required to latch or trigger the device from its OFF-
state to its ON-state.
2. Holding Current (IH):
Holding current is the minimum value of current to hold the device in ON-state. For turning
the device OFF, the anode current should be lowered below IH by increasing the external
circuit resistance.
3. Gate Current (Ig):
Gate current is the current applied to the gate of the device for control purposes. The
minimum gate current is the minimum value of current required at the gate for triggering
the device the maximum gate current is the maximum value of current applied to the device
without damaging the gate. Move the gate current earlier is the triggering of the device and
vice versa.
Voltage safety factor (Vf) voltage safety factor Vf is a ratio which is related to the PIV, the
RMS value of the normal operating voltage.
Testing:
 The SCR should be switched on and voltage measured between anode and cathode,
which should be approximately volt and the voltage between gate and cathode
should be 0.7 volt.
 An ohmmeter can also be used to test SCR the gate –cathode of a thyristor has a
similar characteristic to a diode with the gate positive with respect to the cathode,

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 a low resistance (typically below 100Ω) should be indicated on the other hand with
the gate negative with respect to the cathode a high resistance (greater than 100kΩ)
will be indicated. A high resistance is indicated in either direction for the anode to
cathode connections.

Applications:

These are used in power control applications such as lamp dimmers motor speed control,
temperature control and invertors. They are also employed for over voltage protection in DC
power supplies.

17. UJT
Identification:
UJT is a three terminal semiconductor switching device. As it has only one PN junction and
three leads it is commonly called as uni- junction transistors.
The basic structure of UJT is as shown below.
Picture

Specifications: (For UJT 2N2646)

 Peak emitter current (Ip) = 2A
 Continuous emitter current (IE) = 50mA
 Inter Base Voltage (VBB) = 35V
 Emitter Base Reverse Voltage (VEB2) = -30V
 Power dissipation at 25°C = 300mW
Testing:

 In case of UJT, emitter to base, (cont1) and emitter to base2 (confg2) should be exhibit
a typical diode characteristics except that the diode resistance in forward and reverse
cases is different for the two configurations.
 The resistance across base1 to base2 should be fixed resistance in either direction.
Applications:
UJT can be used as relaxation oscillator and phase control circuit.

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18. DIAC
The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both
forward and reverse polarities. The DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the words Diode
Alternating Current. The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIACwhen
used in AC switches.

Application of Diac
It can be used mainly in the triac triggering circuit. The diac is connected in the gate terminal of
the triac. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined value, the gate
voltage will be zero and hence the triac will be turned off. The main applications are-
 It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit.
 It is used in the heat control circuit.
 It is used in the speed control of a universal motor.

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 PART –A

ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE

WEEK 2

Study and operation of Multimeters (analog and digital), Function generators, Regulated
power supplies, CRO.

1) MULTIMETRES
Aim: To accurately read voltages using analog voltmeter and DMM from Regulated power
supply
Theory: Analog Voltmeter:
Although digital meters are used extensively throughout the electronic industry. There are many
analog meters also in use. The DC voltage scales on analog voltmeter are linear that isthe
distance between equal values (adjacent divisions) marked on the meter scale are of same length.
Ex:- If the scale is from 0V to 10V then there are 10 equally spaced divisions between these two
values each division represents 0.2V.
Zero adjustment:-
Before use make any measurement with the voltmeter, be certain that the meter indication 0V.
In analog voltmeter, control (screw) is placed on the front panel of the meter for the purpose of
zeroing the meter.
Parallex error:
It results when the person making the measurement is not directly viewing the meter pointer.
Theory: Digital Multimeter:
` A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements, such as
AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter because it
combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also have other
functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency test.
Parts of Multimeter
A Multimeter has three parts:
 Display
 Selection Knob
 Ports

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The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters
have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.
The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as milliamps
(mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common
and is almost always connected to Ground or „-‟ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally
black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is
the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ is the
port that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of
current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a banana type connector
on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug will work with this
meter.

Safety Measures
 Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the desired
measurement.
 Never use the meter if the meter or the test leads look damaged.
 Never measure resistance in a circuit when power is applied.
 Never touch the probes to a voltage source when a test lead is plugged into the 10 A or
300 mA input jack.
 To avoid damage or injury, never use the meter on circuits that exceed 4800 watts.
 Never apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and earth ground.
 Be careful when working with voltages above 60 V DC or 30 V AC rms. Such voltages
pose a shock hazard.
 Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when making
measurements.
 To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal injury,
replace the battery as soon as the battery indicator appears.

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Input Jacks
The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red lead is plugged into the 10
A jack when measuring currents greater than 300 mA, the 300 mA jack when measuring currents
less than 300 mA, and the remaining jack (V-ohms-diode) for all other measurements.

Range Fixing
The meter defaults to auto range when first turned on. You can choose a manual range in V AC,
V DC, A AC, and A DC by pressing the button in the middle of the rotary dial. To returnto auto
range, press the button for one second.

Procedure For Measurement Voltage Measurement

A.C. Voltage Measurment
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative
(black)lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on
the digital display along with the voltage polarity (if reversed only).

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Current Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black)
lead to the „COM‟ jack socket (for measurements up to 200mA). For measurements
between 200mA and 10A connect the red test lead to the „10mA‟ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the load in
which current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is
less than 300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more
than 10 amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit and turn
power on.

Resistance Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative
(black)lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired „OHM Ω‟.

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 3. If the resistance to be measured in any part of a circuit, turn off the power and
discharge allcapacitors before measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.
6. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.

Continuity Test
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to verify
connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds continuously.
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black)
lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.

2. Set the selector switch to the position.

3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistance is
Ohms the buzzer will sound.
4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge
all capacitors before measurement.

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 Diode Test
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative (black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should
appear on the digital display.

General operation
Connection of Probes:
All multimeters come with two probes. They are to be connected to the terminals on the meter
itself. The Black probe is to be connected to the COM terminal. Red probe is to be connected to
terminal marked with :
V- for voltage measurement.
 „mA‟ or „20A‟ for current measurement (there are two terminals, one for 2A range and
the other for 20A range).
- for resistance measurement.

Setting of function:
The multimeter uses different circuits internally to measure different things. Therefore, you must
select the correct function before using it.
Setting of Range:
 You can change the sensitivity of the meter by selecting different range for measurement. Set
the range to the first range that is higher than the maximum value you expect to measure. This
will give a more accurate reading. If you do not know what to expect, use the highest range
first.
 After a reading is obtained, set the range to the appropriate one to get a better reading.
 When the value measured exceeds the existing range, the display will flash. When this happens,
set the multimeter to a higher range until some values are displayed.

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Precautions:
1. For current measurement, the maximum input current is 2A (if the RED mA andBLACK
COM terminals are used) or 20A (if the RED 20A and BLACK COM terminalsare used).
Excessive current will blow the fuse on the 2A range, which must be replaced.The 20A
range, however, is not protected by the fuse.
2. For voltage measurement (use the RED V- and BLACK COM terminals), the
maximum input voltage on :
 all DC ranges is 1200V DC or peak AC
 the 20V, 200V and 1000V AC ranges is 1000V rms continuous
 the 2V and 200mV AC ranges is 1000V rms for not more than 15 seconds.
3. To avoid electrical shock and/or instrument damage, do not connect the COM input
terminals to any source of more than 500 volts DC or peak AC above earth ground.
Resistance measurement
Procedure
 Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with
„VΩ ‟
 Set function to resistance measurement
 Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
 Connect the two probes‟ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via
jumper wires) to make measurement
 Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
 Take the more accurate reading.

Voltage measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked
with „V‟
2. Set function to voltage measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Set the AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
5. Touch the two points where you want to make measurement
6. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
7. Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Reading obtained is the voltage of where the red probe touch with reference to where the black
probe touches. This may not indicate the voltage level from ground. To find the voltage level of

32 | P a g e
 a point from ground, black probe should be touching a ground point and the red probe on the
point you want to measure.
Current measurement
Procedure
 Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with „A‟
 Set function to current measurement
 Set to the appropriate range
 Set AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
 Off the power to the circuit
 Break the path which we want to make measurement
 Connect the path with the two probes so that current now flow through the multimeter
 On the power
 Note the reading, change range if necessary
 Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Use the 20A range if you are not sure of the current to be measured.

Connection Methods to Measure Voltage and Current

2) 2D FUNCTION GENERATOR
Objective
1. To get familiarization and study the operation of a function generator instrument
2. To identify key function generator specifications
3. To visualize the types of waveforms produced by a function generator
Equipment Required
1. Oscilloscope
2. Function Generator
3. BNC Connector Table

33 | P a g e
Theory
A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of waveforms
over a wide range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a variety of
repetitive waveforms, generally from the list below
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a
standard sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator.
It is effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly
moves between a high and low point.

Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment.

34 | P a g e
Types of Function Generator

Procedure
 Turn on the oscilloscope
 Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using BNC
Connector
 Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
 Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
 Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-to-
peak (p-p) sinusoidal waveform on the screen.

Function Generator connected

Function Generator Controls

Knobs Control Name Functions
Number
1 Power Push button switch to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.

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 Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number of 6
different waveforms :
 Sine
4 Function
 Square
 Triangle
 Ramp
 Pulse
5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.
6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequency In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key
on front Panel.
10 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of
Variable output.
This control provides DC offset. Approximately ±5VDC is
11 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC offset is
not required.
12 Output Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)
(BNC
External Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of external
13 Counter signal when External Counter mode is selected by
(BNC Menu key on the LCD display.
Connector)
14 Modulatio Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.
n Input

3) 2B DC VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most
commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to
another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical,
chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output
voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite
variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device
that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power
supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:
The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.
How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.

36 | P a g e
Power Supplies Types
1. Battery
2. DC power supply
3. AC power supply
4. Linear regulated power supply
5. Switched mode power supply
6. Programmable power supply
7. Uninterruptible power supply
8. High voltage power supply
9. Voltage multipliers
Dc Power Supply Specification
a. Adjustable 0~30V/0~2A
b. The design is limit the voltage overload
c. The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
d. Output voltage: 0-30V DC
e. Work temperature: -10oC-40oC
Main Function
1. Output constant current adjustable.
2. Output constant voltage adjustable.
3. LCD voltage and current display.
4. Constant voltage and current operation in individual.
5. Over current protection.

Adjustable power supply

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4) 2C CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid, X&Y- plates,
and a fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by applying a small
potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential difference between
the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons towards the anode,
forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced.
The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing
through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are responsible
for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot Horizontally across
the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal.
The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages produce
a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.
Experimental Figures

Fig 1. Cathode Ray tube Oscilloscope Fig 2. Out Line Diagram of CRO

Procedure
 Turn on the Oscilloscope
 Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
 Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
 Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
 A signal will appear on the screen.
 Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked
clockwise.
 Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
 Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal

38 | P a g e
 Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak
to peak value as:

Vp-p = No. vertical Div * Volt/Divs

 Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle, then
calculate time value as:

Time = No. Horizontal Div * Time/Divs 11.

 Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the formula:
Freq = 1 /Time

39 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT No 1

Clipping & Clamping circuit.

1.1 AIM: Study of Clipping & Clamping circuit.

1.2 APPRATUS REQUIRED: Power supply, Clipping & Clapping circuit, Connecting leads, CRO.

1.3 THEORY:

Clipping: The clippers have the ability to remove signal voltages above or below a specified level &
hence change the wave shape of the I/P signal. Most of the clippers employ diodes & are known as diode
clippers. Different type of clippers are-

Positive & Negative clipper: A circuit that removes +ve half-cycle of the signal is called +ve clipper.
Sometimes, it is required to remove the –ve half cycle of the I/P signal, the only thing to be done is to
reverse the polarity of the diode connected across load, such a clipper is known as a –ve clipper.

Biased clipper: A clipper used to remove a small portion of +ve or –ve half cycle ofthe signal Voltage
is called a biased clipper. A diode is employed in series with a battery of different volts depending upon
the requirement.

Combination clipper: In this circuit small portion of +ve as well as small portion of –ve half Cycle of
the signal voltage is removed.

Clamper: A clamping circuit adds d.c component to the signal in such away that itpushes the signal
either on the +ve side or on the –ve side. When the circuit pushes the signal onthe +ve side then –ve peak
of the signal falls on the zero level, this circuit is called a +ve clamper. When the circuit pushes the signal
on the –ve side, this is –ve clamper.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

40 | P a g e
2.4 PROCEDURE:

CLIPPER
A. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram
B. Observe the output on CRO
C. Now connect the battery and observe the output.
D. Repeat the above steps for each type of clipper
E.
CLAMPER
A. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram
B. Note down the output on CRO
C. Use dc/ac switch of CRO to calculate the added dc level to the wave

OBSERVATION TABLE:

CLIPPER CLAMPER
I/P(V) O/P(V) I/P(V) O/P(V)
+VE
-VE

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WAVEFORM:

Positive Clampe Negative Clamper

Input Waveform

Positive Clipper

Negative Clipper

PRECAUTIONS:
A. Connection should be proper & tight.
B. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit.
C. Handle equipment with care.

RESULT: Verified the circuit diagram of clipper and clamper and

waveforms aredrawn.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 2

HALFWAVE RECTIFIERS WITH/WITHOUT FILTERS

4.1 AIM
Examine the input and output waveforms of a half wave rectifier without and with filters.
Calculate the ripple factor with load resistance of 500Ω, 1 KΩ and 10 KΩ respectively.
Calculate ripple factor with a filter capacitor of 100F and the load of 1K, 2K and 10KΩ
respectively.

4.2 COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Quantity
S. Device Range/Rating
No in No.
1 Rectifier and Filter trainer
BoardContaining
a) AC Supply. (9-0-9) V 1
b) Silicon Diodes 1N 4007 1
c) Capacitor 0.47μF 1
2 a) b) DC Voltmeter (0-20) V 1
c) AC Voltmeter (0-20) V 1
3 DC Ammeter (0-50) mA 1
4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (0-20) MHz 1
5 Decade Resistance Box 10Ω-100KΩ 1
6 Connecting wires 5A 12

4.3 THEORY
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts
through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the load resistor
R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and there is no
current through the circuit. i.e, the voltage across R1 is zero. The net result is that only the +ve
half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified
o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter.
For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
4.3.1 The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
4.3.2 The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock hazards
in the secondary circuit.

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4.4 PROCEDURE
Half Wave Rectifier without filter
4.4.1 Connect the circuit as shown in figure (a).
4.4.2 Adjust the load resistance, RL to 500Ω, and note down the readings of input and output
voltages through oscilloscope.
4.4.3 Note the readings of dc current, dc voltage and ac voltage.
4.4.4 Now, change the resistance the load resistance, RL to 1 KΩ and repeat the procedure as
above. Also repeat for 10 KΩ.
4.4.5 Readings are tabulated as per the tabular column.
Half Wave Rectifier with filter
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (b) and repeat the procedure as for half
wave rectifier without filter.

4.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Figure (a) :Half Wave Rectifier without Filter

Figure (b):Half Wave Rectifier with Filter

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4.6 EXPECTED GRAPHS

4.7 PRECAUTIONS
4.7.1 No loose contacts at the junctions.
4.7.2 Meters of correct ranges must be used for precision

4.8 TABULAR COLUMNS

Half Wave Rectifier without Filter

S Load Input Output Average Average RMS Ripple

. Resistance dc current
Voltage Voltage Dc Voltage Factor
N (RL) (Idc)
voltage
o Peak (Vm) Peak (Vo) (Vac) Vac
(Vdc) γ=
Vdc

1. 500Ω
2. 1KΩ
3. 10KΩ

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Half Wave Rectifier with Filter C=10μF
S. Load Input Output Average Average RMS Ripple
N Resistanc Voltage Voltage dc Dc Voltage Factor
o e (RL) Peak (Vm) Peak (Vo) current voltage (Vac) γ=
(Idc) (Vdc) Vac
Vdc
1. 1KΩ
2. 2KΩ
3. 10KΩ

4.9 RESULT
4.9.1 Input and Output waveforms of a half-wave with /without filter are observed and plotted.
4.9.2 For Half-wave rectifier without filter-
γ, Ripple factor at 500Ω=
1KΩ=
10 KΩ=

4.9.3 For Half-wave rectifier with filter:-

γ, Ripple factor at 1KΩ, 100μF =
2KΩ, 100μF =
10 KΩ, 100μF =

46 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT No. 3

FULLWAVE CENTER TAPPED RECTIFIERS

WITH/WITHOUT FILTER

3.1 AIM
Examine the input and output waveforms of a full wave (center tapped) rectifier without and with
filters.Calculate the ripple factor with load resistance of 500Ω, 1 KΩ and 10 KΩ respectively.
Calculate ripple factor with a filter capacitor of 100F and the load of 1K, 2K and 10KΩ
respectively.

3.2 COMPNENTS& EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.No Device Range Quantity
/Rating (in No.s)
1 Rectifier and Filter trainer Board
Containing
a) AC Supply. (9-0-9) V 1
b) Silicon Diodes 1N 4007 2
c) Capacitor 0.47μF 1
2 a) DC Voltmeter (0-20) V 1
b) AC Voltmeter (0-20) V 1
3 DC Ammeter (0-50) mA 1
4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (0-20) MHz 1
5 Decade Resistance Box 10Ω-100KΩ 1
6 Electrolytic Capacitor 100μF 1
7 Connecting wires 5A 12

3.3 THEORY

The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During positive half
cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2is reverse
biased.
The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During negative half cycle,
diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows
through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a continuous current flow through the
load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show inthe
model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full

47 | P a g e
 wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees
of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degree).

3.4 PROCEDURE
Full-wave Rectifier without filter
3.4.1.1 Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (a).
3.4.1.2 Adjust the load resistance RL to 500and connect a capacitor of 100F value in
parallelwith the load and note the readings of input and output voltages through
Oscilloscope.
3.4.1.3 Note the readings of DC current, DC voltage and AC voltage.
3.4.1.4 ow change the load resistance RL to 2000 and repeat the procedure as the above.
3.4.1.5 Readings are tabulate as per the tabular column.
Full-wave Rectifier with filter
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (b).
2. Adjust the load resistance RL to 1Kand connect a capacitor of 100F values in parallel
with the load and note the readings of input and output voltages through Oscilloscope.
3. Note the readings of DC current, DC voltage and AC voltage.
4. Now change the load resistance RL to 2K and repeat the procedure as the above. Also
5. repeat for 10K, 100μF values.
6. Readings are tabulate as per the tabular column.

3.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Figure (a): Full Wave Rectifier (Center-tap) Without Filter

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 Figure (b): Full Wave Rectifier (center-tap) With Filter

3.6 EXPECTED GRAPHS

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 3.7 PRECAUTIONS
3.7.1 No loose contacts at the junctions.
3.7.2 Meters of correct range must be used for precision.

3.8 TABULAR COLUMNS

Full wave Rectifier (Center-tap) Without Filter

S. Load Input Output Average Average RMS Ripple

No Resistance Voltage Voltage dc current Dc Voltage Factor
(RL) Peak (Vm) Peak (Vo) (Idc) voltage (Vac) Vac
γ=
(Vdc) Vdc
1 500Ω

2 1KΩ

3 10KΩ

Full wave Rectifier (Center-tap) With Filter C = --- µF

S.No Load Input Output Average Average RMS Ripple

Resistance Voltage Voltage dc current Dc Voltage Factor
(RL) Peak (Vm) Peak (Vo) (Idc) voltage (Vac) Vac
γ=
(Vdc) Vdc

1 500Ω

2 1KΩ

3 10K

3.9 RESULT
3.9.1 Input and Output waveforms of a full-wave (center tapped) and bridge rectifier with /without
filters are observed and plotted.
3.9.2 For Full-wave rectifier(center tapped) without filter-
3.9.2.1 γ, Ripple factor at 500Ω, 100μF =
3.9.2.1.1 2KΩ, 100μF =
3.9.3 For full-wave rectifier (Center tapped) with filter-
3.9.3.1 γ, Ripple factor at 500Ω, 100μF =
3.9.3.1.1 2KΩ, 100μF =

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 EXPERIMENT No. 4

FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT WITHOUT AND WITH FILTER

Objectives:

1. To construct a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and analyze its output.

2. To analyze the rectifier output using a capacitor in shunt as a filter.

Overview:

As you have seen already a half-wave rectifier circuit is unsuitable to applications

which need a "steady and smooth" dc supply voltage. One method to improve on this is
to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit
which allows us to do this is called a Full-wave Rectifier. Here, unidirectional current flows
in the output for both the cycles of input signal and rectifies it. The rectification can be done
either by a center tap full wave rectifier (using two diodes) or a full wave bridge rectifier
(using four diodes). In this experiment we will study a full wave bridge rectifier.

The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same

output as a full-wave rectifier is that of the Bridge
Rectifier (Fig. 1). This type of single-phase
rectifier uses 4 individual rectifying diodes
connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce
the desired output but does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing Fig. 1: Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge
network and the load to the other side as shown in figure. The 4 diodes labeled D1 to D4 are
arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle.
During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in

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series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown
below (Fig. 2). During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is
the same direction as before.

Fig. 2: Working of Full-wave bridge rectifier

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across
the load is also unidirectional during both the half cycles. Thus, the average dc output voltage
across the load resistor is double that of a half-wave rectifier circuit, assuming no losses.

2Vmax
Vdc = = 0.637V max
π

Ripple factor:
As mentioned in the previous lab the ripple factor is a measure of purity of the
d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as

In case of a full-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/√2 = 0.707Vmax. The ripple frequency is now
twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).

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Rectification Efficiency:
Rectification efficiency, η, is given by
η = d .c. power delivered to load a.c. power at input

= Vdc Idc Vac Iac

where rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
(rd<<), the rectification efficiency in case of a full-wave rectifier is approximately 81.1%,
which is twice the value for a half-wave rectifier.

Filter:

Smoothing
Capacitor

C Charges C Disharges

(Output waveform
without capacitor)

(With capacitor)

Fig.3: Full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter

The full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter is shown in Fig. 3. The smoothing
capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth dc output
voltage. The detailed description of its filtering action is already explained in half-wave
rectifier handout. Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a
capacitor are its working voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output

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value of the rectifier and its capacitance value, which determines the amount of ripple
that will appear superimposed on top of the dc voltage.

Apart from rectification efficiency, the main advantages of a full-wave bridge

rectifier is that it has a smaller ac ripple value for a given load and a smaller smoothing
capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. The amount of ripple voltage that is
superimposed on top of the dc supply voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by
adding other improved filters such as a pi-filter.

Circuit components/Equipments:

(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) 4 junction diodes, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv) Capacitor,
(v) Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connecting wires, (viii) Breadboard.

Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Fig. 1 and 3)

Procedure:

i) Configure the full-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Note
down all the values of the components being used.
ii) Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and secondary to the
input of the circuit.
iii) Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output a.c. (Vac) and
d.c. (Vdc) voltages using multimeter for at least 3 values of load resistor (Be
careful to choose proper settings of multimeter for ac and dc measurement).
iv) Feed the input and output to the oscilloscope (we will use oscilloscope here only
to trace the output waveform) and save the data for each measurement. MEASURE
THE INPUT AND OUTPUT VOLTAGES SEPARATELY.
v) Multiply the Vac at the input by √2 to get the peak value and calculate Vdc Using the
formula Vdc = 2Vmax/ π. Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the output.

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 vi) Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.
vii) Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor. Measure the output
a.c. and d.c. voltages once again and calculate the ripple factor. Trace the input
and output waveforms in oscilloscope and notice the change. (If time permits you
could also use different values of capacitors and study the output)

Observations:
1. Code number of diode =
2. Input Voltage: Vac = Volt

Table(I): Full-wave rectifier w/o filter

Sl. No Load Input Output Voltage Ripple Efficiency η

RL (kΩ) Current Vac Vdc 2Vmax/ π Factor (Vdc2/RL)/VacIac
Iac (mA) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt) r (%)
1
2
3

Table(II): Full-wave rectifier with filter (C = μF)

Sl. No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor

RL (kΩ) Vac (Volt) Vdc (Volt) r
1
2
3

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(III) Input and output waveforms:

Waveforms without
Filter: RL =
Input Output
(Paste data here)

Waveforms with Capacitor

Filter: RL =
Input Output
(Paste data here)

Discussions:

Precautions:

56 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5
FET CHARACTERISTICS

12.1 AIM:-
Find drain resistance at VDS=3V for VGS= 0.5V, 0V, -1V.
Find Trans conductance at VGS= -1.0V for VDS= 1V, 2V, 3V.

12.2 COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Device Range Quantity
/Rating (In No.s)

1 FET Characteristics trainer

board containing
(a) DC power supply 0-12V 1
(b) DC power supply 0-5V 1
(c) FET BFW 11 1
(d) Carbon film resistor 1K, 1/2W 1
(e) Carbon film resistor 470K, 1/2W 1

2 DC Voltmeter 0-20V 2

3 (a) DC Ammeter 0-200A 1

(b) DC Ammeter 0-20mA 1

4 Connecting wires 12

12.2 THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and less
noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET s always reverse biased. In response to small applied
voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the draincurrent
increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and
the channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins
to remain constant. The VDS at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”.
If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse bias,
the pinch off voltage ill is decreased.
In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch-off.

FDS=IDSS(1-VGS/VP)^2

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12.3 PROCEDURE: -

Drain characteristics:
12.3.1Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1)
12.3.2Set the gate source voltage, VGS in 0V position.
12.3.3 Increase drain source voltage, VDS in steps and note corresponding ID values as
Shown in the tabular column.
12.3.4Now change VGS to +0.5Vand –1V and repeat the above procedure.

Transfer characteristics:
12.3.5Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1).
12.3.6Keep the drain source voltage, VDS at 1V.
12.3.7 Vary the gate source voltage, VGS in steps and note corresponding ID values as shown
in the tabular column.
12.3.8Now change VDS to 2Vand 3V and repeat the above procedure.

12.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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12.5 EXPECTED GRAPHS:

Drain Characteristics:

Transfer Characteristics:

12.6 PRECAUTIONS:
12.6.1 Knobs of the supply must be kept at minimum position while switching on and off the
supply.
12.6.2 Loose connections at junction must be avoided.
12.6.3 Device and meter of correct rating and range must be used.

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12.7 TABULATIONS:
Drain characteristics:

VGS=0V VGS= 0.5V VGS= 1.0V

VDS (v) ID (mA) ID (mA) ID (mA)

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Transfer characteristics:

VDS=0V VDS=2V VDS= 3V

VGS (v) ID (mA) ID (mA) ID (mA)

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0

-1.2

-1.4

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 -1.6

-1.8

-2.0

-2.2

-2.4

-2.6

-2.8

12.8 CALCULATIONS:

a. AC drain resistance at VDS=3V of VGS= 0.5V

i. = ΔVDS/ ΔID
ii. =
b. AC drain resistance at VDS=3V of VGS= 0V
i. = ΔVDS/ ΔID
ii. =
c. AC drain resistance at VDS=3V of VGS= -1V
i. = ΔVDS/ ΔID
ii. =
d. Transconductance at VGS = -1V of VDS=1V
i. = ΔID / ΔVGS
ii. =
e. Transconductance at VGS = -1V of VDS=2V
i. = ΔID / ΔVGS
f. Transconductance at VGS = -1V of VDS=3V
i. = ΔID / ΔVGS

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12.9 RESULT:
12.9.1 At
VDS=3V
Drain Resistance for VGS=0.5V is
Drain Resistance for VGS=0V is
Drain Resistance for VGS=0.5V is

12.9.2 At
VGS=-1V
Trans Conductance for VDS = 1V is
Trans Conductance for VDS= 2V is
Trans Conductance for VDS= 3V is

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 6

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CS AMPLIFIER

13.1 AIM: -
Plot the frequency response of a FET amplifier.
Calculate gain.
Calculate bandwidth.

13.2 COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: -

S.No Device Range/Rating Quantity

(in
No.s)

1. FET amplifier Trainer

Board with 12V 1
(a) DC supply voltage BFW 11 1
(b) FET 0.1F 2
(c) Capacitors 47F 1

1.5K 1
(d) Resistors 1
4.7 K
1
1M

2. Signal generator 0.1Hz-1MHz 1

3. CRO 0Hz-20MHz 1

4. Connecting wires 5A 4

13.3 THEORY:-
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used for weak-signal
amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The device can amplify analog or
digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET, current flowsalong
a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there is an electrode called
the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called the drain. The physical
diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical diameter can be varied by the
application of a voltage to a control electrode called the gate. Field-effect transistors exist intwo
major classifications. These are known as the junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide-

63 | P a g e
 semiconductor FET (MOSFET). The junction FET has a channel consisting of N-type
semiconductor (N-channel) or P-type semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of
the opposite semiconductor type. In P-type material, electric charges are carried mainly in the
form of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type material, the charge carriers are primarily
electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the boundary between the channel and the gate. Normally,
this P-N junction is reverse-biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no current flows between
the channel and the gate. However, under some conditions there is a small current through the
junction during part of the input signal cycle. The FET has some advantages and some
disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor. Field-effect transistors are preferred for weak-
signal work, for example in wireless, communications and broadcast receivers. They are also
preferred in circuits and systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for
high-power amplification, such as is required in large wireless communications and broadcast
transmitters.

13.4 PROCEDURE: -
Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure.

13.4.1 Adjust input signal amplitude in the function generator and observe an amplified voltage
at the output without distortion.
13.4.2 By keeping input signal voltage, say at 50mV, vary the input signal frequency from 0 to
1MHz insteps as shown in tabular column and note the corresponding output voltages.

13.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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13.6 EXPECTED GRAPH:

13.7 PRECAUTIONS:
13.7.1 Oscilloscopes probes negative terminal should be at equipotential points (i.e. ground
voltage is zero) because both terminals are internally shorted in dual trace oscilloscope.
13.8 TABULAR COLUMN:
Input = 50mV

Frequency Output Gain Gain

(in Hz) Voltage Av=Vo/Vi (in dB) =
(Vo) 20log10(Vo/Vi)
20

40

80

100

500

1000

5000

10K

50K

100K

200K

400K

600K

800K

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 7

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CD AMPLIFIER

14.1 AIM: -
To obtain the frequency response of a Common Drain Field Effect Transistor Amplifier and
also to find its voltage gain, Output Resistance and Bandwidth.

14.2 COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: -

S. Nam Range / Value Quan

1 Dual Regulated D.C Power supply 0–30 Volts 1
2 JFET BFW10 or 11 1
3 Resistors 2.2M , 4.7K Each 2
4 Resistors 1K 1
5 Capacitors 47 f ,0.001 f Each 1
6 Signal Generator ( 0 – 1MHz) 1
7 Bread Board and connecting wires - 1 Set
8 Dual Trace CRO 20MHz 1 No

14.3 THEORY:-

The common drain FET amplifier is similar to the common collector configuration of the
bipolar transistor. A general common drain JFET amplifier, self-biased, is shown in the circuit
diagram below.This configuration, which is sometimes known as a source follower, is
characterized by a voltage gain of less than unity, and features a large current gain as a result
of having a very large input impedance and a small output impedance.

14.4 PROCEDURE: -
Frequency Response:
14.4.1 Connect the circuit as per the Fig.1. Apply VDD of 15 V
14.4.2 Give a signal Vs of 100 mV(P-P) at 1KHz on the I/P side and
observethe O/P on CRO.
14.4.3 Vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1MHz with proper intervals on
theinput side and observe the output Vo on CRO
14.4.4 Draw a graph between frequency Vs Gain on Semi-log Graph
Sheetand find its Mid frequency Gain Amid
14.4.5 Draw a horizontal line across the graph at 0.707 Amid and find the Bandwidth

66 | P a g e
 To Find R0:

1. Keep Vs = 100mV (P-P) 1KHz Signal and find Corresponding output Vo.
2. Now with out disturbing Vs Connect potentiometer across output and
observe the output on CRO.
3. Adjust the value of Potentiometer Such that the output falls to the Vo/2 value.
Note the value of the potentiometer resistance is the Ro of the JFET CD Amplifier.

14.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

14.6 EXPECTED GRAPH:

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14.7 PRECAUTIONS:
14.7.1 Check the wires for continuity before use.
14.7.2 Keep the power supply at Zero volts before Start
14.7.3 All the contacts must be intact
14.7.4 For a good JFET we will get a gain of 0.9 to 1.0 at 1KHz. If notchange
the JFET.

14.8 TABULAR COLUMN:

14.9 RESULT: -

BandWidth B.W = f2 – f1 = H
Mid band Gain AMi =
Output Resistance Ro = ohms

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 8

NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
15.1 AIM: To implement a non-Inverting Amplifier for the given specifications using Op-Amp IC741.

15.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Function Generator 1 KHz 1
2. CRO 20 MHz 1
3. Dual RPS 0 – 30 V 1
4. Op-Amp IC 741 1
5. Resistors R1= 100 Ω and RF= 1.5 K Ω

15.3 THEORY:

The input signal Vin is applied to the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp. This circuit amplifies the
signal without inverting the input signal. It is also called negative feedback system since the output is
feedback to the inverting input terminals. The differential voltage Vd at the inverting input terminal of the
op-amp is zero ideally and the output voltage is given as,

Vo = ACL Vin

Here the output voltage is in phase with the input signal.

15.4 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. + Vcc and - Vcc supply is given to the power supply terminal of the Op-Amp IC.
3. By adjusting the amplitude and frequency knobs of the function generator, appropriate input
voltage is applied to the non - inverting input terminal of the Op-Amp.
4. The output voltage is obtained in the CRO and the input and output voltage waveforms are
plotted in a graph sheet.

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15.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

15.6 DESIGN:
We know for a Non-inverting Amplifier ACL = 1 + ( RF / R1)
Assume R1 ( approx. 100 Ω ) and find RF
Hence Vo = ACL Vin

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15.7 OBSERVATIONS:

Sl. No Input Output

Practical Theoretical
1. Amplitude
( No. of div x Volts per div )

2. Time period
( No. of div x Time per div )

15.8 MODEL GRAPH:

15.9 RESULT: The design and testing of the non-inverting amplifier is done and the input and output
waveforms were drawn.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 9

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
16.1 AIM: To implement an inverting Amplifier for the given specifications using Op-Amp IC 741.

16.2 THEORY:
The input signal Vin is applied to the inverting input terminal through R1 and the non-inverting input
terminal of the op-amp is grounded. The output voltage Vo is fed back to the inverting input terminal
through the Rf - R1 network, where Rf is the feedback resistor. The output voltageis given as,

Vo = - ACL Vin

Here the negative sign indicates that the output voltage is 1800 out of phase with the input signal.

16.3 PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. + Vcc and - Vcc supply is given to the power supply terminal of the Op-Amp IC.
3. By adjusting the amplitude and frequency knobs of the function generator, appropriate input
voltage is applied to the inverting input terminal of the Op-Amp.
4. The output voltage is obtained in the CRO and the input and output voltage waveforms are
plotted in a graph sheet.

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16.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

16.5 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Function Generator 1 KHz 1
2. CRO 20 MHz 1
3. Dual RPS 0 – 30 V 1
4. Op-Amp IC 741 1
5. Resistors R1= 100 Ω and RF= 1.5 K Ω

16.6 DESIGN:

We know for an inverting Amplifier ACL = RF / R1

Assume R1 (approx. 100 Ω ) and find RF
Hence Vo = - ACL Vin

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16.7 OBSERVATIONS:

Sl. No Input Output

Practical Theoretical
1. Amplitude
( No. of div x Volts per div )

2. Time period
( No. of div x Time per div )

16.8 MODEL GRAPH:

16.9 RESULT: The design and testing of the inverting amplifier is done and the input and output
waveforms were drawn.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 10

SUMMING AMPLIFIER
17.1 Aim: To implement and setup a summing amplifier circuit with OP AMP 741C and verify the output.

17.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Function Generator 3 MHz 1
2. CRO 30 MHz 1
3. Dual RPS 0 – 30 V 1
4. Op-Amp IC 741 1
5. DC voltage source 12 V and 5 V
6. Resistors R1= 10K Ω, R2= 47K Ω and RF= 10 K Ω

17.3 THEORY:
Op-amp can be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals. Such a circuit is
called a summing amplifier or an adder. Summing amplifier can be classified as inverting & non-inverting
summer depending on the input applied to inverting & non-inverting terminals respectively. Circuit
Diagram shows an inverting summing amplifier with 2 inputs. Here the output will be amplified version of
the sum of the two input voltages with 1800 phase reversal.
R R 
V    F V  F V2 
out
 R 1 1 R 2 


17.4 PROCEDURE:
1. Check the components.
2. Setup the circuit on the breadboard and check the connections.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Give V1 = +12 V DC and V2 =+5V DC.
5. Observe the output voltage.
6. Repeat the procedure with V1 =1Vpp / 1 KHz sine wave and V2 = +1.5Vdc.
7. Make sure that the CRO selector is in the D.C. coupling position.
8. Observe input and output on two channels of the oscilloscope simultaneously.
9. Note down and draw the input and output waveforms on the graph.

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 17.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

17.6 DESIGN:
The output voltage of an inverting summing amplifier is given by Vo = -( Rf / Ri )(V1+V2)Let R1
= 10 KΩ, R2 = 47 KΩ
Then RF = 10 KΩ
Then Vout  1V 1  0.213V 
2


17.7 OBSERVATIONS:
V1= 12 DC, V2= 5 DC, Then Vo=?
V1 =1Vpp / 1 KHz sine wave and V2 = +1.5Vdc. Then Vo=?

17.8 RESULT: Observe the input and output voltages on a Multimeter as well as CRO. Compare the
experimental results with the theoretical value.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 11

DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

18.1 AIM: To implement a difference amplifier circuit with OPAMP IC 741C and verify the output.

18.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Op-Amp IC 741 1
2. DC voltage source 100 V and 50 V
3. Resistors R1= 10K Ω, R1= 10K Ω, R2= 10 K Ω and Rf= 10 K Ω
4. Multimeter As required
5. Connecting wires and probes As required

18.3 THEORY:
A difference amplifier is a circuit that gives the amplified version of the difference of the two inputs, Vo
=A (V1-V2), Where V1 and V2 are the inputs and A is the voltage gain. Here input voltage V1 is connected
to inverting terminal and V2 to the non-inverting terminal. This is also called as differential amplifier.
Output of a differential amplifier can be determined using super position theorem. When V2=0, the circuit
becomes an inverting amplifier with input V1 and the resulting output is V02= -Rf /R1 (V1). When V1=0,
the circuit become a non-inverting amplifierwith input V2 and the resulting output is V02= Rf/R2 (V2).

Therefore the resulting output according to super position theorem is

R R 
V0  V01  V02   f V 2  f V 1  
R R1 
 2


18.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 18.5 PROCEDURE
1. Check the components.
2. Setup the circuit on the breadboard and check the connections.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Give V1 = +100 mV DC with polarity as shown.
5. Give V2= +250 mV DC.
6. Observe the output voltage in multimeter.

18.6 Design:
Given the gain = 1
Vo = V01+ V02 = Rf/R1(V1-V2)
That is Rf / R1 = 1
Let R1=R2 = 10KΩ
Then Rf = 10KΩ

18.7 OBSERVATIONS:
V1= 100 mV DC
V2= 50 mV DC
Then Vo=?

18.8 RESULT: Observe the input and output voltages on a Multimeter. Compare the experimental results
with the theoretical value.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 12

INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT
19.1 AIM: To implement an Integrator circuit for the given specifications using Op-Amp IC 741.

19.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Function Generator 1 KHz 1
2. CRO 20 MHz 1
3. Dual RPS 0 – 30 V 1
4. Op-Amp IC 741 1
5. Resistors R1= 1 KΩ, RF= 1MΩ
6. Capacitors C=0.1μF

19.3 THEORY:

A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage waveform is the
integrator. Such a circuit is obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback
resistor RF is replaced by a capacitor C. The expression for the output voltage is given as,
Vout = - (1/ RF C) ∫ Vs dt
Here the negative sign indicates that the output voltage is 1800 out of phase with the input signal.Normally
between fa and fb the circuit acts as an integrator. Generally, the value of fa < fb . The input signal will be
integrated properly if the Time period T of the signal is larger than or equalto RF C. That is,
T ≥ RF C
The integrator is most commonly used in analog computers and ADC and signal-wave shapingcircuits.

9.4 DESIGN:

To obtain the output of an Integrator circuit with component values R1= 1 KΩ, RF= 1MΩ and C
= 0.1 μF and also if 1 V peak square wave at 1000Hz is applied as input.

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119.5 PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. + Vcc and - Vcc supply is given to the power supply terminal of the Op-Amp IC.
3. By adjusting the amplitude and frequency knobs of the function generator, appropriate input
voltage is applied to the inverting input terminal of the Op-Amp.
4. The output voltage is obtained in the CRO and the input and output voltage waveforms are
plotted in a graph sheet.

19.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

19.7 OBSERVATIONS:

Sl. No Input Output

1. Amplitude
( No. of div x Volts per div )
2. Time period
( No. of div x Time per div )

19.8 RESULT: Observe the input and output voltages on a CRO. Compare the experimental results with
thetheoretical value.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 13

DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT
20.1 AIM: To develop a Differentiator circuit for the given specifications using Op-Amp IC 741.

20.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Function Generator 1 KHz 1
2. CRO 20 MHz 1
3. Dual RPS 0 – 30 V 1
4. Op-Amp IC 741 1
5. Resistors RF= 10KΩ
6. Capacitors C=0.05μF

20.3 THEORY:

The differentiator circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation; that is, the output
waveform is the derivative of the input waveform. The differentiator may be constructed from a basic
inverting amplifier if an input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C. Theexpression for the output
voltage is given as,
Vo = - R C (dVin /dt )
The differentiator is most commonly used in wave shaping circuits to detect high frequency components in
an input signal and also as a rate–of–change detector in FM modulators.

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 20.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

20.5 DESIGN:

To develop a differentiator circuit to differentiate an input signal that varies in frequency from 10Hz to about 1
KHz. If a sine wave of 1 V peak at 1000Hz is applied to the differentiator, draw itsoutput waveform.

20.6 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. + Vcc and - Vcc supply is given to the power supply terminal of the Op-Amp IC.
3. By adjusting the amplitude and frequency knobs of the function generator, appropriate inputvoltage
is applied to the inverting input terminal of the Op-Amp.
4. The output voltage is obtained in the CRO and the input and output voltage waveforms areplotted
in a graph sheet.

20.7 OBSERVATIONS:

Sl. No Input Output

1. Amplitude

( No. of div x Volts per div )

2. Time period

( No. of div x Time per div )

20.8 RESULT: Observe the input and output voltages on a CRO. Compare the experimental results with the
theoretical value.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 14

RC OSCILLATORS

Object
To study the characteristics of RC oscillators namely:

1) Phase shift oscillators.

2) Wein bridge oscillators.
Equipment Required:
1- Dual Power supply

2- Oscilloscope
3- Operational amplifier
4- Transistors
5- Components as shown in figures6- Function generator
Theory

One of the important features of an oscillator is that the feedback energy applied should be in correct phase to the
tank circuit. The oscillator circuits discussed so far has employed inductor (L)and capacitor (C) combination, in the
tank circuit or frequency determining circuit.

We have observed that the LC combination in oscillators provide 180o phase shift and transistor in CE configuration
provide 180° phase shift to make a total of 360o phase shift so that it would makea zero difference in phase.

Drawbacks of LC circuits

Though they have few applications, the LC circuits have few drawbacks such as

 Frequency instability
 Waveform is poor
 Cannot be used for low frequencies
 Inductors are bulky and expensive

We have another type of oscillator circuits, which are made by replacing the inductors with resistors. By doing so, the
frequency stability is improved and a good quality waveform is obtained. These oscillators can also produce lower
frequencies. As well, the circuit becomes neither bulkynor expensive.

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 All the drawbacks of LC oscillator circuits are thus eliminated in RC oscillator circuits. Hence theneed for RC
oscillator circuits arise. These are also called as Phase–shift Oscillators.

Principle of Phase-shift oscillators

We know that the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave input leads the input voltage. Thephase angle by which
it leads is determined by the value of RC components used in the circuit. The following circuit diagram shows a single
section of an RC network.

The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage applied input V1 by some phase angle ɸo. If R were
reduced to zero, V1’ will lead the V1 by 90o i.e., ɸo = 90o.
However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would lead to no voltage across R. Therefore, in practice,
R is varied to such a value that makes V1’ to lead V1 by 60o. The following circuit diagram shows the three sections of the
RC network. Each section produces a phase shift of 60o. Consequently, a total phase shift of 180o is produced,i.e.,
voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180o.

Phase-shift Oscillator Circuit

The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a phase-shift network is called as a Phase-shift oscillator circuit.
The constructional details and operation of a phase-s hift oscillator circuit areas given below

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 Construction
The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier section and a RC phase-shift network. The
phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC sections. At the resonantfrequency fo, the phase shift in each RC
section is 60o so that the total phase shift produced by RC network is 180o.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of an RC phase-shift oscillator.

The frequency of oscillations is given by

1
fo =
2πRC√6
Where

R1 = R2 = R3 = R

C1 = C2 = C3 = C

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 Operation
The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency fo. The output Eo of the amplifier is fed
back to RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180o and avoltage Ei appears at its output.
This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.

The feedback applied will be

m = Ei/Eo

The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier, which is in CE configuration, produces a 180o
phase shift. The phase shift produced by network and the transistor add to form aphase shift around the entire loop
which is 360o.

Advantages
The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

It does not require transformers or inductors.

It can be used to produce very low frequencies.The circuit
provides good frequency stability.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is small.The output

produced is small.

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Another type of popular audio frequency oscillator is the Wien bridge oscillator circuit. This is mostly used because of its
important features. This circuit is free from the circuit fluctuations and the ambient temperature.
The main advantage of this oscillator is that the frequency can be varied in the range of 10Hz to about 1MHz whereas in RC
oscillators, the frequency is not varied.

Construction

The circuit construction of Wien bridge oscillator can be explained as below. It is a two-stage amplifier with RC
bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has the arms R1C1, R3, R2C2 and the tungstenlamp Lp. Resistance R3 and the lamp
Lp are used to stabilize the amplitude of the output.

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 The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Wien bridge oscillator.

1
f= −−−−−−−−−
2π√(R 1 C1 R 2 C2)

If R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 = C

Then,

1
f=
2πRC

The oscillator consists of two stages of RC coupled amplifier and a feedback network. The voltage across the parallel
combination of R and C is fed to the input of amplifier 1. The net phase shift through the two amplifiers is zero.
The usual idea of connecting the output of amplifier 2 to amplifier 1 to provide signal regeneration for oscillator is not
applicable here as the amplifier 1 will amplify signals over a wide range of frequencies and hence direct coupling would
result in poor frequency stability. By adding Wien bridge feedback network, the oscillator becomes sensitive to a particular
frequency and hence frequency stability is achieved.
Operation
When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations of the frequency stated above. The two transistors
produce a total phase shift of 360o so that proper positive feedback is ensured. The negative feedback in the circuit ensures
constant output. This is achieved by temperature sensitive tungsten lamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current.
If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more negative feedback is achieved. Due to this, the
output would return to the original value. Whereas, if the output tends to decrease, reverse action would take place.
Advantages
The advantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −
 The circuit provides good frequency stability.
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  It provides constant output.
 The operation of circuit is quite easy.
 The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
 The frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.
 The amplitude stability of the output voltage can be maintained more accurately, by replacing R2 with a
thermistor.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −
 The circuit cannot generate very high frequencies.
 Two transistors and number of components are required for the circuit construction.

The usual idea of connecting the output of amplifier 2 to amplifier 1 to provide signal regenerationfor oscillator is not
applicable here as the amplifier 1 will amplify signals over a wide range of frequencies and hence direct coupling
would result in poor frequency stability. By adding Wien bridge feedback network, the oscillator becomes sensitive
to a particular frequency and hence frequency stability is achieved.
Operation

When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations of the frequency stated above. The two
transistors produce a total phase shift of 360o so that proper positive feedback isensured. The negative feedback in
the circuit ensures constant output. This is achieved by temperature sensitive tungsten lamp Lp. Its resistance increases
with current.

If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more negative feedback isachieved. Due to this,
the output would return to the original value. Whereas, if the output tends todecrease, reverse action would take place.

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 Advantages

The advantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows The circuit

provides good frequency stability.

It provides constant output.

The operation of circuit is quite easy.

The overall gain is high because of two transistors. The

frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.

The amplitude stability of the output voltage can be maintained more accurately, by replacingR2 with a
thermistor.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −The circuit

cannot generate very high frequencies.

Two transistors and number of components are required for the circuit construction.

RESULT: Observed the waveform and measured the frequency of oscillations. Frequency of output waveform = ………
kHz

Thus the phase oscillator is designed and the output frequency was measured.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 15

TRANSISTOR POWER AMPLIFIERS

OBJECT: To study some important aspects of different power amplifier configurations.

EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS:

1. Signal generator
2. DC Power supply
3. Oscilloscope
4. AVO meter
5. Transistor and components as shown in Fig.(2) and Fig.(4).

THEORY:
An amplifier designed to deliver electric power to a desired load is known as a power
amplifier. Power amplifiers find applications in transmitter, servomotor amplifiers, industrial
control circuits, and audio amplifiers. In general, power amplifiers designed to del1iver the
maximum power output at the highest efficiency. Since power amplifiers inherently involve
excursions in voltage and current, the transistor may operated in the non-linear regions of the
characteristic curve resulting distortion in the output. Furthermore, the transistor subjected to
large values of current and voltage, thermal instability may become a problem and thus the
power amplifier must biased to guard against thermal runaway.
Depending on their operation, power amplifiers can be groupedinto four main classes:
- CLASS A operation
- CLASS AB operation
- CLASS B operation
- CLASS C operation
The output signal as result of a sinusoidal input signal for each of the four classes can
show in Fig.(1). In class A operation, the entire input signal is reproduced faithfully at the output
resulting minimum distortion.The power delivered by the power supply is constant and not
affected by input signal. This means that, power being dissipated by the circuit even through
no signal is present. Further more, the maximum lower dissipated in the transistor under up
signal condition. Therefore the efficiency in class A operation is poor. Fig.(2 ) shows the typical
circuit used for class A power amplification.

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 In class AB operation output (collector) current flows for more than half of the input signal
cycle. Hence, more than half of the signal is amplify and appears at the output.

Class A Class AB Class B Class C

Fig.(1): Signal waveform for Classes (A, AB, B. C)

In class B operation, exactly half of the input signal appears amplified at the output. Transistor is biased
such that Ic =0. Therefore theamplifier dissipates power only when it is being used to amplify signal
(input signal present). Hence, the efficiency is higher but the distortions are considerable. In order to
obtain high efficiency and low distortion, circuit shown in Fig.(3) is used. This is known as PUSH PULL
amplifier. In positive half cycle one transistor provides output current while in negative half cycle other
transistor provides output current. By this way output current is continuous.

Fig.(2) : shows type of coupling

In class C operation, somewhat less than half of the input signal appears amplified at
the output. The output signal waveform is high distorted and rich in harmonic. Generally, in

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 class C amplifier, load is a tuned circuit, which selects the fundamental or the desired harmonic
rejecting all other frequency components. Efficiency in class C amplifier is the highest. These
generally used to amplify radio-frequency (r.f.)single in transmitters.

Class (A) Operation

Class B operation

Class C operation

PROCEDURE:

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1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.(2a). Adjust VBB to obtain Ic=4.5mA. Then measure
VBE and VCE.
2. Draw the load line on the given output characteristics. Locate Q point.
3. Apply a sinusoidal input signal of 1kHz and adjust the input voltage to obtain maximum
undistorted output. Draw input and output waveformaccurately.
4. Calculate efficiency and distortions.
5. Adjust VBB equal to the half value set in step 1. Measure Ic, VBE, and VCE.
6. Apply a sinusoidal input signal of magnitude applied in step 3. Draw input and output
waveform. Then measure rms output voltage (hence calculates rms and average current).
Repeat step 4.

7. Adjust VBB to obtain Ic = 0 (class B operation). Repeat step 6.

8. Adjust VBB = -0.5 volt. Measure VBE, VCE and Ic.

9. Apply a sinusoidal input signal of magnitude apply in step 3. Drawinput and output
waveform. Then calculate efficiency.
10.Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.(3). Measure the dc current passthrough each
transistor.

11. Measure the ac and dc current pass through the load. Then calculateefficiency.

R1

Q1

R2

R2

Q2
R1

Fig.(3): Push Pull transistor

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Results

 Measured Input Voltage (Vin): 10 mV (sine wave)

 Measured Output Voltage (Vout): 2.5 V
 Voltage Gain (Av): 250
 Measured Output Power (Pout): 1 W
 Measured DC Power Supply Current: 0.1 A
 Efficiency (η): 50%
 Harmonic Distortion: 3%

7. Discussion

 Analysis of Efficiency: The efficiency of a Class A amplifier is typically lower compared to

other classes, as it conducts for the full input cycle. In this experiment, we achieved an
efficiency of 50%, which is typical for Class A amplifiers.
 Power Gain: The observed power gain is high, indicating the amplifier is able to significantly
boost the input signal.
 Distortion: Harmonic distortion is observed, indicating some non-linearity in the
amplification process. This could be minimized with better biasing and using Class AB or
Class B circuits for more efficient linear amplification.
 Practical Considerations: The power amplifier's performance is influenced by factors such
as transistor type, biasing network, load impedance, and the power supply voltage. These must
be optimized for specific applications.

8. Conclusion

The transistor power amplifier experiment successfully demonstrated how transistors amplify weak
input signals to higher power levels. We observed key metrics such as voltage gain, power gain, and
efficiency, and discussed the trade-offs between performance and efficiency in different amplifier
classes. Further optimization of the circuit design and component selection could improve the
performance metrics for real-world applications.

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