FCE 245 - MATERIAL SCIENCE (45 hours)

SYLLABUS OUTLINE

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Physical and chemical properties of engineering materials
3.0 Crystal structure
4.0 Metals
5.0 Corrosion in metals
6.0 Ceramics
7.0 Plastics
8.0 Phase composition
9.0 Wood
10.0Material laboratory

REFERENCES

1. Properties of engineering materials by Raymond A Higgins – ELBS

2. Engineering Materials II: An introduction to microstructure, processing and
design by M.F Ashby, & Daniel K.H. Jones.
3. Materials Science by J.D Anderson & K.D Leaver
4. Materials Science and Engineering by V. Raghavan
5. The Chemistry of Building Materials by R.M.E Diamant
6. Materials Science for Engineers by J.H. Van Vlack

COURSE STUCTURE.

2 hours Lectures (Monday & Tuesday)

Laboratory work in the timber laboratory for both the investigations and the tests.
All Laboratory reports to be submitted two weeks from actual date of the exercise.

EXAMINATION

50 marks Maximum
35 marks Final examination 70%
15 marks Course work, CATS & Lab work 30%

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DETAILED SYLLABUS OUTLINE.

1.0 Introduction - Material Classification

- Structure of Material
- Structure Property

2.0 Physical and chemical properties of engineering materials

- Atomic Structure of Materials
- Chemical Bonding
- Bonding Character and Material Properties

3.0 Crystal Structure - Crystalline Solids

- Crystal Systems
- Crystal Imperfections

4.0 Metals - Material Choice

- Manufacture of Metals
- Properties of Steel

5.0 Corrosion in Metals - Introduction

- Rate of Corrosion
- Form of Corrosion

6.0 Ceramics - Clays

-Structural Clay Products
- Refractories & White Wares

7.0 Plastics - Introduction

- Moulding of Plastics
- Additives to Plastics
- Chemical Characteristics of Plastics
-Physical Characteristics of Plastics
- Flexibles Plastics & Sealants

8.0 Phase composition - Solutions

- Equilibrium between Phases

9.0 Wood - Classification & Structure

- Factors affecting Strength of Wood
- Season of Wood
- Strength test on Timber
- Wood Preservation

10.0Laboratory - T1 – Bending test on small clear timber specimens.

- T2 – Grading of Timber
- T3 – Tensile Test using the Hounsfield Tensiometer

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1.0 MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING.

Materials are part of the inanimate matter which is useful to the engineer in the practice
of his profession. Presently materials refer only to SOLID MATERIALS, although
gaseous and liquid materials are also important.
Science in the phrase refers to the physical Sciences, in particular to chemistry and
physics.
Thus materials science deals with solid state chemistry and solid state physics, in relation
to their engineering usefulness.
Materials science and engineering draws from the physical engineering sciences such as
metallurgy ceramics and polymer science.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The most important engineering materials may be broadly divided into the following
categories:
-metals and alloys
-non-metals.
Further subdivision of these classes is possible. The metals may either be ferrous
(wrought iron, cast iron and steel) or non-ferrous (aluminum and its alloys, copper,
magnesium, manganese etc). The non-metals include material such as plastics, concrete,
timber, clay products, building stone, ceramics and glass, and organic polymers.
There exist other materials which are composites made up of two or more groups of
materials.
Materials can also be classified according to the major areas in which they are used.
These areas are:
I. Structural applications
II. Machinery, and
III. Devices

The structural applications of materials refer to such things as concrete dams, bridges,
buildings, power line pylons, oil rig platforms etc.
Machines include lathes, turbines, engines, motors and generators.
Devices include items of the electric age such as transistors, photoelectric cells,
piezoelectric pressure gauges, ceramic magnets and lasers.
In each category of applications there may be materials from all the three groups
described above.
The figure below shows the relationship between material groups and categories of
applications.

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 NON - METALS

Metal and Alloys Ceramics and Glasses Polymers

Engineering Materials

Applications

Structural Components Machinery Devices

Material groups and application category relationships.

1.2 STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

The structure of engineering materials can be classified at various levels based on the
means used in observing the same. The magnification and the resolution of the physical
aid used are a measure of the level of observation.

1.2.1 MACROSTRUCTURE
This is the general or external outline of a given material, and is what is observed with
the naked eye or under low magnification.
The external form and shape of a material is dependent upon the internal arrangement of
the system building blocks.

1.2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE
This refers to the structure as observed under an optical microscope. This becomes
necessary when the level of resolution exceeds the limit for the human eye at about
0.1mm.

1.2.3 SUBSTRUCTURE
This is observed when a microscope with a much higher magnification and resolution
than the optical microscope is used. This calls for use of such powerful instruments as the
electron microscope. Such instruments enable one to obtain a lot more information on
fine particles or crystal imperfections such as dislocations in a material. Individual atomic
information can now be obtained by use of the more powerful field low microscope.

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1.2.4 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
This details the atomics arrangement with a crystal. A crystal consists of several units
cells which are in turn made up of individual atoms. Crystal structure is determined by x-
ray diffraction.

1.2.5 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

This refers to the electrons in the outermost orbital of individual atoms that constitute
solid. Spectroscopic techniques are very useful in determining the electronic structure.
Nuclear structure is a much finer area studied under spectroscope technique such Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (MNR) and massbaner studies.

1.3 STRUCTURE – PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS IN MATERIAL

Due to the vast number and types of engineer materials, not all of them can be studied.
The levels of structure that are of greatest interest in materials science and engineering
are the microstructure, the substructure and the crystal structure. The chemical,
mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties are among the most important engineering
properties. There are basic concepts pertaining to the levels of structure which include
equilibrium and kinetics, geometry of crystal, the arrangement of atoms, in the unit cell
of crystalline materials, the sub structural imperfection in crystals and the microstructure
of single phase and multiphase materials. The inception of changes in structure and their
control is also an important concept.
Though the gross composition of materials is important in determining its structure,
radical changes in the structure and properties can be brought about by subtle change in
the concentration and distribution of impurities or by thermal mechanical means.
Materials science and engineering deal more with this kind of changes than with the
effect of gross composition on the properties.

2.0 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGINEERING

MATERIALS

All engineering products utilize materials. Each of these products requires material with
specific characteristics such that:-
I. The materials can be processed into the final products satisfaction and
economically,
II. The products will behave appropriately in service.
Engineering material applications depend very much on optimization taking into account
material availability, processing requirements, service demands and the ever important
cost factor. In most cases experience on the part of the engineer assists in material
identification and selection, although an understanding of the factors which contribute to
the properties of such materials is a pre-requisite. Such knowledge enables
conceptualization of the material limitations, or possible modification in materials
selection and design.
Most of these properties will depend on the physical and chemical structure of these
materials. And every material has a unique structure which distinguishes it from all other
materials in terms of application, and behaviour.

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The physical and chemical structure of engineering materials are related in the sense that
the chemical structure determines physical structure based on this premise, the chemical
structure of the materials and its understanding is a first step in the study of material
properties.

2.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

An atom is the smallest indivisible building block of any form of matter. The atomic
theory will form the basis of our understanding, the variations in material properties and
their applications. The rigidity of a solid arises from the fact that the atoms in the solid
are held together by inter-atomic bonds. The strength of such bonds determines the nature
of solid which in turn depends on the electronic structure of the atom.

2.1.1 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

An atom consists of nuclear and surrounding electrons. The nuclear is composed of
protons and neutrons. The figure below shows a diagrammatic summary of the general
makeup of an atom, (oxygen atom illustration)

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Particle diagram of Oxygen atom

2.1.1.1 THE ELECTRON

This carries a charge referred to as ‘negative electricity’. The electron has a special
property which influences its effects on atomic properties. Besides having mass and
electrical charge it behaves as though it were spinning on an axis, giving it angular
momentum.
The electron has acquired other names such as the negatron amongst others.

2.1.1.2 THE PROTON

The proton carries an equal but opposite (hence positive) change to that of the electron. It
is represented by a number of symbols such as P, or 1H; the latter being the most
commonly used and indicating that it is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom.

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2.1.1.3 THE NEUTRON
This is neutral particle found in the nucleus of the atom. The role of the neutron in
nuclear science has still not been exhausted. It appear to be a relatively stable particle
which influence both radioactivity and other forms of nuclear reaction, but has little
effect on ordinary chemical and physical properties, other than its contribution to atomic
mass.

2.2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND PERIODIC TABLE

Present day physicists do not visualize definite orbits for electron around the nuclear of
an atom, but rather in terms of a mathematical function representing the distribution of
the electron within a space occupied by the atom i.e. Orbital. The electron may be
visualized as a ‘mist’ of electricity rather than a single particle of the orbital prescribing
the density of that ‘must’ at any point within the atom.
Alternatively the electron may be visualized almost as a ‘resultant particle’ and the
orbital deemed to devote the statistical probability of finding that particle at any given
point around the nuclear.
The position of such orbital from the nuclear normally describe or define the energy level
of the atom. The figure below shows the three representations of a hydrogen atom.
Instead of an electron occupying a single fixed orbit the probability of it existing at any
location is indicated by the graph in (ii) and the resultant diagram in (iii).

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Pictorial view of electron position in Hydrogen atom
I. The ‘Bohr’ atom
II. Graphical probable radius size
III. Resultant idea of electron location

The grouping of elements in the periodic table shows a consistent pattern with regard to
chemical properties of elements in the same group as well as their electrical, magnetic
and mechanical properties.

2.2.1 ELECTRON ORBITAL AND ENERGY LEVELS

Electron surrounding the atomic nuclear are not all at the same energy level. These are
grouped into shells with different energy characteristics. These are known as quantum
shell. The greatest number of electron in a given shell is 2n2 where n is the quantum
number of the shell. But there are definite rules governing the energy levels and probable
positions of electrons which are in orbit around an atom. Based on this concept, known as

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‘Pauis exclusion principal’, no more than two electrons can have the same energy level,
and hance the same probability of position. This leads to other creation probability known
as sub-shells.

The periodic table indicates that in several instances quantum shells of higher number
begin to accept electrons in their levels before the preceding shells of lower quantum
number have been filled. This is due to overlapping of energy levels of succeeding sub-
shells and also of succeeding principal shells. Electrons are most stable in positions of
least energy and naturally seek out such spaces in shells or sub-shells where vacancy of
lowest energy occurs. This leads to ‘transition’ elements in the periodic classification.

An electron can be excited from a lower energy state to a higher energy state that is
vacant by the supply of energy from an external source. When there is such a transition
from one level to another, some radiation of a specific energy level is absorbed or
emitted. Energy is absorbed, if the electron is excited to a higher energy level. It is
emitted, if the electron is falling to a lower energy level from a higher level. The energy
difference between the two states determines the intensity of radiation emitted or
absorbed and is a reflection of energy needed to move from one state of matter to
another.

2.2.2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM NUCLEAR

The nuclear of an atom consist of a collection of protons and neutrons. These particles of
the nuclear are bound together not by electrostatic forces but rather by nuclear binding
forces. An atomic nuclear contains several nucleons (protons and neutrons) bound
coherently together. These nuclear are subjected to attraction by neighboring nucleons
but those on the surface are attracted inwards towards the core by the bulk of the
nucleons producing something in the nature of a surface tension. The figure below shows
a plot of potential energy versus proton distance from nucleus. When the proton is at A
simple electrostatic repulsion tends to push it away from the nucleus which has its centre
at O. The proton can be considered to posses potential energy the same way that a
compressed spring possesses potential energy and if released will recoil from the nucleus.

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As the proton gets closer to ‘A’ the electrostatic force and hence the potential energy of
the proton increase in the direction of ‘X’ until contact is achieved between proton and
nucleus. At ‘B’, however, the curve flattens out at some potential energy value, ‘E’,
because the proton now cover close enough to be under the influence of the nuclear
binding force. Beyond ‘C’ the nuclear binding force is much greater than the electrostatic
force of repulsion and so the proton is now attracted to the nucleus instead of being
repelled by it. The proton is now considered to possess negative potential energy in a
potential well of depth E+W and this is the energy required to remove it from the
nucleus.
The nuclear binding force radius of influence is considerably less than that of the
electrostatic repulsion force.
A very large nucleus is certain to possess many numbers of (protons) nucleus which are
outside of the short-range of nuclear boarding force but any protons will still be
influenced by the mutual repulsion between each other’s long-range electrostatic fields.
Thus as a nucleus becomes large, the total electrostatic repulsion between protons
increases whilst beyond a certain size; the total nuclear binding force between nucleus
does not.
Thus is certain large nuclei, the system becomes unstable and heavy metals in the
periodic table tend to break up flew, leading to the radioactive elements.
For a nucleus to be stable it needs to be less than a certain maximum size, determined by
the relative magnitude of the opposing forces of attraction and repulsion and containing
an optimum ratio of protons to neutrons.

2.2.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND STATE OF MATTER

The state in which an element exists depends upon the contribution of temperature and
pressure prevailing around it. The element can exist as gas, liquid or solids. (State
depends interatomic form.
The total resultant force operating between atoms is as a result of a number of forces.
Initially forces of repulsion operate between the nuclei of two atoms since both nuclei are
positively charged. Similarly the electron of one atom will repel those of another atom
since electrons are negatively charged. Opposing these forces of repulsion are forces of
attraction between protons and electrons. Whether the resultant fore between the two
atoms is of attraction or repulsion depends upon which of the forces in these groups is
greater.
At great distances, the toms attract one another, but as they approach one another the
force attraction increases until the orbital of electrons of each atom begin to overlap.

In a gas at relatively high temperatures the average energy of the atoms is sufficient for
the forces of attraction between them to be negligible. As temperature of the gas is
reduced so is the kinetic energy of each atom. Consequently forces of attraction between
atoms become more significant. At some temperature a stage is reached where large
groups of atoms are held together since their individual activation is insufficient to pull
them apart, hence the gas condenses to form a liquid. At lower temperatures, still the
force of attraction predominant to the extent that atoms fall into a fixed pattern and so
form a solid.

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2.3 CHEMICAL BONDING
A part from atoms of the ‘noble’ gases, atoms rarely occur as single particles but are
generally attached to other atoms forming small or large groups. The forces between
atoms are known as inter-atomic attractions which lead to atomic or chemical bonding.
Most Engineering materials possess these forces. If there were no such attractions, each
atom would behave independently, and materials would have neither coherence nor
resistance to externally applied force.

There are classifications of inter-atomic bonding:-

(i) Primary bonding
(ii) Secondary bonding.
The primary bonding contains ionic, covalent and metallic bonds. The secondary bonding
contains van-der-waals, hydrogen bond and various other but equally important bonds.

2.3.1 BOND ENERGY AND BOND LENGTH

This bond length is the minimum distance of approach of two atoms at which they are in
stable equilibrium. And the energy possessed by the atoms at such distance is the bond
energy.

2.3.2 PRIMARY BONDS

Primary bonds are chemical bonds with relatively high energies. Each primary bond is a
consequence of the exchange or sharing of valence electrons in the outermost orbitals of
the atom.

2.3.2.1 IONIC BOND

These forms between two oppositely charged ions, which are produced by the transfer of
electrons from one atom to another.
The simplest ionic bond illustration is between sodium and chlorine.
Ions of unlike charges are attracted by coulombic force.

2.3.2.2 COVALENT BONDS

The term ‘covalent’ describes the sharing of valence electrons by adjacent atoms. This is
in contrast to the transfer of electrons from one atom to another in the Ionic bonding. [For
sharing with a net decrease in potential energy, good overlap of the orbital which will
bring the shared electrons close to both the nucleus is necessary. This occurs readily
when there are vacant electron state in the outermost orbital of the bonding atoms].
Covalent bonds have a specific direction in space. The directionality of covalent bond
also produces characteristic bond angles. In methane for example, the average H-C-H
bond angle is 109.5o. This tetrahedral bond is encountered in engineering materials
whenever four equal atoms are bonded to a central atom (e.g. CH4, SCF4, diamond,
silicon metal etc).

As with Ionic bonds, energy is required to separate covalently bonded atoms. It is worth
noting that multiple covalent bonds have shorter bond lengths and double bonds are
stronger than single bonds (but not twice as strong). This is important information of
polymers.

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2.3.2.3. METALLIC BONDS
This is intermediate between Ionic and covalent in metallic atoms, i.e. those which posses
loosely held valence electrons may be bonded together with very stable structures. Within
a metal, many of the valence electrons are “free” to move throughout the structure, thus
imparting the familiar metallic conductivity and optical properties (such as luster and
opacity).

The metallic bond may be compared to the covalent bond in that the valence electrons are
shared by adjacent atoms. The metallic bond may also be compared to the ionic bond if
are visualized as the negative electrons holding positive ions together.

2.3.2.4. INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY BONDS

Few materials have pure bonds of one or the other. Occurrence of mixed bonds in
materials is the rule rather than exception. Ionic and metallic bond combinations are
found in a number of compounds.

2.3.3 SECONDARY BONDS

These bonds arise from internal dipoles and are usually weak bonds. The dipoles might
be due to dispersion effects, which are simple, the statistical irregularities of electron
distribute in atoms or molecules; or they may be the permanent dipoles in symmetric
molecules.

2.3.3.1. VAN DER WAALS BONDING

Many molecules and the single atoms of noble gases have time varying dipole moments
the nature of which depends upon the position of the electrons at any particular instant.
The dipole moment arises out of the imbalanced electric charge.
Inert gas atoms have spherically symmetric electron probability clouds (orbitals) around
them, and therefore, have no permanent dipole moments, yet they do form solid crystals
at sufficiently low temperatures. The bonding in such solids is known as van-der-waals
force or bonding. Even though the time averaged electron probability distribution is
spherically symmetrical, the electronic charge at any install of time is concentrated
locally, resulting in a weak fluctuating dipole within the atom. The electric field of this
imbalance can induce a dipole moment in a neighbouring atom, in such a way as to
attract it. The dipole in the second atom came in turn induce a dipole in a third atom in as
to attract it and so on. This dipole-induced-dipole attraction is non-directional in nature;
the bonds thus formed have very large bond lengths and low bond energies.

2.3.3.2. THE HYDROGEN BOND

This is another secondary bond which occurs between atomic groups which have no
electron to spare. It bears a close resemblance to the van der waals bond which is due to
the attraction between dipoles, but occurs only when a hydrogen atom is present. Within
a molecule, the hydrogen bond can be early pictured as a proton on the end of a covalent
bond. Unlike other atoms bonded in the covalent bonds, the positive charge of the proton
is not shielded by surrounding electrons. Thus it may be attracted closely and rather
strongly to the electrons of atoms in other molecules. This attraction accounts for the fact
that water and HF have higher boiling points than other molecules of comparable weight.

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It also accounts for in the high specific heat of water and is a factor in the extensive
surface adsorptions possible by organic molecules.
The hydrogen bond occurs frequently in organic materials in which hydrogen often plays
a major role.

2.3.4. MOLECULAR FORCES

A molecule is a neutrally charged grouped of atoms which are strongly bonded together
but whose bonds to other, similar groups of atoms are relatively weak. The
intermolecular forces provide primary bonds, the weaker intermolecular forces result in
secondary bonds. Molecule size is not an issue in definitions in this case. Large molecule
are the basis for polymeric materials like polyethylene where there may be hundreds or
thousands of atoms. Yet even in polyethylene and related compounds each molecule is
still distinct with strong intermolecular bonds and weak intermolecular bonds.
The difference between the structure of molecular materials and those with primary
bonds throughout produces a major difference in properties.
The molecules with identical composition may have different structure; such two variants
are called isomers and usually have different shapes and different dipole moments.

2.4. BONDING CHARACTER AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The solid state can be visualized as atoms vibrating about their mean positions on fixed
atomic sites. In the liquid state, the atoms have also translational freedom and can slide
past one another. The bonds between atoms in liquids are continuously broken and
remade.
In the gaseous state, the bonds are totally broken. The thermal energy of atoms must be
sufficient to achieve the disruptions in bonding. Materials that have strong bonds need a
lot more thermal energy to break; hence they have high melting and boiling point.
Among primary bonds, ionic and covalent bonds are generally stronger than metallic
bonds. Hence covalent and ionic bond solids have high boiling point.
Solids made of molecules with secondary bonds have boiling and melting points which
are only a reflection of the strength of secondary bonds between the molecules and not
the strength of primary bonds within the molecule.

Thermal and electrical conductivities of a solid are to a large extent dependent on the
presence of free electrons in the solid. In ionic solid the electron transfer produces the
stable inert gas configuration around both the cations and anions. Hence no free electrons
in ionic solid covalent bonding results in the inert gas configuration leaving no free
electron. This typical ionic and covalent materials are good thermal and electrical
insulators; so are solids with secondary bonds such as van-der-waals forces. In contrast
metals have free electrons and are thus good conductors of heat and electricity.

The mechanical properties of solids are dependent on the strength of the bonds, as well as
the directional nature of bonding. Solids with strong and directional bonds tend to be
brittle e.g. diamond which is covalently bonded is hard and brittle. Metallic bonds are
relatively weak and non directional; hence metals are soft, ductile and malleable. Ionic
solids fall in between covalent and metallic solids and may exhibit very limited ductility.

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 3.0 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

In non-scientific content, the term ‘crystal’ may mean a material which is

geometrically regular in shape and which is both lustrous and transparent.
Ironically, crystals of most materials have an irregular external shape though the
particles within these crystals are arranged in some regular pattern. Generally, a
material is described as crystalline when the particles from which it is built are
arranged in definite three dimensional patterns which repeat over along range.

3.1 CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Many solid phases are crystals; i.e., they have a long-range order. The term phase as
it pertains to materials is a structurally homogeneous part of a system. Under
normal circumstances, all solid metals fall in this category as well as most natural
minerals. A number of molecular systems may also be crystalline. Other plastics
and all glasses are amorphous, i.e. non-crystalline.

3.1.1 SHORT-RANGE ORDER

This term applies when a regular pattern of first –neighbour coordination is
encountered. Such order exist either:-
(i) because there is a specific number of covalent bonds to be satisfied, as with
silicon and oxygen atom in silica glass,
(ii) because the size ratio of the ions permits a certain coordination number, as
with ionic bonding.

3.1.2 LONG RANGE ORDER

This term is used when a regular pattern of equal first-neighbour ions is coordinated
by an equal number of an oppositely charged ion. In this structure, there is an order
not only if neighbours, but also of more distant neighbour. This also leads to a
repeating pattern.

3.2 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

Crystals can be categorized into seven systems based on their internal structure.
(The table below shows this classification, being an indication of axial dimensions
and angles and not to external geometry.

Table of Geometry of Crystal Systems

System Axes Axial angles
Cubic a1=a2=a3 All angles = 90o
Tetragonal a1=a2=c All angles = 90o
Orthorhombic a=b=c All angles = 90o
Monoclinic a=b=c Angles =90o, angle = 90O
Triclinic a=b=c All angles different = 90o
Hexagonal a1=a(=a3)=c Angle = 90o, 120o (or 60o)
Rhombohedra a1=a2=a3 All angles equal, but not 90o

Where a, b, c, a1, a2, a3, b2 are the various dimensions of a cubical unit

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3.2.1 BRAVAIS LATTICES
External crystal shapes provide little information on internal structure and
arrangement of atoms. There are many possibilities of repetitive space filling
arrangements of atoms in crystal referred to as Bravais Lattices.

The characteristic of a lattice is its equivalency of points. The various space lattices
are shown below.

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These Bravais Lattices represent the basis three dimensional repetitive patterns which fill
space when extended into space, each Bravais Lattice has equivalent surroundings.

For example, each Bravais point in face-centered cubic lattice has identical surrounding
the same number of neighbours in the same directions and at the same distances.

The points of the Bravais lattice may represent a single atom, as in many metals, they
may represent a group of atoms, as they do in the methane crystal. Several crystal
structures may belong to a given Bravais lattice; the basic determining factor being the
repetition pattern of the equivalent points.

3.2.2 SYMMETRY
Several types of symmetry are possible within a lattice. A face centred cubic (fcc) crystal,
for example may have as many as 13 axes of symmetry (plus nine planes of symmetry
and a centre of symmetry). In contrast, an orthorhombic lattice can have a maximum of
only three axes of symmetry. When there is a choice of lattice, the one with the higher
symmetry is used.

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3.2.2.1 UNIT CELL GEOMETRY
the unit cell has a-, b- and c- dimensions parallel to x-, y- and z- axes respectively. As
shown in the previous table, a=b=c in the cubic system, thus it is necessary to identify
only one lattice constant ‘a’.

Any point within a crystal may be chosen as the axial origin for a unit cell. Once chosen,
the origin provides a reference point for other unit cell locations. This is done most
advantageously as vertical translations along axial directions.
Vectors are useful in crystallographic problems because of the repetitive nature of
crystals.
A characteristic of major importance for crystal properties is their anisotropy, i.e. the fact
that the properties are different and in different directions.

3.2.3 LATTICE PLANES

A lattice can contain various identifiable planes which are important in crystal properties
e.g. cleavage occurs along specific lattice planes. This is most pronounced in mica but
also occurs in brittle fracture of many other materials. Also deformation of members
occurs along most favoured direction within specific planes.
A plane may be described either in terms of perpendicular direction as in terms of its
three axial intercepts. When we use the intercept method this produces ‘miller induces’.

3.2.4 CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS

Despite the orderly system of arrangement of unit cells in crystals, they are rarely perfect.
The presence of imperfections in crystals is what given materials properties such as
ductility and mechanical workability into engineering products. Structural imperfections
are important aspects of many properties of engineering materials. Some of various
crystal imperfections are dealt with below.

3.2.4.1 POINT DEFECTS

These are imperfect point-like regions in the crystal and are also referred to as zero-
dimensional imperfections. They commonly appear as lattice vacancies or interstitial
atoms or substitutional atoms. Point defects are simply accidents in crystallization, i.e.
there was not a one-to-one correspondence between available atoms and lattice sites. In
practice they can also occur as a result of thermal disorder which displace atoms from
their ideal locations. An imperfection distorts the crystal lattice.

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The above are point defects in an elemental crystal

If the imperfection is a vacancy, the bonds that are missing atoms would have framed
with its neighbours are not there. In case of an impurity atom as a result of the size
differences, elastic strains are created in the region of the crystal immediately
surrounding the impurity atom. The elastic strains are present irrespective of whether the
impurity is a larger or smaller than the parent atom. A larger atom introduces
compressive stresses and corresponding strains around it, while a smaller atom creates a
tensile stress-strain field. An interstitial atom produces strain around the void it is
occupying. All these factors tend to increase the potential energy of the crystal.

3.2.4.2 LINEAR DEFECTS

These are also referred to as dislocations, and are the most important imperfections
affecting the mechanical properties of materials. They are normally one-dimensional
defects best visualized by imagining a crystal undergoing shear. As shear proceeds, the

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unit cells of the upper part of the crystal are pushed ahead one full step, where they again
register with most of the cells in the lower part of the crystal. A line of mismatch called a
dislocation remains between the slipped and unslipped portions. As the shear continues,
its dislocations will move through the crystal, causing the shear displacement to expand.
Plastic deformation is the result of the continued generation and movements of such
dislocations.

3.2.4.3 BOUNDARY DEFECTS.

Solids have both exterior and interior boundaries. The interior boundaries are more
important for property considerations. The boundary defects are two dimensional. They
refer to regions of distortions that lie about a surface having a thickness of a few atomic
diameters. The external surface of a crystal is an imperfection in itself, as the atomic
bonds do not extend beyond the surface. In additional to the external surface, crystals
may have surface imperfections inside. These internal defects are known as grain
boundaries. The crystal planes and amstropic properties are virtually discontinuous across
a boundary. This discontinuity is an important factor in mechanical behaviour.

Other defects are volume imperfections which can be foreign-particle inclusions, large
voids or pores, or non-crystalline regions which have very smalls dimension lattice sites.

4.0 METALS

4.1 INTRODUCTION.
Metals found a wide range of applications in everyday life. The metals are broadly
classified into ferreous and non-ferous. The most commonly used structural metals are,
on the one hand, aluminium and its alloys and on the other, the many grades of steels and
alloys steels, which serve both traditional and novel requirements.

The engineer engaged in any activity pertaining to construction is more interested in the
uses of materials, their properties and their behaviour in service. The design engineer
needs to know the properties of the materials and the condition under which the materials
will be used in order to be able to design structural components. In addition, he/she may
need to have a comprehensive knowledge of the production and fabrication of some
materials in order to provide for safe and economical design.

21
4.2 MATERIAL CHOICE.
The choice of a suitable material is frequently one of the most difficult task facing
engineers since only by careful consideration of all the aspects involved in the
production and fabrication of a material can the most suitable be selected.

The main factor involved in selecting a material:-

i) method of manufacture and/or fabrication,
ii) mechanical and chemical properties,
iii) cost,
iv) availability,
v) construction programme and method.

4.3. MANUFACTURE OF METALS

Apart from a material satisfying the mechanical, physical or other required properties, the
technological and economical aspects of production are also important. The methods of
manufacture are divided into two main groups.
I. Primary manufacturing methods which gives the basic from or shape for the
component.
II. Secondary manufacturing methods which include all the machining processes.

For steel, there are two basic primary manufacturing methods:

I. Hot rolling in which steel sections are made in a rolling will by passing hot steel
bar or billets through pairs of massive steel rolls.
II. Cold rolling is which there is cold bending of steel sheet of 1.5 to 5.0 mm
thickness to make very light structural sections.

For an economic engineering undertaking the manufacturing process by which a metal is

produced should have an end product which, apart from satisfying all the mechanical
properties specified, also is easy to fabricate in order to immunize cost of labour.

4.3.1. SOURCES OF METALS

Metals may occur in nature in free form or as minerals. When they occur in mineral form,
they will do so with other metallic minerals. Such mixtures of the metal bearing mineral
with other mineral materials are known as ores. Thus ores are those mineral mixtures
which can be mined and converted into metal at commercial profit. The most important
ores consist of oxides, sulphides and carbonates. The oxides contain most of the iron
ores, aluminium ores and many copper ores. Sulphide ores are sources of copper, lead,
and zinc, whereas carbonates contain some iron, copper and zinc.

4.3.2. PRODUCTION OF METALS

This embraces the mining and preparation of the ores, and the extraction refilling,
shaping of the metals. The last three constitute metallurgy.

This is split into:

22
 I. Chemical metallurgy – includes processes of extraction and refilling basically
chemical in nature.
II. Physical metallurgy – deals with nature, structure and physical properties of
metals.
III. Mechanical metallurgy – operations of working and shaping of metals and alloys.

Ores are mined by both open pit and underground methods depending on proximity to
earth’s surface. After mining comes the preparation of the ores which includes crushing,
grinding and handling the ore and the mechanical concentration of the metal bearing
minerals. The concentration process involves gravity separation, floatation, and magnetic
separation.

Then follows the extraction of the metal which is a chemical process. There are three
chemical actions:
I. Pyrometallurgy – application of heat in a furnace in a process commonly referred
to as smelting.
II. Electrometallurgy – brought about by means of electrical energy
III. Hydrometallurgy - involves dissolving the metal in a solution and recovering it by
leaching thus electrolysis and ion exchange.

The final process in the production of metal is the removal of impurities. Before the metal
is put in use, it should be shaped and worked by mechanical means to various
requirements.

4.3.2.1 STEELS AND ALLOY STEEL.

Modern building construction has many highly sophisticated uses for steel.
In concrete construction, steel is needed for reinforcement and for steel strands and cables
in prestressed concrete sections. Steel sheeting, either galvanized or plastic-coated is used
as cladding panels in modern industrial buildings. Steel framework components are used
for large span buildings, steel sheet is used as permanent shuttering, and there are also all
types of steel fasteners, galvanized steel ducts, water tanks, grilles and other components,
pipings, manhole covers etc.

Steel has numerous advantages over other metals. It is tough, both in tensile and shear,
has good elasticity, high creep resistance and reasonable immunity against metal fatigue.
Furthermore, there are so many different alloys of steel that it is easy to find one which is
tailor made for the job in hand. Against all these advantages, steel has only one
disadvantage. This is liability to corrode, unless suitable precautions are taken.

4.3.2.2. THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL.

The main raw material is pig iron which is obtained from iron ore deposits. Before steel
can be manufactured, the pig iron has to be obtained by a separate manufacturing process.

Steel can be manufactured by four processes namely:-

I. The crucible process
II. The open hearth process

23
 III. The Bessemer process
IV. The electric process

4.3.2.2.1. THE PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON.

The main raw material is Iron ore. Some of the important varieties being hematite,
magnetite and siderite.
Depending on the abundance and richness of the ore, two other factors play an important
role in the technology of iron and steel making :-
I. The high meeting point of the metal.
II. The ease with which the ore can be reduced to metal. In the presence of carbon,
the ore can be reduced to solid metal at 800oc.

4.3.2.2.1.1. THE BLAST FURNACE METHOD.

This consists essentially of heating iron ore in the presence of fuel and flux (limestone).
The combustion of fuel being accelerated by means of a blast of pre-heated air. Coke is
used as fuel due to its porosity and particulate nature which facilitate passage of air and
capacity to support charge weight. The limestone is used as flux and it unites with
impurities from ore to form slag.
The method accomplishes four main objectives:
I. The reduction of the iron oxide to metallic iron
II. Absorption of carbon by the iron
III. Melting of the iron
IV. Separation of the impunities from the iron

The reduction (deoxidation) of the ore is by carbon monoxide produced by combusting

coke, deposited carbon acts as reducing agent, and also decarbonizes the iron reducing
its melting point and causing liquedifiction at furnace temperature. At the process, the
iron liquefies absorbs more carbon and collects in hearth where it is carbon-saturated.
The flux decomposes into lime and carbon dioxide. The lime, alumina and silica and coke
ash form the fusible slag, which dissolves oxidize impurities. The slag being lighter is
tapped off at a higher point.

The pig Iron is classified according to intended use:

I. Foundry pig – making grey cast Iron
II. Forge iron – used to manufacture wrought iron, which is pig iron with all
impurities removed.
III. Malleable pig – malleable cast iron which bends without breaking.
IV. Acid Bessemer pig – acid Bessemer steel
V. Basic pig – steel for basic open-hearth

4.3.2.2.1.2.THE BESSEMER PROCESS.

The Bessemer process was as a result of the changed concept of steel in the 19th century,
when an entirely new construction material, low-carbon steel, was discovered. The
material was strong, ductile, tough, not quench hardenable but capable being produced
and shaped by mechanical working cheaply on a large scale.

24
The process is both spectacular in conception and operation. The apparatus is an egg-
shaped refractory-lined vessel capable of holding several tons of molten steel.
It has an open mouth at the top; holes for air blast at the bottom and are capable of
rotation into horizontal or vertical positions. The method of manufacture involves setting
the converter into a horizontal position and then pouring a charge of molten pig iron
through the mouth. The air blast is turned on and converter rolled into vertical position.
The converter is returned in horizontal position after 10 – 20 minutes and blast shut off.
The steel is then ready for removal.

The process remains cheapest steel making process since the vessel is simple, no fuel is
required. Output is in order of 25tons in 20 minutes.

4.3.3 PROPERTIES AND USES OF THE STEEL

The Bessemer process is especially adapted for the production of low-carbon steel whose
principal used include screw steel, sheet steel and reinforcement. This steel is superior to
ordinary basis open-hearth steel in machining and welding properties. Also the modulus

25
of elasticity (rigidity) is higher and the steel is more sensitive to cold working and has
higher yield points in proportion to the tensile strength.

4.3.3.1 MILD STEEL

Steel with low carbon content (below 0.20%) are softish and ductile. The mild steels
cover the entire range from virtually wrought iron up and including some structure steels.
Mild steels account for some 90% of the output of the steel industry. The main form of
mild steel of interest to the building industry are steel sheet, steel pipes, rivets,
reinforcement and mash for concrete etc.

4.3.3.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL

Used for beams, girders, channels etc and is in general made with a carbon content
between 0.15 – 0.25%. It also includes a number of other constituent, up to 1.5%
manganese up to 0.50% chromium and traces of other elements. Sulphine and
phosphorous must always be less than 0.05% each.

4.3.3.3 ALLOY STEEL

There are steel with varying carbon content to which elements such as chromium,
manganese, nickel, tungsten, vanadium, silicon, and molybdenum, lead, copper and many
others are added in large or smaller quantities to obtain alloys which have one or more of
the following characteristics:
I. Good strength
II. Good elasticity
III. Good quench hardness
IV. Low rate of hardening during cold working
V. Good abrasion resistance
VI. Resistance to warping or cracking
VII. Good high and low temperature properties
VIII. Resistance to rusting
IX. Resistance to named chemicals

4.4. PROPERTIES OF STEEL.

Steel for most engineering work, must possess a suitable combination of strength;
ductility and toughness to enable it withstand applied loads. This also enables it to adjust
to inequalities in steel distribution which may occur at the joint and to resist fracture
under impact. These qualities are obtained with plain carbon steel of low carbon content.

4.4.1. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS.

Tensile stress-strain relations from the basis, form the analysis of the mechanical
behaviour of steel the figure below shows such a relation obtained by plotting data from
tests in which deformation corresponding to specific loads are measured. The stress
values are represented on the vertical axis and the strain values on the horizontal axis.
Steel obeys Hooke’s Law of Proportionality, i.e. to say when subjected to loads within
some limits it deforms at a constant rate for equal increments of load. The stress-strain
curves furnish the engineer vital information about the material.

26
4.4.1.1. STRESS.
This is defined as force per unit area and is expressed in Newtons per Square metre
(N/m2) or N/mm2. This unit produces a more comprehensive value of comparing material
resistance to applied force.

TensileForce (N )
= AreaofCross−SectionofSpecimen(mm 2 )
Tensile Stress

σ= N/mm2

4.4.1.2. STRAIN.
This refers to the proportional deformation produced in a material under the influence of
stress. It is measured as deformation in millimeters occurring per millimeter of original
length and is a numerical ratio.

IncreaseinLength ( L−LO ) DL
Strain= = =
Originallength LO LO

ε=mm/mm

Strain is commonly quoted as a percentage. In the elastic range, materials obey Hooke’s
Law, i.e. for an elastic body, strain produced is directly proportional to stress applied.

Ultimate

Stress, σ Yield

Rapture

Strain, ε

27
4.4.1.3. YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
This is the slope of the stress-strain curve within the elastic range. It is related to the
rigidity of the material and is a value of supreme importance to the engineer. The units
are the same as those for stess.

Stress N /mm 2
E= = =N /mm 2
Strain mm/mm

E is expressed in GN/m2 a MN/mm2, in view of its high numerical value.

4.4.1.4. YIELD VALUES.

Since steel exhibits proportionality between stress and strain, a point is reached during
the testing, when the proportionality of the stress and strain ceases to be constant. This
occurs at the limit of proportionality of the material. In most cases this point is referred to
as the yield stress value and is defined as the first stress in material less than the
maximum attainable stress at which there is a wasted increase in strain without a
corresponding increase in stress.
The yield strength is a better terminology especially when the yield point is not well
defined as the case is in most other materials.

For materials with no yields point, there is no simple measure of usable strength. Hence
arbitrary measure has been developed. A measure of usable strength would be the stress
causing a certain permissible strain after release of the load in the unaxial test.

For most metallic materials, a strain of 0.2% or 0.002mm/mm is commonly used for the
permissible set and 0.1% for ferrous metals.
Another important parameter is the tensile strength is defined as the maximum axial load
observed in a tension test divided by the original area of the specimen.

Maximum Load P max

= =
Tensile Strength Originalarea AO

The Rapture/Fracture stress is the stress at time of failure/snapping. It is obtained by

dividing the load at Rapture by the original area of the test specimen.

4.4.1.5. DUCTILITY.
Steel has the unique property of being able to absorb large deformations beyond the
elastic limit without the danger of fracture; i.e. it is ductile. Thus ductility is measured by
the reduction of area and elongation in a tensile test.

( Lb −LO )
De = ×100 %
LO
Where LO is the original gauge length
Lb the gauge length after fraction

28
 Alternatively by percentage reduction in area,
Da is defined as:

A O− Ab )
=( ×100 %
Da AO

Where Ab is cross-sectional area after fracture

Ao is the original cross-sectional area

4.4.2. FACTORS AFFECTING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

The deformation and fracture of materials under applied forces are the principal
phenomena associated with the mechanical behaviour of materials. Other interactive
phenomena are the thermal, electrical, magnetic, chemical and optical aspects.

4.4.2.1. SOLID STRUCTURE EFFECT.

The mechanical behaviour of materials can be explained to some extent from knowledge
of their atomic structures. The macroscopic mechanical behaviour of materials is
conveniently studied as the strain produced by stress, temperature and time. The atomic
structure greatly influences the mechanical behaviour of materials. The electronic
structure of atoms influences the bonding between atoms in solids. The interatomic bonds
are either primary or secondary. Most metals are found in crystalline form. Although the
structure of crystals can vary greatly in complexity, those of common metals and some
inorganic compounds are relatively simple and highly symmetrical. Deformation can
produce a certain texture in metals, as well as in polymeric material, that often has
desirable mechanical properties. This deformation can either be elastic or inelastic.

Elasticity results from the static resistance of bonds when they are stretched and from the
tendency of randomness in the theoretically oscillating links in long molecules such as
rubber. In both cases bonds are not severe and the deformation is independent of time.

In inelastic deformation, interatomic bonds are broken and re-established. Deformation is

caused by the generation and motion of dislocations, principally under shear bonds. The
deformations produce structural in homogeneities.

4.4.2.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

This is one of the most important determinations of material properties of metals, more so
steel. The properties of the common structural steels are greatly influenced by the amount
of manganese and carbon content. They control strength, ductility and weldability. High
carbon contents increase strength but affect ductility and weldability. Phosphorous and
sulphur affect the impact strength of steels. Generally some ductility is scarified to obtain
increased strength, as long as adequate ductility is exhibited by the final product.

4.4.2.3. GEOMETRY, TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN.

29
The final size and shape of the structural element produced influences the stress
distribution and structural behaviour. Generally smaller elements tend to give higher
failure stress. The temperature and strain rates at which an element is subjected do after
the yield and tensile strengths, and to some extent the ductility.

4.4.2.4. STATE OF STRESS.

The combination of stresses applied to a structural member greatly affects the mechanical
behaviour. A brittle material may be induced to fail in a ductile manner if hydrostatic
compressive stress is applied to the exterior of a tensile stress bar and an equally applied
triaxial tensile stress cause a complete brittle fracture in a ductile material. The strength at
failure in combined loading will depend on the magnified of these stresses and their
combination.

Thus normally, the strength of the material will be based on the determined stress-strain
diagram up to the elastic limit under combined stresses.

5.0 CORROSION OF METALS

30
5.1 INTRODUCTION.
Corrosion can be defined as the chemical attacks on metals, usually iron and steel, which
tends to convert the metal into metallurgy compounds. This process proceeds
spontaneously as it is a process that is exothermic. The processes are electrochemical and
much more than simple chemical reactions.

The corrosion process can be explained simply by considering a standard chemical

battery.

A Chemical Battery
A voltaic cell harnesses the electrical energy of a chemical reaction to power a light bulb.
The pieces of metallic zinc and copper, dipping into dilute zinc sulphate and copper
sulphate solutions respectively, act as electrodes. The salt bridge (in this case potassium
chloride) allows an electric current to flow between the beakers without allowing the
solutions to mix. When the circuit joining the two systems is completed (as shown on the
right), the reaction generates electric current. Note that metal from the zinc electrode is
used up (oxidation), and it is eaten away. The copper electrode is built up as electrons
react with the copper ions in the copper sulphate solution to produce additional metal
(reduction). Replacing the light bulb with a battery would reverse the reaction, creating
an electrolytic cell.

The zinc cathode is in connection through the salt bridge and the bulb the cell is formed. .
When no electrical contact between zinc and copper, the zinc remain unattached. When
contact is made between the anode and cathode, zinc goes into solution in the form of an
ion.

Zn Zn2+ + 2e

31
Corrosion in iron and steel, or indeed non-ferrous metal, proceeds in an exactly
analogous manner. Any difference in natural electromagnetic force (e.m.f.) of the metals
determines which becomes the anode or cathode.
When steel is in contact with a metal which is naturally cathodic to it, such as copper, its
role is immediately determined. The place of the depolarizer is taken over by atmospheric
air, which oxidizes the hydrogen ions together with free electrons into water. In case of
same materials the relative abundance of oxygen is a determination in which becomes
anodic/cathodic.
Generally a high degree of oxygenation tends to make the sample of steel underneath
cathodic. Hence the corrosion reaction happens.

Fe→ Fe 2+ +2 e
Fe 2+ +2OH − → Fe ( OH )2
and
1
2 H + + O 2 ( fromair ) +2 e →H 2 O
2

5.2 GALVANIC SERIES OF NATURAL E.M.F.’s OF METAL.

To determine which of the two metals in a pair, is likely to become the anode and
corrode, and which is likely to remain the cathode, use is made of the standard e.m.f.
series. This gives the e.m.f in volts at 25o.

Pure Metal Standard electrode potential Eo

1. Mg – mg2+ + 2e + 2.37V
2. Al – Al3+ + 3e + 1.66V
3. Te – Te2+ + 2e + 1.63V
4. Zn – Zn2+ + 2e + 0.763V
5. Cr – Cr3+ + 3e + 0.74V
6. Fe – Fe2+ + 2e + 0.44V
7. Ne – Ne2+ +2e + 0.250V
8. Sn – Sn2+ +2e + 0.136V
9. Pb – Pb2+ +2e + 0.126V
10. H2 – 2H+ + 2e + 0V
11. Cu – Cu2+ + 2e - 0.337V

Any device (cell dynamo) that is able to drive an electric current round a circuit is said to
posse’s Electromotive force (e.m.f).
This force is equal to the potential difference across its terminals when not producing
current in a circuit.
Positive element – carbon rod surrounded by manganese dioxide
Negative element – zinc with electrolyte solution.
The cell provides an electromotive force which sets up potential differences across the
various circuit components and drives the current through them.
Scientists adopted the conventional way of flow of current as flow of positive electricity
i.e from zinc to carbon.

32
Polarization by the hydrogen atoms is prevented by the manganese which oxidizes the
hydrogen to form water

2 MnO 2 +2 H + + 2 e− → Mn 2 O+ H 2 O

When the terminals of the cell are joined by a wire, according with the convention, an
electric current is said to flow from carbon (+) to zinc (-). Strictly speaking the current is
a flow of electrons (- He charged) from zinc to carbon.

5.3 RATE OF CORROSION.

The rate of corrosion is determined by the slowest reaction rate of the series of reactions.
The basic reaction is often.

1
2 H + + 2e+ O 2→ H 2 O
2

Which takes place on the cathodic side of the cell? This is conditioned by the following
factors.
1. Ready availability of oxygen or other oxidizing agents.
2. Relatively (large) surface area of cathode

If the rate determining step is the anodic reach the factors affecting the same are:
1. Difference in effective e.m.f between anode and cathode.
2. Ready conductance away of electrons from anode to cathode.
3. Ease of access of electrolyte to anodic surface
4. Degree of ionization of electrolyte, i.e presence of quantities of ionizable salts.

The rate of corrosion of iron and steel is particular high when the PH of the electrolyte is
below about 3. When the PH of the electrolyte is high, iron is covered with a passive file,
which effectively prevents corrosion.

5.4 FORMS OF CORROSION AFFECTING STEEL STRUCTURES.

5.4.1. DIFFERENTIAL METAL CORROSION.

When steel is in contact with a metal which is below it in the electrochemical series it
become every liable to corrosion. The metals particularly harmful to steel are copper, the
bronzes, brasses, lead tin, chromium and passive aluminium. In such cases, steel becomes
strongly anodic and is liable to attack even under mildly corrosive condition. Corrosion
conditions are at their worst when the surface of the steel exposed is small, while that of
the cathodic metal is large.
When steel is coated with zinc, the steel becomes the cathode and the zinc the anode.
Corrosion of galvanized steel sheeting takes place slowly in the form scratched sections
or pinholes penetrating the zinc coating. Galvanized steel is thus popular in structural and
cladding components in the building industry. It must be borne in mind that zinc
corrodes, and galvanized surfaces should be painted.

33
Differential metal corrosion can also take place when two sections of steel are fastened
together, particularly if there are differences in chemical composition, (e.g mild against
medium steel). If such joints likely to be exposed to corrosive conditions they should
always be electrically insulated. When a single section of steel is strained some way, by
binding, grinding, drilling etc, there is always an accompanying phase charge and the
single section behaves as if it were made of different metals and will corrode.
Corrosion takes place readily at bends, near bolt holes, near scratches and cut edges etc.
Such parts should be adequately protected by additional painting.

5.4.2. ATMOSHPHERIC CORROSION OF SINGLE STEEL SECTION.

This occurs at grain boundaries. It is initially caused by differential aeration. A surface
more exposed to the atmosphere than neighbouring section becomes cathodic. The rust
formed ensures that the coating material is lifted off the surface, thus exposing further
areas of metal and causing the corrosion to creep along underneath the crated material.

Corrosion at point of damage of a paint film.

34
Imperfectly coated metals corrode much faster than uncoated metals. Thus is because the
anodic action, which is otherwise spread out along the whole surface is concentrated at
particular spots which are pitted so deeply that they may be punctured.
The rate of corrosion depends on the atmospheric conditions. Hot and dry atmospheres
produce low degrees of corrosion, while cold and damp atmospheres do not cause over-
rapid corrosion provided there are few dissolved acid gases.
The worst conditions are atmospheres loaded with carbon particles and sulphur dioxide as
exist in industrial areas.

5.4.3. CORROSION CAUSED BY ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

Large sections of steelwork, buried pipelines etc often carry large electric currents. These
arise due to leakages from power and telephone cables, thunderstorms etc. Buried steel
pipes have been found to carry as much as 50Amps. In the building industry stray current
corrosion has been found with respect to steel structures in concrete pads foundations,
cast using addition of calcium chloride antifreeze.

35
 Stray current corrosion

If the current is discharged from the steel section into earth at a position where the soil is
damp, the anodic action of the corrosion process takes place, and an extremely rapid
corrosion of the steel is the result.
The reaction being
Fe→ Fe 2+ +2 e( earth)
Fe 2+ +2OH − → Fe( OH )2

The rate of corrosion depends on the quantity of current leaving the conductor.

Three methods of protection:

1. Insulation of joint, reduces amount of stray current which can build up.

36
 2. Electrical drainage consists of connecting the structure to a positive terminal at a
place where no corrosive conditions occur so the stray current exits rather to
earth.
3. The use of sacrificial anodes. Large lumps of zinc or pig iron are connected to the
steel structure at particularly corrosive positions. Corrosion takes place at such
anodes and the steel structure is protected.

5.4.4. CORROSION IN WATER AND OIL TANKS.

In water tanks the rate of corrosion is a maximum just underneath the waterline. See
figure below. The tank wall above the meniscus functions as the cathode and serves to
oxidize hydrogen ions and the electrons produced during the anodic action to water. The
anodic action takes place underneath the water surface at a position closest to the surface.
Water tails should be heavily galvanized as zinc is not readily attached by hard water

Waterline corrosion

37
In case of oil tank, oil pipes, etc, there is a very considerable danger of corrosion if water
is allowed to accumulate at the bottom. This water is usually heavily polluted by chloride
and sulphates extracted from the oil, and readily reduces the anodic reaction on the metal
section adjacent to it. The electron and hydrogen ions flow upwards towards the metal
covered by oil. Oil usually has a good deal of dissolved oxygen in it, and the cathodic
reaction readily proceeds against the metal surface left in the oil.
Corrosion at bottom of oil tanks is rapid mainly because of:
1. Cathodic surface is large in comparison to the anodic one.
2. Oil usually contains more oxygen dissolved in it than the partial pressure of
oxygen in atmosphere.
3. Oil in contact with cathodic surface keeps it clean and free from encrustation, thus
inducting a very rapid cathodic reaction.

To prevent corrosion of oil tanks it is important that water is drawn off as soon as it is
deposited.

38
Corrosion of oil tanks

39
 6.0 CERAMICS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The term ‘ceramics’ describes all products made from burnt clay. Most ceramics are
mixtures of clay with other materials such as feldspar( Na( K ) Alsi 3 O 8 ) , Salica(SiO 2 )
Sillimanite ( AI 2 O3 . SiO 2 ) and many others.
Ceramics are widely used in many industries. In the building and construction industry
they are mainly used in the manufacture of the following.
1. Bricks, including numerous varieties from the cheapest common bricks used for
internal to high grade engineering bricks used for the construction of machinery
bases.
2. Roof tiles
3. Floor tiles both unglazed and glazed
4. Wall tiles of all types, including unglazed brickswork tiles, and whiteware tiles,
which are usually glazed. Decorative coloured and glaze external tiles are also
included in this category.
5. Sanitary fittings of all kinds usually known as whiteware which are glazed either
white or with a coloured finish.
6. Refractory ceramics for furnace and flue linings.

6.2CLAYS.
The raw materials of ceramic manufacture are a variety of different clays. Clays are
natural products which were formed may years ago by the weathering of granite and
gneiss which constitute the main part of the earth’s surface. The clays contain feldspar,
ferric oxide responsible for the red colouration of may clays, and limonites (hydrated iron
oxides) which impart a buff colouration. May clays addition contain a good deal of
organic matter and also titanium oxide.
The clays are divided into koalins (white clay) ball clays, terra-cotta clays, fire clays and
stone ware clays. This classification is based on the chemical constitution. Due to this
each has quantities fovourable to one type of ceramic from the other.

6.3.STUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS.

This term includes common bricks, facing bricks, industrial bricks, decorative bricks
which may be glazed, as well as such auxiliary components as chimney pots, flue linings
etc. Others include sewer bricks clay conduits, hollow blocks and tiles of all types.
All these products are made from clays or mixture of clay and shale.
Three brick making process are commonly used
i. Soft mud process
ii. Stiff mud process
iii. The dry process.

In the dry process the clay which contain less than 10% moisture, is pressed into moulds
at a pressure of about 100 bar (NN/m2) (N/mm2).
The first stage is the drying of products, follow by firing. Mechanical dehydration is
complete when the temperature of the bricks has been raised to 150oC and between 400 –

40
600oC chemical dehydration begins. Oxidation of organic and other materials takes place
between 250oC and 700oC. The ultimate firing temperature depends on the intended use
of the brick. In general, the higher the final firing temperature of the brick, the lower the
porosity of the product and the greater its strength.
The normal firing temperature are:
Common brick 970 – 1150oC
Firing bricks/Roof tiles 1000 – 1240oC
Sewage pipes 1030oC
Engineering bricks 1200 – 1300oC

6.3.1MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BRICKS.

The strength of a brick usually depends on its porosity hence on the degree of
vitrification (converting into glass) attained.
Its mechanical properties are related only to a relatively minor extent to the nature of clay
used.

6.3.2. WATER RESISTANCE OF BRICKWORK.

Bricks burnt to lower temperature are porous with some 80% being constituted by open
pores. Thus bricks resist driven rain far less than mortar, concrete and other building
material. Due to the fact that the angle of capillary contained of brick is close to zero,
there are strong capillary forces which push water through its pores. Passage rate of water
depends greatly on the grade.

6.3.2.1 METHODS OF WATER-PROOFING.

The main methods used are the following:

1. Rendering of brickwork either on outside between courses with a concrete mix,

which has a water penetration figure which is a small fraction of that brickwork.
2. Insertion of plastic or other film between bricks or on top of them to stop water
penetration. May plastic foams are often applied.
3. Insertion of cavity between bricks to act as a direct water break.
4. Impregnation of bricks with organic and inorganic solutions. The most common
methods are silicones and siliconates, metallic stearates(salt or ester of stearic acid
wax etc) usually in water soluble solutions. These reduce considerably the
quantity of water penetrating brickwork, but presently no permanent and absolute
effect material has been developed, other than water proof cements.

Bricks absorb considerable amounts of water when immersed due to interconnecting

pores. They are also very resistant to atmospheric impurities and are unaffected by acids,
although they are affected by alkalis.

6.4 REFRACTORIES.
These are ceramics products that are able to withstand high temperatures, and also offer
some resistance to attack by slag, abrasion, mechanical and thermal shocks etc.
The types of refractories used by the building and construction industry for such purposes
as furnace linings, flues etc are made from fireclay. Fireclays with a relatively high

41
density are used where the main purpose of the refractory is to resist the flames, whereas
the low-density fireclays which have rather poor strengths are used for such purposes as
flue linings or in conjunction with higher-density refractories for insulation purposes.

6.5 WHITEWARES.
These are glazed and unglazed ceramic materials with a white and fine texture. The clay
used for whiteware ceramics consists of plastic or colloidal portion of clay, a flux which
the glass bond during firing together with a refractory portion which is either quartz or
flint. Most whiteware products are fired at temperature above 1320oC.

The main component products are floor tiles which are richer in feldspar and kaolin
(white clay) with a typical formulation as below.
Feldspar 50%
Ball clay 10%
Kaolin 30%
Quartz 10%

Floor tiles are usually unglazed, but owe their impervious nature to good vitrification
(converting to glass) attained.

Wall tiles are often somewhat porous to permit the dissipation of moisture. A typical
form for such tiles being.
Feldspar - 10%
Pyrophyllite - 10%
Talc - 30%
Kaolin - 25%
Ball clay - 10%
Quarts - 15%

Wall tiles are normally fired at much lower temperatures than floor tiles.

42
 7.0. PLASTICS.

7.1 INTRODUCTION.
Plastics constitute a new branch of widely applied engineering materials. Plastics consist
of simple organic chemical molecules which have been induced by the action of light,
heat or chemical initiation or combinations of these to form chains or three dimensional
structures. These are known as polymers, made up of several monomers.
Polymers are of three main types.
i. Thermoplastic material – in form of long chains
They can be softened by heat and reshaped in necessary

Typical thermoplastics.

ii. Thermosetting polymers – in form of two dimensional or three – dimensional

space lattices usually start as chains but join together subsequently due to
formation of side chain linkages. After setting, heating cannot melt them.

43
 They have considerable solvent and other chemical resistance and are harder than
thermoplastic.

Thermosettings polymer with cross-linkages

iii. Elastomers – polymers in form of springy chains. This has replaced natural rubber
commercially and is a thermoplastic material in which all or some of the
molecules form zig-zag of spring-shaped chains.

7.2. MOULDING OF PLASTICS.

There ten methods of forming plastics, but manufacturing techniques depends upon
chemical and physical nature of monomer and polymer.
i. Compression moulding – for thermosetting products in which the monomer is
cured by heat and directly applied pressure.
ii. Injection moulding – the material pushed into a fixed mould by a ram or screw
and cured inside this mould to be ejected at end of curing.

44
 iii. Extension moulding – forcing softened material through aperture to form tubes,
rods and sheet.
iv. Casting – obtaining the material in liquid form by either melting or dissolving it in
solvents and then shaping it without the application of pressure in open moulds.
v. Calendaring – production of sheets of material by rolling the plastic between
multiple rollers.
vi. Rotation moulding
vii. Spreading
viii. Vacuum forming
ix. Blow moulding
x. Laminating

7.3. ADDITIVES TO PLASTICS.

In the processing of plastics, the materials commonly added are:
 Plasticizers – softening agents introduced into the plastic formulation to give the
plastic material flexibility. Normal vegetable oils are used, although these exist a
wide variety of chemicals e.g. dibutyl phthatate, dioctyl sebacate etc.
 Reinforcing agents – these are added in order to improve their toughness,
especially tensile strength. The most common used type of reinforcing agent is
glass fibre.
 Extenders and fillers – these include a variety of organic and inorganic materials
such as china clay, asbestine, carbon black, sawdust etc which are mixed with the
plastic material so as to vary the properties but reduce the cost. They serve a
useful purpose as well as increasing the body of the plastic to aid in the moulding
process by giving the material the right degree of opacity and also by increasing
its fire resistance.
 Colouring matter – usually in form of pigments and often added to the plastic
monomer.

7.4. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF PLASTICS.

The number of molecules of monomer which form a polymer varies widely even within
one plastic mass. The physical and chemical properties of the final product are governed
largely by the extent to which this polymerization or curing process has taken place.
The tendency of plastic monomers to form polymers depends markedly upon their
chemicals composition. The most important feature of all is the possession of one or
more double bonds in the compound, as for example.
Ethlyne H2C: CH2
Vinyl chloride CH2: CHcl
Vinylidine chloride CH2: CCL2
Vinyl Acetate CH2: CHOCOCH3
Isobutylene CH2: C(CH3)2
Styrene CH2: CH-C6H5
Tetra fluoroethylene F2C: CF2

45
The ease of polymerization depends upon the number of double bonds in the molecule
and type of substituents. Polymerization may also take place via a so-called organic
condensation reactions which take place when two substances have both disposable
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions attached. Under the action of heat or initiation, these react
together to form water leaning the remaining groups joined.

7.4.1. INITIATION OF REACTIONS.

To enable a polymer reaction to take place, the energy content of the final polymer must
be less than the energy content of the monomer taking part in the reaction Thus
polymerization is an exothermic process. However, energy is often needed to initiate the
reaction and is usually supplied in the form of heat.
Thermal or photochemical initiation creates active molecules either by impact or directly.
which in turn react with others to form chains. Polymerization reactions can also be
initiated chemically.
The various initiation processes are:
 Free – radical initiations
Produces an entity with one valency momentarily incomplete and such a material
is by its nature chemically extremely active.
 Ionic initiation
Makes use of materials such as stannic chloride titanium trichloride, aluminium
chloride and other materials which serve to initiate polymerization by polarizing
the double bond of the monomer, i.e. by tending to acquire a pair of electrons
from this bond.
 Initiation by electron donation
This is by electron donation substances such as alkali metal amines, e.g. NaNH2,
and he Grignard reagents (organometallic compound) which are ethereal solution
of magnesium alkyl halide compounds.
 Redox initiation systems
Reducing oxidizing (redox) system may be used to initiate polymerization
reactions. They are not effective initiators, as setting is slow.

.
7.5. PHYSICAL CHARATERISTIC OF PLASTICS.
When plastics are used in the building industry, surface hardness is often one of the main
criteria owing to the need to avoid wear.
From the hardness point of view, one can subdivide plastics into three groups:
i. High surface hardness – possessed by phenolic and urea formaldehyde resins and
the later is the hardest hence used for purposes where good abrasion resistance is
of vital importance.
ii. Polyester resins, epoxy resins and general purpose polystyrene materials which
have intermediate surface hardness.
iii. Low surface hardness which is possessed by cellulose acetate, Acetal, ABS resins,
and polypropylene.
Plastics as a whole have a lower tensile strength than metals, but due to their general low
specific gravites, their strength to weight ratios are often a good deal higher. Fibre-
reinforced plastics have particularly good strength to weight ratios.

46
7.6. RIGID PLASTICS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY.
A large number of plastics have been developed during the last few years. Not all are
used in the building industry, but up to now use has been found for the following types of
rigid plastics.
1. Phenol formaldehyde and related materials
2. Melamine formaldehyde
3. Rigid polyving/chloride (PVC)
4. Cellulose denvatives C
5. Epoxy resins
6. Polypropylene (PP)
7. Polystyrene (PS)
And several others

7.6.1 RIGID POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

PVC is made in two modifications, the rigid type and flexible type.
PVC and polyvinylidine chloride are formed as follows:
nCH2: CHcl  (- CH2 – CHCL-)n
viny/chloride polyvinyl chloride

nCH2: Ccl  (- CH2 – Cd2 -)n

Vinyl dichloride polyvinyldene chloride
(Vinylidene chloride)

Vinyl chloride monomer, a liquid boiling -14oC, is unstable in presence of oxygen.

It does not polymerise thermally and only very slowly under photochemical action.
Polymerization is initiated readily at temps between 30 – 80oC, and since the polymer
is insoluble in the monomer liquid, it precipitates as soon as it is formed.
Polymerization rate is slow, but accelerates markedly reaching a maximum after 50%
conversion.
PVC is a themoplastic material and can be processed by injection moulding,
extrusion, blowing, vacuum forming, rolling and compression moulding.
Rigid PVC is a hard material insoluble in several solvents and not easily softened.
In molten state, it possesses some viscosity and is non-Newtonian (varies with rate of
shear). When PVC is tested according to BS 2782: 1956, softening – point test the
first two grades are found to soften appreciably at 80oC, while the high temperature
grade can withstand a temperature of up to 120oC. Heat distortion for all grades starts
at between 70 and 90oC.

7.6.1.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.

 Poor from water absorption point of view, when immersed in water at
atmospheric pressure for 24hrs, absorbs as much as 15% by weight.
 Fairly high gas permeability
 Excellent resistance to both dilute and concentrated mineral acids and alkalis
 Excellent resistance to soaps and detergents oils and greases
 Excellent weatherbility

47
7.6.1.2 USES.
 Construction of building panels, wall tiles, external sheeting, roof component,
window components.
 Commonly used in fittings such as dusts, vents, rainwater gutters and down pipes.
 Hot and cold water piping

7.6.2 EPOXY RESINS.

These are either polymers that contain phenylene groups as well as alcoholic groups.
The intermediates are usually made by reacting substances such as diphenol with
epichlorohydrile. These are either viscous liquids or low – melting – point solids. The
materials are then converted into thermosetting resins by cross-linking their chains with
various organic acids, amines and similar substances. Curing can take place at either
room or higher temperature.
Epoxy resins are widely used as adhesive to provide extremely strong bonding between
all kinds of materials. They are of particular value in gluing materials together. For
example the shear strength of an epoxy resin (araldite) between two mild steel sheets with
an overlap ratio of 5 has been found to be at high as 48MN/m2 at atmospheric
temperature, which reduce to 25MN/m2 at 150oC. These resins are preferred in gluing
metals as they do not weaken the metal structure.
Flexible epoxy resins cannot be used in temperatures above 80oC.
Epoxy resins are particularly suited for glass fibre reinforcement due to the fact that the
material wets glass well and can be cured with low mould shrinkage degree.
Epoxy resins have good resistance to dilute mineral acids and organic acids.
They have good resistance to alkalis, petrol and alcohol and withstands oils, greases,
soaps and detergents as well.
The main uses of epoxy resins in the building industry are in casings for electrical
insulation, decorative panels, structural laminates, adhesives for bonding all types of
materials and flooring finishes, either on their own or mixed with a filler.

7.7 FLEXIBLE PLASTICS.

7.7.1 POLYETHYLENE.
Commonly known as polythene sheeting. Due to its very considerable stability and
cheapness, it is one of the most useful stand-by substances in modern building
technology. Used widely as damp-proof membrane when incorporated in foundation
structures and used as vapours barrier for protection of large structure during periods of
inclement weather.
Polyethylene dates back to 1933 and was first produced on a commercial scale in UK in
1939 and U.S in 1943.
Ethylene gas with a purity of 99.8% is compressed to 140MN/m2 and is polymerized in
presence of initiators at 200oC.
Readily expressed as
nCH2: CH2 (- CH2 – CH2-)n

The polymerization is strongly exothermic giving off a lot of heat per monomer mole.
It is a linear hydrocarbon with a very large number of CH2 groups.

48
Exists in high or low density grade. Normally formed by extrusion casting, blowing
calendaring and vacuum forming.
Most common and useful form of the material in the building industry is sheeting,
accounting for over 60% of the total production.
The material readily degrades due to prolonged exposure to sunlight, manifested by bad
discoloration, crazing and a loss in mechanical strength. Thus external use not advisable
unless stabilized by the addition of carbon black or similar material.
The sheeting varies in thickness form 0.05mm to 0.5mm, coloured black whenever
expose to sunlight to prevent degrade.

Main uses:
1. Wall and ceiling vapour barriers 0.05 to 0.1mm thick.
2. D.P.C membranes between concrete slab and floor screed
3. Ground cover incase of subfloor spaces to prevent rise of water vapour from
damp ground.
4. Vapour barriers for cold storage rooms etc
5. Steam tents for curing concrete sections.
6. Scaffold shelters enable work proceed during periods of inclement weather
7. Covers for soil slopes to prevent slides
8. Bond breakers in industrialized building systems such as the liftslab method or
similar, where concrete is cast of top of concrete.

7.7.2 RUBBER.
Rubber is used increasingly in the building industry for such purposes as flooring anti-
acoustic bearings, flexible, joints, tubing, weathering, seals and flashing and many other
purposes. (Self study, Natural Rubber/synthetic rubber).

7.8 SEALANTS.
Sealants consist in general of three components
1. Basic non-volatile vehicle
2. Pigment portion
3. Solvent
The non-volatile vehicle is an elastomer of some kind, although more primitively a
sealant. The pigment portion serves to control the flow and also impart opacity or colour
to the mass. The solvent is added for the sole purpose of reducing the viscosity so that
the sealant can be easily applied.
There are five basic types
1. Where the vehicle oxidizes and thickness as a result
2. Where the sealant does not dry
3. Where setting is due to evaporation of solvent only
4. Where sealant is set by light temperature
5. Where the sealant is set dry action of an initiator
Sealants are generally used in repair of cracks from widths of 2.5cm downwards.
Age is an important factor and setting times vary from a few hours to several weeks. Life
spans vary from 8 years to 20 years.

49
7.9 BITUMEN.
Also known as Asphalt and is a residue obtained from the distillation of crude oil.
Some bitumen is also found naturally mixed with mineral matter. Softening temperature
is between 25oC and 170oC depending on grade.
The main use is in road construction where it is mixed with mineral matter to form the
well known tar-macadam.
Bitumen is used from such purposes in form of emulsions, carrying 50 – 60% bitumen
suspended in water.
Bitumen is often also used as an anti-corrosive protective coating, and is usually applied
by dissolving the molten bitumen in a solvent in a closed vessel. These coatings are then
applied by brush and spray. Thicker coatings of bitumen (more than 12.5mm) are usually
applied by dipping or trowelling of the molten bitumen itself.
It has good chemical resistance to acids and bases and most organic salt solutions.
Its resistance to organic solvents of any kind however, is virtually nil.
Bitumen has good adhesive properties and it is used in the building industry for sticking
flooring tiles and roofing tiles, for the protection of concrete and brickwork against water,
and coordinate with other materials for such varied purposes as bituminized water proof
paper, bitumen – lined piping, bituminized felt, roof shingles etc.

7.10 CELLULAR PLASTICS.

The development of cellular plastics had revolutionized methods of insulating buildings.
These materials are usually superior to competing substances and also show a decided
cost advantage. They full into two categories.
a) Those with closed pores
b) Those with open pores
Closed pore types can double as damp-proof-course materials, but their failure to permit
water vapour to pass can cause trouble.
The open pore grades generally constitute a good barrier to liquid water, due to negative
capillary effect of most plastics.
Since in all the cellular plastics the volume of solid material used is small in comparison
to enclosed air, thermal conductivity is as that of still air. Exceptions occur only with
very dense cellular plastics.
Expanded PVC – suitable for use where there is considerable compressive strength
Expanded polystyrene – high void insulator & low priced
Rigid polyurethane foams – used for the filling of hollow wall and roof panel units,
which can be used as highly insulating external wall panels and for in-situ applied floor
insulation
Flexible foams – numerous sealing purposes for absorption of sound, insulting pipelines
and water tanks, and for making underlay for carpets and other floor covering. Mats from
flexible foams are also used for floating floor construction to minimize sound transitions
between storeys.

50
 8.0 PHASE COMPOSITION
8.1INTRODUCTION.
Phases are distinguishable conditions of a material which is structurally homogeneous
part of a system.
Three familiar phases are solid, liquid and gaseous.
A phase may have more than one component e.g. an aqueous solution may contain both
NaCl and water.
Several liquid phases may co-exist e.g. oil, water and liquid mercury, where we note that
oil has long molecules with weak van-der- waals forces between neighbours, water has
small molecules with hydrogen bridges and mercury has atoms held together by metallic
bonds.
In a situation where liquid gas and vapour co-exist under specified temperature and
pressure a critical point can be reached when the liquid and its vapour are so similar that
they become intermingled there being no clear interphase between them.
There are other points when there are two distinct phases i.e. gaseous and liquid co-
existing in dynamic equilibrium with each other. This is known as multiphase system. It
always has phase boundaries.

8.2 SOLUTIONS.
A solution is a multiple-component phase existing over a range of compositions.
A solution is composed of the solvent and the solute. The solvent is the basic structure
which accommodates solute addition without destroying the basic structure.
There are liquid and solid solutions.
When two liquid are put together the resultant is a solution or partial solution or mixture.
A mixture is where neither component dissolves into the other e.g. water and oil. In
partial solution a layer will have one constituent as a solvent with a limited quantity of
the other dissolved in it e.g. phenol and water.
Brass has copper as solvent and zinc as the solute. Solid structures are less adaptable than
liquid ones. Copper and nickel can have complete solid solution series from 100% copper
to 100% nickel.

8.3 EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN PHASES.

The equilibrium phase for a material at a given pressure and temperature will be the one
which is most stable under those conditions.

51
At normal temperatures water is more stable than either ice or water vapour. But below
0oC ice is most stable of the three.

8.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PHASE.

There is a limit to how much of the solute can be dissolved in solvent at any given
temperature.
This limit is known as the SOLUBILITY LIMIT.
After the solubility limit the solute remains undissolved and maintains its own crystalline
structure as a second phase.
Solubility limit is sensitive to temperature. The change in solute concentration with

temperature at saturation ( dx dT ) may be either positive or negative.

52
8.5 SOLID PHASE.
Different phase can exist in the solid state.
The transformation from one to another is known as allotropic transformation and the
phases are allotropes. This occurs in solids like carbon, quarts, alumina, tin, and iron.
The different solid phases can be either crystals or non-crystalline.
E.g. crystalline iron undergoes phase changes at various temperatures.

1539oC Liquid
1400oC Body centre cubic structure
910oC Face centre cubic structure
770oC Body centre cubic/non-magnetic
Body centre cubic/ferro-magnetic

8.6 CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM.

53
Pure materials have unique melting and boiling temperatures when heated under standard
pressures. These transformation temperatures are those of which the free energies of the
phases of the same composition are equal.
In order to raise or lower the temperature at constant pressure and at the same time
maintain equilibrium one phase must disappear.
The condition of equilibrium according to GIBB’S PHASE LAW is

P = No of phases, V = Variance
P+V = C+E
C = No of components, E = No of environment variables
Examples:
P = 1 for water P = 2 for ice & water
C = 1 for pure material
E = 1 (temperature only) E = 2 (temperature & pressure) E = 3 (temperature, pressure &
electric field)

When pressure is fixed at atmospheric then the environmental variable can be fixed at
E =1.
If only liquid is present then P = 1
If only dealing with water C = 1
According to the Gibb’s phase law the variance is P + V = C + E  V = C + E – P
= 1 + 1 – 1= the
variance is thus the temperature is the one element that has a variance from 0 – 100 oC.
If the number of phase are two (ice and water) then the variance V = 1 + 1 – 2 = 0.
This means that there is no choice of temperature other than 0oC i.e. the material system
is invariant. Pressure can be the second environmental variable. If the pressure is
increased the melting point reduces and the boiling point increases for water. This is due
to the liquid phase (water) is denser than ice or steam.
For three phases to be present at the triple point there is no choice in temperature or
pressure
V=C+E–P=1+2–3=0
Component = water = 1
Environmental variables (temperature + pressure) E = 2
Phase is ice, liquid, steam

For two phases to co-exist one may choose either temperature or pressure to vary then the
other environmental factor is fixed so P = 2
V = 1 + 2 – 2 = 1 then will have a choice of one.

8.7 TWO COMPONENT SYSTEM.

Materials with two components are called binary systems
Material Typical prime components
Brass : copper – zinc Cu-Zn
Brick (building) : S1O2 – AL2O3
Bronze : Cu – Sn
Glass-reinforced plastic : Polyester – glass

54
Brine : H2O – NaCl
Solder : Pb – Sn
Steel : Fe - C

N.B. It is important to note that the components of the materials are not necessarily
elemental. Thus materials can be mixtures of components.
When two elements have different melting points e.g. copper – 1083oC and nickel –
1455oC there will be a region between these temperatures when a copper-rich liquid and a
nickel-rich solid are stable and vice-versa.
Considering the alloy has 48% Cu and 52% Ni by weight.
Generally: Cu alloy = Cu liquid + Cu solid
In a 48Cu – 52Ni alloy, for example, a mixture of solid and liquid solutions has lower
free energy at 1300oC than a single solution. At this temperature solid nickel cannot
contain more than 37% without copper at equilibrium. Any exess copper appears in the
liquid phase. Also no more than 47% without nickel can dissolve in liquid copper at
1300oC under equilibrium conditions.

IX.0 WOOD

9.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TREES.

Trees are classified by their basic methods
i. Botanically – which is classification into family groups based on trees with
similar properties.
ii. Commercially – into application of the various products, either hardwoods or
softwoods. (The hardwoods are at times referred to as angiosperm and softwood
as gymnosperm).

The table below outlines the basic differences between the hardwoods and softwoods
Table 9.1. Differences between hardwood and softwoods.

Hardwoods Softwoods
i. Broadleaved Needle shaped leaves
ii. Shed leaves at end of growing season Evergreen
iii. Flowering - fruits Bear cones

9 2 STRUCTURE OF WOOD.
Figure that follows shows the basic structure of wood showing all the important
components. The following subsections outline their importance in the wood structure.

9.2.1 OUTER BARK.

Protects the inner part of the wood from external injuries e.g. adverse weather,
mechanical damage.

55
9.2.2 INNER BARK.
Moist, soft and contains living cells. Mainly conducts food from leaves to other growing
parts of the tree.
The outer and inner barks are collectively known as phloem.

9.2.3 CAMBIUM.
Located between outer growth ring and inner bark. Microscopic layer of cell which
continually subdivide to form sapwood and inner bark. Responsible for growth in wood.

9.2.4 GROWTH RINGS.

Fresh rings produced annually during growing season of tree. These are more defined in
temperate lands due to seasonal growth tailored according to climatic conditions. Can be
used to estimate age a tree in such cases.

9.2.5 SAP WOOD.

56
Light coloured region next to cambium on the inner side. Contains living cells which
main functions are (i) sap conduction, (ii) food storage. The sapwood cells die after
sometime and are transformed into heartwood.

9.2.6 HEARTWOOD.
Consists of inactive dead wood cells. It is dark coloured due to resin deposits presence of
gum, tannins and other cell extractives. It gives strength support to the tree.

9.2.7 PITH.
Consists of soft tissue from which primary growth originates. Usually dark central core
and is of little significance in construction industry.

9.2.8 RAYS
Radial cell which originate from pith outwards towards the bark. Conduct sap radially
across the grain (fibres) and also act as storage for food.

The propertied of wood change with direction i.e. it is anisotropic and there are three
basis planes Longitudinal, Radial and Transverse (tangential) as shown in the figure

9.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WOOD.

The cell walls of wood, whatever their nature consist of three main components
(materials).
i. cellulose.
ii. Hemi-cellulose
iii. Lignin
In addition it contains 0.2% – 08% protein and between 1 and 5% mineral matter which
is left behind as ash when wood is burned. Wood also contains various types of other
carbohydrates, in addition to cellulose materials.
All types of wood contain 40% to 50% of cellulose by weight, which is given as
(C6H10O5)n. The cellulose material consists of long chains of six-membered rings.
Cellulose can exist in a regular crystalline arrangement or an amorphous form or both.
Hemicelluloses are material with the same general formula as cellulose but with a
different constitution making it gelatinous (semi-solid) unlike the fibrous cellulose.
Lignin is an extremely insoluble substance, and is also polymeric.

9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF WOOD.

The strength of wood depends on the nature of defects occurring, either during its growth,
processing or service. Defect in this case refers to any feature or irregularity of
commercial importance occurring in timber that lowers the strength characteristics of
wood be it converted, sawn or engineered.

Natural defects-knots
-Shakes
-Cross-grain
-Reaction wood -compression wood
-tension wood

57
 -Resin & Pitch pockets
-Bark pockets

Processing defects-faulty machine defects -sloping grain

-wane
-over dimensioning
-Seasoning defects -checks & splits
-Case hardening
-Warping -bow
-spring
-cup
-twist
Biodegradation-fungal attacks -brown rot
-White rot
-Sap strain
Insect attacks -termites
-Powder post beetles
-Marine borer

9.4.1 NATURAL DEFFECTS.

These are due to the natural growing conditions which are beyond human control.
Some of the most notable defects are:

9.4.1.1 KNOTS.
This is the commonest defect in timber and is defined as a portion of a branch which is
enclosed or included in the wood of the main tree trunk. For a live branch, the tissues of
both trunk and branch are continuous giving rise to exposed knots known as tight/live or
intergrown knots. For a dead branch the cambium continuity is interrupted and the
remaining dead stump is gradually surrounded by live tissue leading to an encased, loose
or dead knot. These are usual unsound and fall out on conversion of wood or during
seasoning of as a result of decay.
Knots cause grain of fibre distortion causing local gross-grain. This causes a modification
in strength of wood in parallel direction.
Knots normally develop surface rapture of fibres around them. The size and location of
knots affects strength. The bigger the knot the greater the effect. Knots also cause
difficulties in wood working e.g. sawing, planning, nailing etc.

9.4.1.2 SHAKES.
These are separation or rapture of wood tissues due to differential stresses caused by
(a) Sway action of wood
(b) Heartwood shrinkage
(c) Unbalanced growth stresses.

58
Shakes occur only in living trees and are normally formed before felling.

9.4.1.3. CROSS-GRAIN.
This is due to misalignment about longitudinal axis of wood, the grains resulting do run
at an angle. Timber is strongest when loaded axially in either tension or compression.
Maximum strength is attained when loading is parallel to longitudinal axis, with all fibres
also parallel.
There several categories of cross-grain, the most important ones being spiral grain,
diagonal grain, and interlocked grain.
9.4.1.4. REACTION WOOD.
These are wood tissues produced in various tree parts due to reaction effects of lean or
prevalent wind forces. There are two types of reaction wood produced depending on
wheather the parent stump is a hardwood or a softwood.

9.4.1.4. 1 COMPRESSION WOOD.

Occurs in softwoods, normally on underside of branches and on the leeward side of trees.

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Distinguished by:
i. Eccentric growth rings
ii. Under growth rings
iii. Heavier than normal wood
iv. Darker in colour
v. Lower tensile strength
vi. Low modulus of elasticity and modulus of rapture
vii. Breaks with brach failure, no splinters
viii. Tends to warp and shrink longitudinally during seasoning

9.4.1.4.2. TENSION WOOD.

Occurs in hardwoods. Formed on upper side branches and windward side of trees.
Basic characteristics
i. Wider growth rings
ii. Eccentric growth rings
iii. Low tensile strength when green and high tensile strength when seasoned
iv. Prone to warping when seasoned

9.4.1.5. RESIN/PITCH POCKETS AND BARK POCKETS.

These are due to insect damage or tapping cuts. Destruction of cambium curtails growth
causing accumulation on of pitch or resin between growth rings.

9.4.1.6. BARK POCKETS.

Caused by damage to cambium. Local growth ceases and adjacent cambium grows and
infiltration of bark occurs causing discontinuity of fibres, hence reducing strength due to
reduced effective plant size.

9.4.2. PROCESSING DEFECTS.

These arise from two main processes.
i. Faulty machining techniques during conversion of logs
ii. Faulty seasoning techniques

9.4.2.1. FAULTY MACHINING DEFECTS.

These can be referred to as manufacturing defects and generally consist of
a) Sloping grain – occurs when sawing tapering trunk sections.
b) Wanes - due to inaccurate edging, dimensional differences in final section as
compared to initially intended section. Also occurs due to cutting sections out of
circular logs.
c) Excessive dimensional variations leading to oversize or undersize sections.
Undersize sections have smaller value of moment of inertia (I) and sectional
modulus (z) hence reducing strengths. Oversize sections lead to overdesign hence
uneconomical.

9.4.2.2.SEASONING DEFECTS.

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These arise due to improper seasoning techniques mostly due to differential shrinkage.
Permanent distortions give rise to warping while the rapture of tissues/fibres gives rise to
checks and splits.

9.4.2.2.1. CHECKS AND SPLITS.

These are longitudinal separations of fibres across the growths rings. Checks are surface
raptures of fibres which do not extend from face to face of the timber.
End splits are fibre raptures and separations occurring at end of timber pieces extending
from face to face.

9.4.2.2.2. CASE HARDENING.

This occurs due to rapid drying causing outer surfaces to shrink while inner layers are
still saturated with moisture. The outer layers are still saturated with moisture. The outer
layers will be in tension where as the inner ours are compression. Due to this differential
shrinkage surface checks known as case hardening occur.
This defect can be eliminated by exposing the timber to high temperatures and high
relative humidity (steaming), when restore moisture to outer layer reducing moisture
differences.

9.4.2.2.3. WARPING.
These are deviations of timber pieces from true or plane surface due to differential
shrinkage.
There are various forms of warping.

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 i. Bow – this is the sagging of wood from end to end.

ii. Spring – This is the distortion of wood in longitudinal plane with the board
remaining flat.

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iii. Cup – this is distortion of wood across the face or plain.

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iv. Twist – This is the spiral or cork-screw twisting of a board in the longitudinal
axis.

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9.4.3. BIODEGRADATION.
This is the biological deterioration of wood by fungi insects and marine borers. The most
important destructive agents being fungi and insects.

9.4.3.1. FUNGAL ATTACK.

Fungi are plants which don’t posses chlorophyll hence survive on readymade organic
foods from other growing plants.
The fungi cause either decay of wood or staining of the same.
The basic characteristic of fungal attack is formation of mycelium at advanced stages.

9.4.3.1.1. BROWN ROT.

Caused by fungal attack feeding on cellulose of softwoods, giving the timber a reddish
brown colour and decreasing its strength.

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9.4.3.1.2 WHITE ROT.
Caused by fungi which feed on all wood tissue in hardwoods, giving the timber a whitish
colour thereby reducing strength.

9.4.3.1.3. SAP STAIN.

These fungi feed on sap wood nutrients since cellular components not affected, the
strength of wood not reduced. The wood attains a blue stain.

9.4.3.2. CONDITIONS FAVOURING FUNGAL ATTACK.

Most fungal attack is prevalent in presence of oxygen, conducive temperature, moisture
and appropriate nutrients.

9.4.3.2.1. OXYGEN.
Fungi require oxygen for respiration with subsequent production of CO2 and H2O.
Submerged wood is only attacked by fungi in properly aerated conditions.
9.4.3.2.2. TEMPERATURE.
Most fungi exhibit optimum growth at 25oC – 30oC. As temperatures lower than 25oC,
fungal growths is slows down considerably, similarly to temperatures above 30oC. At
40oC most fungal attack ceases.

9.4.3.2.3. MOISTURE.
Fungal growth is optimum in moisture content of 25% – 30% and a high relative
humidity. Fungal attack is controlled by reducing moisture content to below 25%.

9.4.3.2.4. NUTRIENTS.
Carbon is the basic nutrient provided by cellulose in wood. Some wood not attached by
fungi contain toxic extractives

9.4.3.3. PREVENTION OF FUNGAL ATTACKS.

i) All wood attacked by fungi should be removed and burnt to ensure no further attack.
ii) Season all the wood intended for construction
iii) Preservative treat all wood
iv) Treat all wood with fungicides, and all surrounding structures.
v)Damp proof all wood prone to evaporation
vi)Carry out constant inspection and maintenance

9.4.4 INSECT ATTACK.

Insects attack wood by
a) Boring into the wood to provide nests for their eggs.
b) Boring of wood by insects while they feed on wood cellulose and use bores as
shelter.

9.4.4.1. TERMITES.
There are (i) subterranean termites and (ii) dry wood termites.

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Subterranean termites live in social nests in contact with the ground or in the ground,
whereas dry wood termites live in social nests in dry trees, and need not be in contact
with the ground.
Subterranean termites attack wood by bridging the gap through tunnels from ground over
the surfaces bridging the wood and ground. They hollow out the inside of the wood
keeping the surface intact.
Dry wood termites attack wood in a similar manner only that the elates (winged
reproductive ones) usually fly from one area of attacks to another. Termites don’t attack
living trees.

9.4.4.1.1. PREVENTION OF TERMITES ATTACK.

i. Poison soil around wooden structures or foundations to any termite tunneling
ii. By capping all columns to wooden structures at 45o

iii. Preservative treatment of wood

iv. Use durable woods like Mvule, Muringa, Elgon teak etc
v. Painting wood with antitermite mixtures
vi. Regular inspection and application of appropriate measures

9.4.4.2. POWDER POST BEETLES.

They lay eggs in wood pores, cracks or checks in the wood, or bore their way into wood
and lay their eggs. The larval feed on wood constitutes thus creating tunnels, giving of
fine dust, known as frass. They attack the woods sap.

9.4.4.2.1. CONTROL OF POWDER POST BEETLES.

i. Use wood without sapwood
ii. Fumigate the wooden structures
iii. Preservative treatment
iv. In cases of attacks before seasoning, kiln season all wood.

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9.4.4.3. MARINE BORERS.
They bore in search of shelter/food while feeing on plankton in sea water. Wood so
attacked is characterized by borer holes.

9.4.4.3.1. CONTROL OF MARINE BORERS.

i. Preservative treatment
ii. Use durable timber
iii. Painting wood with toxic paints
iv. By electric prevention

9.5. SEASONING OF WOOD.

Seasoning is a process of reducing the moisture content in timber, to render timber useful
for architectural, structural, or joinery applications. Most of these applications have
service moisture content levels to which wood intended for use should be dried to.

9.5.1 MECHANISM OF SEASONING.

Freshly felled green timber contains up to or more than 200% moisture content in form of
i. Free water or sap contained in cell cavities
ii. Bound water contained in cell walls as illustrated in the diagram below.

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On felling, the green timber first loses the free water by the process of evaporation. The
amount of water lost will depend on the amount of moisture in wood (timber moisture
content) and the relative humidity of the surroundings. The process of evaporation
continues until all the free water in the cavities is lost. At this stage the wood is said to be
at fibre saturation points (FSP), with a moisture content range of 25% – 30%. At this
stage there is no shrinkage of wood. However, if the moisture content is reduced further,
the water bound in the cell walls stand to evaporate and this is accompanied by shrinks of
wood.
Timber at F.S.P condition is of no structural use, because the M.C (25 – 30%) is higher
than the normal atmospheric M.C (18%), and the wood would tend to shrink if used.
When the wood is dried to surface conditions (atmospheric M.C) a condition known as
equilibrium moisture content (E.M.C) is attained. The wood is now referred to as fully
seasoned. The wood is dimensionally stable, i.e. neither shrinkage nor swelling occurs.

9.5.2. ADVANTAGES OF SEASONING.

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 1. Decreased seasoning defects (warping, checks, splits, etc.)
2. Increased strength properties
3. Increased nail holding capacities
4. Increased paintability
5. Reduces weight of wood thus reducing handling cost
6. Increases response to preservative treatment
7. Increases resistance to both fungal and insect attack

9.5.3METHODS OF SEASONING.

9.5.3.1.AIR SEASONING.
The timber is stacked in piles in a shed such that
a) There is uniform and tree circulation of air to all parts of the stack ensuring equal
exposure to all surfaces preventing warping.
b) No adverse weather conditions are allowed e.g. direct sunshine, rain. This is
achieved by use of sloping roots as shown in the figure

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Front elevation

71
 Side elevation

9.5.3.1.1. ADVANTAGES OF AIR SEASONING.

i. Cheap method, since only cost is of shed construction
ii. Little attention
iii. Little seasoning degrade (warping, checks, and split case hardening, collapse) –
adverse weather elements excluded.

9.5.3.1.2. DISADVANTAGES OF AIR SEASONING.

i. Drying rate depends on prevailing weather conditions as well as on density of
wood and efficiency of stacking.
ii. Difficult to dry wood to specific M.C
iii. Large spaces required for stacking
iv. Timber susceptible to fungal and insect attacks

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9.5.3.1.3. DRYING RATES IN AIR SEASONING.
a) Hardwoods
i. 25mm thick planks seasoned to 20% M.C in 9 months.
ii. 50mm thick planks seasoned to 20% M.C in 12 months

b) Softwoods
i. 25mm thick plank seasoned to 20% M.C in 2 to 3 months
ii. 50mm thick plank seasoned to 20% M.C in 3 to 4 months

9.5.3.2 ACCELERATED AIR SEASONING.

The process is similar to air seasoning process. The only difference being that air blown
into stacks by means of Electric fans, accelerating air circulation and seasoning process.

9.5.3.3. KILN SEASONING.

Hot air, at predetermined relative humidities and temperature is blown into timber stacks
in a kiln. The timber is normally stacked in trolleys. The hot air speeds up the rate of
evaporation of moisture from the wood, hence accelerating drying rate. After seasoning,
the wood is steamed to eliminate collapse and case hardening.

9.5.3.3.1. ADVANTAGES OF KILN SEASONING.

i. Faster turnover
ii. Wood seasoned to desire M.C values
iii. Wood destroying agents (fungi/insects) eliminate due to high temperatures
prevailing
iv. Lesser seasoning degrade.

9.6. STRENGTH TEST ON TIMBER.

These form the basis of assessing safe stress levels in structural timber. The tests are
normally carried out on small specimens which are free from defects (e.g. knots, and
splits) and the periods of load is only a few minutes. The strength values can thus not be
applied directly to structural design. The test results are related to the M.C prevailing.
Normally some variations in mean strengths over in wide range are calculated, and these
values follow same distribution as shown.

73
 Distribution of strength values of clear timber specimens.

For design purposes it is necessary to decide what is an acceptable probability that a

strength value will not fall below an estimated minimum.
For a symmetrical distribution curve the high and low values will be equally distributed
and thus only 1 percent of the values will fall below the estimated minimum value.
If the characteristic strength of timber is defined as the value below which only 1% of the
test results will fall it is given by:

f k = x̄−2 .33 σ

9.6.1. BASIC STRESS.

This is defined as the stress which can be permanently sustained by a structural
component of a particular species subjected to a particular force action, the component
being assumed to consist of clear timber with no strength reducing characteristics. The

74
strength of the timber will be affected by its shape and size, duration of loading and M.C.
Thus the characteristic strength must be appropriately factored for all strength reducing
characteristics and possibilities strength.
For most strength properties a factor of safety of 2.25 is assumed appropriate.

9.6.1.1. BENDING.
The specimens used are 300 x 20x20mm in size and simply supported over a span of
280mm, as shown below

For a central load applied at constant rate then simple bending theory will be assumed to
apply, hence
WL fd 3
=M =−
bending moment = 4 6
d3 6M
=
Where L = span, W = load applied 6 section modulus F = 13

75
Where F= modulus of rapture and is a measure of the ultimate bending strength of timber
relevant to the size of specimen and loading conditions employed.
The stress - strain relation obtained is not linear, and also the bending test as carried out
on shallow specimens and modulus of rapture will vary with size. Hence modulus of
rapture is only a measure of the bending strength of timber.

9.6.1.2. SHEAR.
The shearing action on a timber section should be examined in relation to the principal
axes longitudinal, tangential and radial. Thus various types of shearing action should be
considered, rolling, sliding etc.

9.6.1.3. COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

Uniform timber pieces are loaded in compression such that the load is uniformly
distributed over the cross-section. A lower factor of safety is used for compression
parallel to grain than the bending test as:
i. Ratio of limit of proportionality is greater in that case
ii. Compression strength not greatly influenced by shape and size
iii. Defects influence compressive strength less.

9.6.1.4. TENSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

Tensile strength greatly depends on defects but for clear specimens the tensile strength is
greater than that in bending.

9.6.1.5. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.

Values of modulus of elasticity are obtained from bending tests. For single members
where deflection is important, it is considered prudent to reduce the average value by
2 .33 σ
.
WL3
E=
Modulus of Elasticity, E, is obtained from the relation 48 ID
Where W = applied load
L = span of specimen
D = deflection recorded at elastic limit
I = moment of inertia

9.7. GRADING OF TIMBER.

The use of clear timber is not commercially viable. Thus all strength equations must be
modified to account for features which reduce the strength of the member containing
them.
The natural features which influence the strength of timber are as follows:
a) Slope of the grain – can vary from 1 in 6 to 1 in 19 according to grade.
b) Fissures – separation of fibres in various forms checks shales and splits
c) Knots – these produce disturbance of the grain which causes strength reduction
d) Wane – the rounded part of the tree section appear on the corner of a converted
piece of timber.

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 The effect of these defects on the strength of timber is dependent on their size and
location within the section.

9.8 WOOD PRESERVATION.

This is any process, physical or chemical which undertakes to enhance or prolong the
service life of wood by increasing its resistance to any wood deteriorating agents like
fungi and insects.
Wood preservatives are normally chemical substances which, when applied to wood
render it toxic to the biodegrading agents.

9.8.1. PROPERTIES OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES.

9.8.1.1. TOXICITY.
The preservative should contain chemicals toxic to fungi, insects and marine borers.
Their concentrations should be such as to kill such biodegrading agents. This is measured
by the Net Dry Salt Retention (NDSR) which is the net weight of preservative retained
per unit volume of wood in kg/m3.

NetWeightof Pr eservative
NDSR=
UnitVolumeofWood

9.8.1.2. PERMANENCE.
The chemical compounds used should form a permanent bond with wood cells, to make it
effective over long periods. This is only possible if
i. Preservative not easily leachable
ii. Not volatile
iii. Chemically stable

9.8.1.3. PENETRATION.
Should afford deep penetration into the wood otherwise any subsequent defects may
render it ineffective.

9.8.1.4HANDLING SAFETY.
All preservatives are poisonous to man and care should be exercised in handling them.
The preservatives should not require special handling precautions during application and
service. They should also be harmless to wood and metal fixtures.

9.8.1.5. FIRE RESISTANCE.

They should not be highly inflammable, as this increases fire hazards. In case of
flammable contents, fire retardants should be added.

9.8.1.6. AVAILABILITY AND COST.

Should be easily available in required quantities at reasonable cost.

9.8.1.7. COLOUR AND ODOUR.

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For furniture and indoor structures, preservatives which do not impart colour or odour to
the wood are desirable.

9.8.2. PREPARATION OF WOOD FOR PRESERVATION TREATMENT.

Except for the sap replacement method, all poles should be debarked and fully seasoned
or below FSP.
For other timber products the timber should be fully seasoned and sawn to final
dimensional. Final dimensional requirements avoids resawing and exposure of treated
surface.

9.8.3. TREATMENT METHODS.

9.8.3.1. SUPERFICIAL PROCESS.

These are simple non-pressure processes ideally suited for in-situ treatment of timber on
site. They include brushing, spraying and dipping. For dipping the longer the duration the
better the penetration. The method is simple and cheap. The only disadvantages being
superficial penetration, hence exposure by surface defects, making the timber vulnerable
to biodegradation.

9.8.3.2. NON PRESSURE PROCESSES.

9.8.3.2.1. COLD SOAKING (STEEPING).

Prolonged immersion in oil based preservatives in open rectangular tanks. Steeping uses
a water based preservative. On both cases, the absorption rate is in the order of 25mm for
every 7 days.

9.8.3.2.2. HOT AND COLD BATHS.

Uses oil or water based preservatives. The seasoned untreated timber is stacked in open
tanks, and cold preservative run into the tank and gradually heated to 90oC, and the
temperature maintained for 1 – 2 hrs. After this the timber is either quickly changed to a
vessel with cold preservative or the hot preservative is quickly pumped out and cold
preservative put and the timbers allowed cool Alternatively the heat is switched ff and the
preservative and the timber allowed to cool.

9.8.3.2.3. MECHANISM OF HOT-COLD PROCESS.

Upon heating the preservative, air in timber cells expands and some of it is expelled. On
being in cold preservative, the remaining hot air contracts, creating a partial vacuum and
atmospheric pressure forces cold preservative into wood cells.

9.8.3.3. PRESSURE PROCESSES.

9.8.3.3.1. EMPTY CELL PROCESS.

Used for oil base preservatives. The wood is stacked in strong closed cylinders and an
initial pressure of 2.8kg/cm2 applied using compressed air; holding the pressure constant,

78
preservative is introduced and pressure raised by a further 0.7kg/m2 forcing the
preservative into wood cells. The pressure is then completely released, air in the cells
expands, expelling most of the preservative from the cell cavities. A final vacuum is
applied to remove more of the preservative from cell cavities and the cell walls are fully
impregnated with preservative.

9.8.3.3.2. FULL CELL PROCESS.

Needs strong cylinders in which wood is stacked. Using a pump an initial vacuum is
applied removing most of the air from the cell cavities, and cylinder filled with heated
preservative. After this a 7kg/cm2 pressure is applied and maintained for about 2 hours,
so as to achieve the required NDSR. The pressure is then released and preservative
drained. Excess preservative is removed by application of vacuum.

9.8.3.4. SAP REPLACEMENT.

Used on unpeeled green logs. They are places horizontally with a watertight cap which
connects by pipe to a preservative reservoir. The hydrostatic head in tank forces
preservative into the log replacing the sap, as shown in figure below..

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9.8.4. PRESERVATIVES TYPES.

9.8.4.1. TAR – OIL PRESERVATIVES.

These are by-products of the dry distillation of coal or timber, and are a composite
mixture of hydrocarbon oils, phenols, cresol and many other materials.
i. They are resistant to leaching and particularly used for external timbers, buried
wood and wood in water.
ii. They are not corrosive to metals
iii. Difficult to paint over
iv. Have strong odours due to presence of creosotes
v. Initially more inflammable than untreated wood

9.8.4.2. WATER BASED PRESERVATIVES.

Several metal salts are used in form of aqueous solutions to impregnate timber. These
have various advantages over cresols. The main characteristics

80
 i. Odourless
ii. Can be painted over
iii. No-inflammable
iv. Cheaper than oil based
v. No-leaching
vi. Suitable for exterior and interior works

9.8.4.3. ORGANIC PRESERVATIVES.

They are resistant to leaching do not stain and can be readily painted over. They tend to
penetrate timber more readily than other types of preservatives and can be applied simply
by brushing, spraying or cold steeping. On the other hand, the volatile solvents used are
inflammable, although the final timber does not shove any inflammability although the
final timber does not show any inflammability greater than untreated timber.

9.9. TIMBER AND FIRE.

Although wood is an organic material and as such combustible, the speed of burning of
wood is slow due to the fact that it is a poor conductor of heat. In consequence its
performance from free-resistance in buildings sometimes compares as very favourably
when compared with that of steel and aluminium members, which often buckle and melt
before an equivalent timber beam has burned through.
When wood is heated, the temperature rises steadily up to 100oC. At this point there is a
check as the moisture in the timber evaporates. After this has taken place, the temperature
rises again. Decomposition starts at 250o to 300oC with the formation of charcoal and
inflammable gases such as Co and CH4. Such gases are the cause of the flaming of wood.
The final stage of the burning is the combustion of the charcoal, which results in
smoldering with the ultimate formation of ash.
The tree resistance of timber varies widely depending on the types of wood.
The burning rate of timber has been determined to be an average of 0.6mm/min, thus is
designing timber structures, sacrificial wood is provided depending on the duration
provisions.

9.9.1. METHODS OF IMPROVING FIRE RESISTANCE OF TIMBER.

9.9.1.1. IMPREGNATION WITHG CHEMICAL SALT SOLUTIONS.

Most of the fire-retardant salts used decompose at temperatures below the composition
temperature of wood and produce non-inflammable gases which mix with the highly
inflammable gases given off by the timber. This form a protective blanket against the
attacking flame hence inhibiting flame propagation at the surface of the material. The
decomposition of the fire retardant is endothermic (absorbs heat) process, which cools the
igniting flame.
Often the fire retardant reduces the rate of burning by forming a compound at a
temperature below the ignition point of the timber. The compound formed protects the
timber against combustion.

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The most commonly used retarders are ammonium salts such as phosphates, sulphates,
chlorides etc and basic acid.

9.9.1.2. FLAME – RESISTANT COATINGS.

The paints used usually contain either sodium silicate, potassium silicate or calcium
sulphate with an inert filler such as asbestoses or china clay. They are applied thickly
either by brush or spray and it is essential that they be put on a clean timber surface.
Fire resistant paints are easily applied and are cheaper than the impregnation techniques.
The protection afforded is however not as good.

9.10. PLYWOOD.
Plywood is manufactured using vaneers cut off from the surface of logs and glued
together so that the grain crosses each other.
The basic manufacturing process involves selection of logs about 2550mm long referred
to as “peclers” which are stripped of their bark. They are then set up in a giant lathe
where a steal blade peels the veneer off the log. The veneers are then pre-shrunk in driers
and checked for moisture content. Then laying up of the plies takes place with the face
ply chosen as appropriate to the grade of plywood being produced.
Two basic grade plywood are made:
a) Exterior grade plywood which employs a hot pressed phenolic resin glue as
binder. The glue is virtually insoluble under any exposure conditions including
boiling water.
b) Interior grade which uses protein glues and hot pressing is generally used. While
interior grade plywood is capable of withstanding temporary wetting, it is
completely un-suitable for conditions where there is continuing dampness.
The uses of plywood are infinite. The basic uses include the following
i. Formwork for concrete construction
ii. Sheathing and cladding
iii. Stressed skin assemblies
iv. Spanning wide spaces in special roof types.

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