SUBJECT AREA: FORENSIC

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES................................................................................ 2

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.............................................................................................................. 8

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY...............................................................................19

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS........................................................................................................... 22

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES.......................................................................................................27

FORENSIC BALLISTICS................................................................................................................... 94
 REVIEW NOTES ON PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Prepared by: Ms. Jhasmin Marie B. Mendoza

Table of Specification
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following
sub-topics:
1.​ Recognize the basic principles of personal identification;

2.​ Demonstrate the ability in the application of Dactyloscopy as the gold standard in
personal identification and other scientific and non-scientific techniques of personal
identification in relation to crime detection and investigation (recognition,
collection, preservation, classification, comparison, and identification of latent
prints);

3.​ Apply the techniques in detection, collection, preservation of forensic evidence

relative to friction ridges and other means of personal identification;

4.​ Utilize various forensic tools/equipment and employ systematic methods (ACE-V
method) in processing latent prints/friction ridge details to ensure positive
identification; and

5.​ Demonstrate competence in the examination, identification, and presentation of

evidence communicated in format and in content acceptable in court proceedings.

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION ​ “Law of Multiplicity of Evidence” The

greater number of similarities or dissimilarities; the
Criminalistics greater is the probability for the conclusion to be
​ = Is the application of the principles of correct.
various sciences in solving problems in connection ​ Alphonse Bertillion = Father of Personal
with the administration of justice. Identification. The first to devise a scientific
​ = Also referred to as Forensic Science or method of identification called Anthropometry.
Police Science. ​ A fingerprint was first used in China
​ The word forensic was derived from the before the birth of Christianity. They called it Hua
Latin word “Forum” which means a “market Chi.
place”, a place where people gathered for “public
discussion” . When it is used in conjunction with I. Personalities in Fingerprints:
other sciences it simply connotes the idea of 1.​ Nehemiah Grew (1684) – describes the ridges
application to law or for the administration of and pores of the hands and feet (Philosophical
justice. Sometimes it is also referred to as “legal”. Transaction) presented in Royal Society of
London, England.
Dr. Hans Gross = An Australian magistrate to 2.​ Govard . Bibloo – works on the sweat pores
described Search for Truth as the ultimate goal of and ridges.
all investigative and detective works. He is known 3.​ Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – Professor at
as the Father of Modern Criminalistics. the University of Bolognia, Italy, known for
his discovery of the Epidermis and Dermis
A. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

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 layer. Written the book entitled “De Externo ​ Samuel Langhorne Clemens = An
Tactus Organo” Father of Dactyloscopy. Englishman who informally introduced
4.​ J.C.A. Mayer (1788) – the first to state that Dactyloscopy in the United States in his book “
fingerprints are never duplicated in two Life in the Mississippi” and “ Pupp n Head
persons ( Anatomiche Kuphertafeln). Wilson”.
5.​ Johannes Purkenjie (1823) – Professor at the ​ Francis Galton
University of Breslau, Germany. Established a ​ Dr. Henry p De Forest = Utilized the first
certain role for classification and be able to Municipal Civil use of fingerprint for Criminal
identify nine (9) types of pattern although Registration on December 1902 (Mun. Civil
never associated to identification Service Comm., New York).
6.​ Herman Welcker – took his own fingerprints ​ Capt. James L. Parke = Advocate the first
twice with a lapse of forty-one years and show state and penal use of fingerprint adopted in
the ridges formation remains the same. SingSing prison on June 5, 1903 later on Auburn
7.​ William Herschel – the first to advocate the Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.
use of fingerprints as substitute for signature ​ Sgt. John Kenneth Ferrier = First
from among Indian native to avoid fingerprint instructor at St. Louis Police Dept.
impersonation. Missouri.
Rajadhar Konai = the first person Herschel printed ​ Maj. R. Mc Cloughry = warden of the
the palm. Federal Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth.
8.​ Henry Faulds – A surgeoon at Tsukuji Established the first official National Government
Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, who claimed that use of fingerpprint.
latent prints would provide positive ​ Mary K. Holand = first American
identification of offenders once apprehended ( instructress in dactyloscopy.
A Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy). ​ FBI = identification unit herein was
9.​ Francis Galton – Developed the Arch. Loop officially established by an act of congress in 1924.
and Whorl Patterns as general classification ​ Institute of Applied Science = First private
and identified nine (9) types of pattern. First school to install laboratories for instruction
to establish a Civil Bureau of Personal purposes in dactyloscopy.
Identification. He said that the possibility of ​ People vs. Jennings, Dec. 21, 1911 =
two prints being alike was 1:65,000,000,000. United States leading case wherein the first
10.​ Edward Richard Henry – Developed the conviction based on fingerprint was recognized by
Henry System of Classification at Scotland the judicial authorities (14 points).
Yard which was accepted by almost all
English-speaking country. Known as Father IN THE PHILIPPINES
of Fingerprint. ​ Mr. Jones = one who first taught FP in the
Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Hem Chandra Phils. (1900)
Bose – the two Hindu police officers who have help Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS fingerprint
Henry in attaining his goal. was used.
11.​ Juan Vucetich – A Spanish counterpart of Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint
Henry who developed his own system of Technician employed by P.C.
classification in Argentina and was accepted Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint
in almost all Spanish Speaking country. Technician
Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Dept. and
IN AMERICA Flaviano Guerrero, FBI Washington – gave the first
​ Gilbert Thompson = a geologist in New examination in FP in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of
Mexico, adopted the first individual use of the Phils. Top the Examination
fingerprint in august 8, 1882 as a protection to People of the Phils. Vs. Medina- First conviction
prevent tampering with the pay order.​ base on Fingerprint and leading case decision in the
​ Isaiah West Tabor = Photographer in San Phil. Jurisprudence (10 points).
Francisco who advocated the use of the system for ​ Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) now
the registration of the immigrant Chinese. known as Phil. College of Criminology, first

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government recognized school to teach the Science deals with the study of the prints of the palms
of Fingerprint and other Police Sciences. of the hand.
John Dellinger – known U.S. public enemy number 2.​ Podoscopy – ( Greek word “Podo” – the foot,
one who attempt to destroy his own prints using and Skopien – to examine)is the science which
corrosive acids. deals with the study of the footprints.
Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged 3.​ Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – a pare,
his own fingerprints and was named “Man without and “Skopien” – to examine) is the scientific
fingerprint” study of the arrangement of the sweat pores.
Lucila Lalu – the first Filipina Chop-chop lady who (Edmond Locard- Father of Poroscopy)
was identified through fingerprint.
Alphonse Bertillion – known as the Father of the Phalange = is the skeletal finger covered with
first scientific method of Identification friction skin. It is made up of three bones.
(Anthropometry) a.​ Basal or proximal phalange – it is
located at the base of the finger
DACTYLOSCOPY nearest the palm.
Definition b.​ Middle phalange = the next and above
Dactyloscopy – (derived from the Latin words the basal done.
Dactyl = finger and Skopien – to study or c.​ Terminal phalange = the particular
examine) is the practical application of the science bone covered with friction skin,
of fingerprints. having all the different types of
Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint patterns and it is located
fingerprint as a means of identification. near the tip of the finger.
Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of
fingerprint for purposes of personality Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin
interpretation. found on the ventral or lower surface of the hands
Dermatoglyphics = is the science which deals with and feet covered with ridges and furrows.(Also
the study of skin pattern. It is derived from two called as Papillary skin).
Greek words, Derma which means Skin and Glype Components of the Friction Skin
which means Carve. 1.​ Ridge surface
a.​ Ridge – the elevated or hill like
Basic Principles of Fingerprint structure/ the black lines with tiny
1.​ Individuality white dots.
No two persons have the same fingerprint (based b. Furrow – the depressed or canal like structure/
on Statistic Probability) the white space between ​ ​
2.​ Infallibility ​ ridges.
That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of 2.​ Sweat pores – the tiny opening/ the tiny white
identification. It cannot be easily be forged. dots.
3.​ Constancy or permanency 3.​ Sweat duct – the passage way.
That the friction ridge once fully developed its 4.​ Sweat glands – the producers of sweat.
arrangement will remains the same throughout
man’s life. Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin
1.​ Epidermis – the outermost layer
Fingerprints a.​ Stratum Corneum,
​ Is an impression design by the first joint of b.​ Stratum mucosum
the fingers and thumb on smooth surface through 2.​ Dermis – the inner layer containing the blood
the media of ink, sweat or any substance capable of vessel, dermal papillae, various glands and
producing visibility. nerves.

Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint: Ridge Formation – (Ridges starts to form in the
1.​ Chiroscopy – ( Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand, fingers and thumb during the 3rd to 4th months of
“Skopien” –to examine) is the science which the fetus life.)

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​ Dermal Papillae = are irregular pegs c.​ Double Loop Whorl
composed of delicate connective tissue protruding 1.​ Two separate loop formation
and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, 2.​ Two Separate and distinct shoulder
palms, toes and soles of the feet. 3.​ Two deltas
Ridge Destruction – destruction of the friction d.​ Accidental Whorl
skin can either be temporary or permanent. 1.​ A combination of two different
Generally temporary destruction occur when only patterns with the exception of the
the epidermis layer of the friction skin has been plain arch.
damage, while permanent damage can be injected 2.​ Two deltas
to the friction skin due to damage to the dermis
layer. Ridge Characteristics (Galton Details)
​ 1.​ Ridge Dot (island ridge) – refers to a ridge
General Rules on Ridge Destruction​ formation in a form of a dot or period.
a.​ Destruction of the Epidermis –
temporary, dermis – permanent 2.​ Bifurcation – a ridge formation in which a
damage. single ridge splits or divides into two or more
b.​ Cut == a depth of more than 1 mm ridges. It resembles a fork shape.
will constitute permanent scar.
The Fingerprint Patterns 3.​ Converging Ridge – two ridges that meets at a
1.​ The Arch (5%) certain point
a.​ Plain Arch (A) – is a pattern in which the
ridges flows from one side to the other 4.​ Diverging Ridge – two ridges that spread apart
side with a slight raise at the center.
b.​ Tented Arch (T) – is a type of pattern 5.​ Enclosure or Lake ridge – a single ridge that
having either an angle, uptrust or an divides into two but does not remain open and
incomplete loop form. meet at a certain point to form the original
2.​ The Loop (60%) single ridge.
Elements of loop
1.​ A core ​ ​ ​ ​ 6.​ Ending ridge – it refers to an abrupt end of a
​ ridge
2.​ A sufficient Recurve
3.​ A delta ​ ​ ​ ​ 7.​ Type lines – is a diverging ridge that tends to
. At least one Ridge count surround the pattern area and serves as a basic
a.​ Radial Loop (RH=/. LH=\) is a type of boundary of fingerprint impression.
loop pattern in which the slanting or
looping ridge flows towards the thumb 8.​ Pattern Area – is a part of a loop of whorl
finger. pattern surrounded by the type lines and
b.​ Ulnar Loop (RH=\, LH=/) is a type of loop consisting of the delta, the core and other
pattern in which the slanting or looping ridges.
ridge flows towards the little finger.
3.​ The Whorl (35%) 9.​ Recurving ridge – a single ridges that curves
Basic Elements of Whorl back to the direction where it started.
1.​ Two or more Deltas
2.​ At least one complete circuiting ridge 10.​ Sufficient Recurve – a recurving ridge which is
a.​ Plain Whorl (W) complete with its should and free from any
At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed appendage.
by the imaginary line traversing between the two
deltas. 11.​ Appendage – is a short ridge found at the top
b.​ Central Pocket Loop Whorl or summit of a recurve
No circuiting ridge within the pattern area is
touched or cross by an imaginary line drawn
between the two deltas.

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12.​ Rod or Bar – is a short of long ridge found 3.​ Thumb fingers are rolled towards the
inside the recurve and directed towards the body while other fingers are rolled
core away from the body.

13.​ Obstruction ridge – is a short ridge found Fingerprint Classification Formula:

inside the recurve which blocks the inner line 1.​ Checking
of flow towards the core. 2.​ Blocking-out – is the process if
placing under each pattern the letter
The Two Fingerprint Terminus (Focal Points) symbols representing their pattern
1.​ The Delta (also called the outer terminus) is interpretation prior to the actual
a point along a ridge formation found at the classification formula.
center or near the center of the diverging type 3.​ CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
lines. a.​ Primary Division. Always
2.​ The Core (also known as the heart or the represented by a numerical
inner terminus) usually found at the center or value assigned to whorl
innermost recurve. patterns depending on what
finger they appear.
Types of fingerprint impression Arch and Loop are non-numerical patterns.
1.​ Rolled Impression – are fingerprint impression ​ ​ ​ ​ A, T, / \ = Zero
taken individually by rolling each finger from (0)
one side to the other side and from the tip to Whorl patterns.(WCDX)
the end of the first joint. ​ ​ Finger 1 and 2 ​ Right Thumb
2.​ Plain Impression – are impression made by and Right Index​ ​ (16)
simultaneously pressing the finger to the card, ​ ​ Finger 3 and 4 ​ Right middle
use as a reference to classification. and Right Ring​ ​ (8)
​ ​ Finger 5 and 6 ​ Right little and
Basic Instrument in taking prints: Left Thumb​ ​ (4)
1.​ Ink Slab – is a metallic or glass plate ​ ​ Finger 7 and 8 ​ Left Index and
where the ink is spread for purpose Left middle​ ​ (2)
2.​ Ink Roller – is a rubber made roller ​ ​ Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and
designed to spread the fingeprint ink Left Little​ ​ ​ (1)
to the slab.
3.​ Fingerprint Ink – is a special form of ​ The sum of the numerical value assigned
ink designed for taking fingerprint to even number of finger represent the numerator
impression sometimes submitted with and the sum of the assigned value to odd number
a printer’s ink. represent the denominator Plus the pre-established
4.​ Fingerprint card – is an 8” x 8” card fraction of l/1 to complete the primary.
designed for recording fingerprint b.​ Secondary – Represented by
impression Capital and small letter
5.​ Card holder – usually a fixed card combination based on
holder placed in a flat table designed interpretation made during
to prevent the movement of the card the blocking.
in the course of the taking of the ​ ​ ​ Capital letter – derived
fingerprint. from the index fingers which can be
​ ​ ​ (A, T, U, R, W, C, D or
Basic Rule in taking Fingerprints: X).
1.​ Subject should be instructed to stand ​ Small letter – derived from the thumb,
straight but relax facing the slab. middle, ring and little fingers.
2.​ The subject hand should be ​ ​ It only includes the radial loop
completely dry (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t).

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 c.​ Sub-secondary Division – e.2 Arch = dash (-)
derived by ridge counting of
loop and ridge f. Key Division = derived by getting the ridge
Tracing of whorl found at the index, middle ring count of the first (l) loop except the little fingers.
fingers only. In the absence of the loop, the first whorl will be
ridge counted for the purpose.
c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop
Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count ​ = I 10 or more Reference Classification Formula = is an additional
​ =0 formula serve as a reference in case of doubtful
Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I 11 or more prints. Place the bottom of the classification
​ =0 formula.
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count​ = I 14 or more Latent Prints = prints found at the scene of the
​ =0 crime.

c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl Types of latent prints

Inner Whorl (I) When the tracing goes above or 1.​ Visible prints = are those prints which are
inside the right delta and there are three (3) or more readily visible to the naked eye. It can either
intervening ridges. be: Molded prints or Prints made by
contamination with colored substance.
Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge goes 2.​ Invisible prints = prints that are generally
below or outside the right delta and there are three made by sweat or perspiration that requires
(3) or more intervening ridges. developing for visibility.

Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only two Factors Affecting Stability or Prints at the Crime
orless intervening ridge/s Scene
a.​ Subject Factor
c.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are always dash (-) b.​ Nature of the surface
​ ​ c.​ Climatic Condition
d.​ Major Division (Taken from
Thumb fingers only) Methods of Developing Prints:
d.1 Whorl = Ridge tracing = I, O, or M. 1.​ Dusting Method = considered as the
d.2 Loop = Ridge Counting = S, M or L simplest and traditional methods used
Table 1​ ​ Table 2​ in developing prints at the scene of
​ 1 to 11 ​ ​ = S​ the crime. (Use of Powder and Brush)
1 to 17​ ​ = S​ 2.​ Rolling Method = basically used in
​ 12 to 16 ​ =M​ 18 to 22 ​ developing prints in paper done by
​ =M simply rolling the paper with powder
​ 17 or more ​ = L​ ​ 23 or spreading in its surface.
more ​ = L 3.​ Fuming Methods = done by using
d.3 Arch = dash (-) chemical fumes such as Iodine and
Ammonium Fumes.
e.​ Final Division (derived from 4.​ Silver Nitrate method – done by
the little fingers only). spraying a 5 percent solution of silver
e.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to ridge nitrate to the surface of the paper.
counting. 5.​ Ninhydrin Method = is considered as
​ Radial or Ulnar one of the best method used in
​ Plain or Central pocket loop Whorl = will developing prints in paper.
be treated as an ulnar loop. 6.​ Laser Method = is a modern method
Double loop Whorl – get the ridge count of the of tracing and developing prints.
top loop Post Mortem Fingerprints = are prints taken from a
​ Accidental Whorl = get the least ridge diseased person.
count.

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8
 REVIEW NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Prepared by:

Table of Specification
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following
sub-topics:
1.​ Explain the scientific and technical principles of forensic photography

2.​ Identify the types of photography and their application to law enforcement
operations e.g. surveillance, crime scene, etc

3.​ Distinguish analog and digital photography and the operation of various
photographic equipment, its parts & functions in forensic investigation

4.​ Process photographic exhibits i.e. fingerprint, ballistic, questioned documents, etc.

5.​ Examine the legal aspects of photographic evidence, write forensic findings in a
format generally accepted by the scientific community and in a language clear to
the court of law

Criminalistics = It is the application of the photography when he first wrote a letter

principles of various sciences in solving problems to Henry Fox Talbot.
in connection with the administration of justice. = Is the art and science of reproducing image by
means of light through some sensitized material
It is also referred to as Forensic Science or Police with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories
Science. and the chemical process required in order to
produce a photograph.
The word forensic was derived from the Latin word
“Forum” which means a “market place”, a place 2.​ Forensic = Derived from the Latin word
where people gathered for “public discussion”. “Forum” which means “a market
place” where people gathered for public
When it is used in conjunction with other sciences discussion.
it simply connotes the idea of application to law or = When used in conjunction with other science it
for the administration of justice. Sometimes it is connotes a relationship to the administration of
also referred to as “legal”. justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with
the word legal.
Dr. Hans Gross = An Australian magistrate to
described Search for Truth as the ultimate goal of 3.​ Police Photography = Is the application
all investigative and detective works. He is known of the principles of photography in
as the Father of Modern Criminalistics. relation to the police work and in the
administration of justice.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1.​ Photography = Derived from the Greek 4.​ Photograph = Is the mechanical and
word “Phos” or “Photos” which means chemical result of Photography. Picture
“light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” and photograph are not the same for a
or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir picture is a generic term that refers to all
John F. W. Herschel coined the word kinds of formed image while a

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 photograph is an image that can only be a 1877 ​ William Abney, an English
product of photography. photo-chemist, gave practical directions for
manufacturing emulsions. Invented copper
bromide-silver nitrate intensifications. In 1880 he
introduced hydroquinone as a developer.
HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1880’s George Eastman, founder of the Eastman
1727​ Johann Schulze, a German doctor, made Kodak Company in Rochester, New York,
the discovery that sunlight would blacken chalk introduced the flexible, roll-up film and later a
that had been treated with a solution of silver hand-held roll-up film camera. A camera that is
nitrate. His discovery led to the development of easy to carry and use. The company also offered
film and become a basis of modern photography service for processing of film which makes it for
that lights affects certain silver compounds. amateur photographer not to think of how to
1800​ William Herschel, discovered infra-red. process them. This marks the popularity of
1826 ​ Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French photography as a hobby.
inventor, made the first successful invention of 1900’s Experiments have been made with new
photograph by capturing an image in a metal plate printing techniques to make their photograph look
coated with an asphalt compound exposed with like a paintings. Various darkroom techniques and
light and placed in a solution that brought out the multiple exposures where also developed.
picture and dissolved the unexposed portion 1924​ Leica Camera, a miniature 35 mm
thereby fixing the image. camera was introduced in Germany. This camera
1829​ Niepce became partner of Louis Mande has flexibility and variety in taking pictures. It can
Daguerre, a French theatrical designer. But before make sharp image, detailed pictures under different
they successfully finished a developing process, conditions. It is the forerunner of today’s 35 mm
Niepce died. cameras.
1839 ​ Daguerre revealed a successful process of 1930’s The development of electronic flash by
developing which gains wide acceptance and his Dr. Harold Edgerton (Massachusetts Institute of
photographs are called---“The Daguerreotypes”. Technology) This is one of the most important
Each photograph is unique there being no negative developments in photography.
used in the process and this make it impossible to 1935​ From early 1900’s experiments,
make a reproduction of the same photograph. Kodachrome slide film was finally introduced and
​ William Henry Fox Talbot, an English became and became the first popular and affordable
man, in about the same time, developed the first coloured film.
practical process that produced a negative from 1940’s Color-negative film was used.
which prints could be made. The process is called 1947​ Edwin Howard Land, an American
the “calotype” or the “talotype”. A negative image scientist, develops the instant film and his Polaroid
on a paper is later transfer to the make a positive Land Camera. In just a matter of second, image are
prints. However, paper negative has defect, the readily formed in an instant film after shoot has
image it regards to its ability to stay on the glass. been made.
1847​ Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, nephew of
Joseph Niepce, created a coated glass plate with Development of Electronic Photography
albumen (the white of an egg) which held the 1800’s Discoveries of electricity and magnetism
chemical fast. led to the invention of electric telegraph.
1851, ​ Frederick Scott Archer, an English 1843​ The first Facsimile (fax) machine was
chemist, introduced the wet collodion process to patented.
hold the silver compounds on glass which results in 1920​ Photograph can now be transmitted across
a much faster reaction of light. The process Atlantic through underwater telegraph cable. The
requires that the glass plate be first coated before it first digital transmissions of photograph.
is loaded into the camera. Then the plate had to be 1950​ Both the United States and former Soviet
exposed. Union were engaged in a space race. The US>
1870’s ​ Gelatin-based dry emulsion began to government now became a major transmit images
replace the wet collodion plates. from manned and unmanned spacecraft.

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1964​ Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 spacecraft case : City of Manila vs. Cabangis 10 Phil.
was launched and was able to make the first 151 a photograph is admissible in
electronic photo of Mars. RCA television camera evidence upon proof of exactness and
attached to a leg of the Apollo 11 lunar lander takes accuracy.
the first picture on the moon surface. Photopraphy - Is the application of the principles
​ Charge-coupled device (CCD), works of of photography is relation to the police work and in
Willard Boyle and George Smith, began to record the administration of justice.
image electronically. In 1970’s CCD camera were Photograph - Is the mechanical and chemical
being made for industrial uses and later adapted for result of Photography.
astronomy and space exploration. ​ *Picture and photograph are not the same
1980’s​ Sony Corporation of Japan introduced a for a picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds
consumer electronic camera (the Mavica – of formed image while a photograph is an image
magnetic video camera). This camera can record that can only be a product of photography.
images on a two-inches floppy disks which can be B. Uses of Photography
played on a television or video monitor. 1. Personal Identification
1990​ DCS-100, a digital camera house in a a.​ Personal Identification is considered to be
modified Nikon SLR body was introduced by the first application of photography is
Kodak. This is the first digital camera designed as police work.
a full professional system. This was very expensive b.​ Alphonse Bertillion was the first police
and had to be attached to an external hard drive. who utilized photography in police work
Improvements were later made. In the same year as a supplementary identification in his
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor Anthropometry system.
(CMOS) was introduced which is less expensive c.​ Prisoners, persons subject for
that CCD or DCS. investigation;
2000’s Digital Cameras greatly improved. Their d.​ Unidentified cadaver (victim of crimes,
image quality was equal to or better than that of traffic accidents, natural calamities etc.)
film. The spread of digital later outsell film e.​ Missing persons (for publications and alert
cameras. warnings)
Now digital cameras are being incorporated in f.​ Lost or stolen properties ( paintings,
different gadgets/instruments such as computers, antiques, sculpture etc.)
laptops, cellular phones, I-pods, notebook and g.​ Civilian ( police and NBI clearances)
digital organizer.
2. For Record Purposes and preserving of
A.​ Legal foundation of Photographic evidences - Considered to be the utmost used of
Evidence photography in police work.
For black and white photographs: Different Views in photographing
●​ 1859-Daguerreotype was use in civil case, a.​ General View - taking an over-all
Lueo vs. US (regarding the authenticity of view of the scene of the crime. It
photographs in comparing signatures) shows direction and location of the
●​ 1874-In criminal case introducing crime scene.
photograph as identification evidence,
Underzook vs. Commonwealth b.​ Medium View - Is the taking of the
For color photographs: photograph of the scene of the crime
●​ 1943 - Civil litigations Green vs. City by dividing it into section. This view
and county of Denver Colorado, will best view the nature of the crime.
involving spoiled meat in violation of a
health ordinance prohibiting the sale of c.​ Close-up View - Is the taking of
putrid meat to the public. individual photograph of the evidence
●​ 1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte, at the scene of the crime. It is design
showing the graphic wound of the victim. to show the details of the crime.
●​ In the Philippines, the admissibility of
photograph as evidence was ruled in the

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d.​ Extreme Close-up View - Commonly
designed in laboratory photographing using some ​ ​ A question of relevancy is usually
magnification such as Photomacrography and by proving the origin of the evidence and its
photomicrography. relation to the case and this is usually
supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving
3. For Discovering and Proving- Photography can reference as to where it came from.
extend human vision in discovering and proving
things such as: PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE - It is an
established fact that a photograph offered in
The use of Magnification such as evidence should be true and faithful representation
of the scene or subject matter. The person viewing
a.​ Photomicrography - Is the taking a it should not mislead in any of the important aspect.
magnified photograph of small object It should be free from any distortion of lines,
through attaching a camera to the shapes, and color or any deceptive tone
ocular of a compound microscope so relationship. Important subjects must be in sharp
as to show a minute details of the focus.
physical evidence;
On the other hand, photographic image can also be
b.​ Photomacrogaphy - Taking a manipulated to become misleading. It is for the
magnified (enlarged) photograph of reason that before the photograph being offered in
small object by attaching an extended evidence is admitted, it must undergo verification
tube lens (macro lens) to the camera; as to its exactness and accuracy. In Philippine
judicial system, those qualified to show proof of
c.​ Telephotography - Is the process of faithfulness are:
taking photograph of a far object with
the aid of a long focus and Telephoto a. The photographer who took the photograph;
lens. b. Any other person who has personal knowledge of
the taking of the photographed and have seen the
“Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet subject.
and Infra-red rays to show something which may
not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.” Evidence photographs may be divided into two
categories:
4.​ Crime Prevention - With the use of video a. that which represent an object of evidence and
camera (hidden camera) and other advanced simply serve in place of an object or verbal
photographic equipment crimes are being detected description of it;
more easily and even to the extent of preventing b. those which are designed to prove a point
them from initially occurring. bearing an issue on a case such as comparison chart
of fingerprint, handwriting or test bullets/shells.
5.​ Police Training – Police officers who will
be assigned as crime scene photographers. Testifying in Court - A photographer will be in
court to give testimony to photographs that he had
6.​ Reproducing and Copying - With the use taken. He must be prepare for it to be able to give a
of photography any number of reproduction of the good and credible testimony. He must consider
evidence can be made those giving unlimited himself as neutral witness with no personal interest
opportunity for its examination and even allow in the outcome of the case. His only concern is his
other experts or person to examine the specimen objective desire to present an accurate photograph
without compromising the original; for the court’s consideration. He must always kept
in mind the words of P. Brouardel
7. For Court Exhibits - Almost all evidence
presented in court before formally be accepted
requires that they satisfy the basic requirements for Points of objection on the admissibility of
admissibility which is relevancy and competency photograph

12
 1.​ The WAVE Theory (Huygens) = It
a. Accuracy of the color - The true color is the theory that was transcribed
reproduction may be a point of contestation if color from the motion of the water that if
is of critical issue. Questions may be directed on we observe a piece of log floating in
lighting, filters, and processing, because they affect the ocean and with the force of the
color balance; air would naturally will make the log
move up and down.
b. Alterations on negative or on prints - Presence
of any deliberate attempt to alter photographic 2.​ Corpuscular theory (Newton) =
evidence; this later opposed the wave theory
stating that light has its effect by the
c. Computer generated images - Computer motion of very small particles such
technology brings with it new advancement as electrons.
capabilities to apply problems photograph.
However, it also brings the chance of 3.​ Modified Wave theory (Maxwell
misunderstandings because images, even colors are and hertz) = Based on
easily manipulated; electromagnetics.

d. Enlargement - Size that will conform with the All these theories are still considered to be of little
correct or normal viewing distances and also in lacking that law enforcement need not to be very
possibility of cropping of crucial evidences; focus on this but rather go along with the accepted
conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is
e. Reverse image - Reverse prints, over/under electromagnetic in form.
exposure, blurred prints, or burning inn efforts
Essentials of Photography
f. Equipment - Camera used, lens used, accessory
equipment 1.​ Light - is an electromagnetic energy that
travels in a form of a wave with the speed
g.​ Lightning - Lightning procedure and of 186, 000 miles per second.
technique for artistic purpose can
sometimes produce interesting and 2.​ Camera - a light tight box designed to
deceptive result. block unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
h. Markings on photographs - such as line,
circles, arrows, number are to be avoided except in 3.​ Lens - Is the light gathering mechanism of
comparison chart. the camera that collect the reflected light
“in case that there are inaccuracies or defects in coming from the object to form the image.
the photographs does not necessarily render it
inadmissible as long as there is an explanation of 4.​ Sensitized material - Composed of a
this imperfections so that the jury or court will not highly sensitized chemical compound
be mislead.” which is capable of being transformed into
an image through the action of light and
Theories and concept with some chemical processes.
( Film and Photo Paper).
Investigative photography has gone through three
basic evolutions: 5. Chemical Process - Is the process necessary for
●​ First, Daguerreotype, reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent
●​ 2nd film photography, image and a positive image be made resulting to
●​ and 3rd digital photography what we called Photograph.

Theories of light
Methods of forming images by means of light

13
 Isaac Newton - In 1666 proved that the light
1.​ Pinhole method - Is the oldest method of which men see as white light is actually a mixture
forming image where a box camera with a of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced
very small hole without lens is use to collect when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp
light and form image. Edge of the Glass).
The visible light is also said of have a wavelength
2.​ Shadow method - This method is the of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer
principle involved in the use of X-ray Reflection - Is the bouncing of light. It is the one
machine. generally used in recording images in photography.
Refraction- is the bending of light cause by its
3.​ Lens method - Is the modern method of passage to an object affecting its velocity.
forming image by light action passing a lens. Diffraction- is the action of light when it falls
around the object just like when the moon covers
the sun.
LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS,
SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION Types of Light - Lights can largely be classified
into visible and invisible light.
●​ Light is defined as an electromagnetic 1. Visible Light - Is the type of light that produces
energy with the speed of 186,00 miles different sensation when reach the human eye. It is
per second. the type of light, which is capable of exciting the
●​ Its wave travel is said to be characterized retina of the human eye.
in certain extent based on velocity, 2. Invisible Light - Lights in which their
wavelength and frequency of the number wavelength are either too short or too long to excite
of vibration of the wave per second. the retina of the human eye.

Light wavelength- Is the distance measured Photographic Rays

between two (2) successive crest or through of 1.​ X-ray - Light with the wavelength
wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is
(nanometer) or Angstrom. produced by passing an electric current
through a special type of vacuum tube. It
Millimicron - Is the units of light wavelength was accidentally discovered by Conrad
which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light
millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller works in the principle of shadow
for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) photography.
millionth part of a millimeter 2.​ Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)-
Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to
Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be 400 nanometers. Designed to photograph
characterized as either: fingerprints in multi colored background,
​ 1. Reflected; documents that are altered, decipherment
​ 2. Absorbed; and of erase writing and developing invisible
​ 3. Transmitted writing. It is commercially known as
​ blackLight.
R.A.T. Law 3.​ Visible Light - Is the type of radiation
having a wavelength of 400 to 700
1.​ Reflected - Once the light hits a mirror millimicrons designed for ordinary
and it bounce back. photographing purposes.
2.​ Absorbed - Is when the light hits a dark 4.Infra-red (Beyond the Red) - Considered as the
colored object and prevents it from either photographic rays with the longest wavelength
bouncing or passing through ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is
3.​ Transmitted - Is when the light hits a designed to take photograph of over-written
transparent glass which would allow the documents, obliterated writing, and charred
light to pass through its medium documents or for black out photography.

14
Sometimes referred to as heat rays. Discovered by Synchronization - The timing between the shutter
Herschel and flash which is a problem usually encountered
Sources of Light in using a flash bulb.
1. Natural Light - Are those lights which come to Concurrent light - Light that is scattered
existence without the intervention of man Coherent light - Light that is aligned such as laser
​ e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight. light
a. Bright Sunlight - object in an open space casts a Hologram - The formation of image through the
deep and uniform shadow and the object appears use of laser light.
glossy. SENSITIZED MATERIAL - It refers to the film
b.Hazy Sunlight - Object in an open space casts a and photographic paper that basically composed
transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin of emulsion containing Silver Halides suspended in
clouds that cover the sun. gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective
c.Dull Sunlight - object in an open space cast no support.
shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun. Parts of the Sensitized Material
​ 1. Thin coat of animal gelatin- It protects
2. Artificial Light - It is otherwise known as emulsion from abrasion
​ man-made light. ​ 2.​ Emulsion- Is that part of the film
​ e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb or photographic paper which contains the silver
and photoflood lamp. grains which is the one sensitive to light.
In a colored film this emulsion surface can be
composed of Three layers ( Blue, Green and Red)
Two classification of artificial light with filters intervening.
1.​ Continuous radiation 3.Anti Halation Backing Halation - The
​ Photoflood lamp - is likewise known as spreading of light beyond its proper boundaries in a
Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a developed photographic image.
reflector at the back which focus the light to the ●​ A bright ring that sometimes surrounds a
object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 bright object on a television screen.
watts. ●​ Is the one designed to hold back the light
​ Fluorescent Lamp - Are tube lamps in and prevents halation.
which the walls are coated with fluorescent ●​ The light that passes through the emulsion
powders with both ends is mounted with a holder is absorbed by the anti-halation layer
that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used 4.Base - Support the emulsion.
by everybody more than it is used in Types of Film
photographing. A.​ According to Use
​ Incandescent bulb - Are bulb with a wire 1.​ Black and White Film - usually
filament connecting two wires which sustain the represented by a prefix or a suffix Pan or Ortho and
electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody generally used in black and white photography.
likewise commonly uses this although it is more Examples:
expensive in terms of electrical consumptions. Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
2. Short Duration type Colored Film - Can be divided into two: the
1.Flash bulb - Are chemical lamps, as it generate Negative type and the reversal(transparency) type
lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen. of colored film. The former is usually having
The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is names ending in color while the word chrome
busted when fired electrically. represents the latter.
2. Electronic Flash - Produces light by an ​ e.g. Kodakcolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor
instantaneous electrical in charges between two ​ ​ Kodachrome, Fujichrome,
electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. Agfachrome.
It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000
second, and because of this, subject in fast motion According to Spectral Sensitivity
can be arrested or stopped in the photograph.

15
Spectral sensitivity - is the responsiveness of the 3.​ Double weight = generally used for large
film emulsion to the different wavelength of the prints because they stand up under rough treatment.
light course. B. Surface Texture
1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light 1. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and
and Blue Color. brilliant image formation.
2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light 2. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
up to the green. 3. Rough papers = used for large prints or where
3.​ Panchromatic film - Sensitive to U.V. breath rather than detail is necessary.
Light up to red (sensitive to all colors of the visible C. Color
light) 1. White = better used in police photography.
4. Infra-red Film -. Sensitive to all colors and to 2. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits,
infra-red light. landscape or when warmth effect is desired.
FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed) - This refers to Types of Photographic Papers According to
the degree of sensitivity of the film to light. Contrast (grade)
1.ASA (American Standards Association) - This 1.​ Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely
is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger contrast negative or extremely exposed film.
the number the more sensitive the film is. 2.​ Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast
​ ASA 12,25,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 negative (over exposed film)
2.DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) - Expressed 3.​ Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed
in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same film
principle as the ASA. 4.​ Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak
​ Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc. contrast (under exposed)
3.ISO (International Standard Organization) CAMERA - Is a light tight box with light
Expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating. gathering device and a means of blocking
​ ISO 100/21 unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
Photographic Paper - Is that sensitized material sensitized material.
that will record the visible image in the final ​ Basically, camera can produce image with
development and become the photograph. its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens,
and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
Types of Photographic Papers Essential Parts of a Camera
A.​ According to Emulsion Used (Silver 1.​ Light Tight Box - A box designed to keep
halides content)​ light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
​ 1. Silver Chloride paper = used for 2.​ Lens - Designed to collect or to focus the
contact printing, the size of the positive print is the reflected light from an object to form an image on
same as the size of the negative used. the film. It draws the light into the camera and
2.​ Silver Bromide paper - Used projection, focuses it on the film plane;
printing and enlarging process. This is one of the 3. Shutter - Designed to control the time during
most ideal photo paper used for police which the light reaches the film. An opaque piece
photography. of metal or plastic inside your camera that prevents
3.Silver Chloro bromide paper- used both for light from reaching the film or digital sensor;
projection and contact printing. The shutter is opened, or released, by the shutter
Types of Photographic Papers According to release button.
Physical Characteristics The amount of time the shutter stays open is
A. Weight controlled by the shutter speed setting.
1.​ Light weight = designed for high Shutter opens and closes to control the length of
flexibility and when paper thickness is not of time light strikes the film.
consideration. Intended for purposes, which There are two types of shutters: a leaf shutter,
involves folding. located between or just behind the lens elements,
2.​ Single Weight = papers used for small and a focal plane shutter, located in front of the
prints or which are need to be mounted on solid and film plane.
fine details necessary in the production. Used in 4.Holder of the sensitized material - Located at
ordinary photographic purposes. the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly

16
the sensitized material to prevent the formation of Bright Sunlight = 1/125 , f- 11​
the multiple or blurred image Hazy Sunlight = 1/125, f-8​
5.View finder - Designed to determine the field of Dull Sunlight = 1/125, f- 5.6
view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of 6.Focusing - Is that mechanism of a camera
the given lens. Is the hole in the back of the camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of the
that a photographer looks through to aim the object to be photograph.
camera;
Parallax - With a lens-shutter camera, parallax is
the difference between what the viewfinder sees PARTS OF A CAMERA
and what the camera records, especially at close
distances.
This is caused by the separation between the
viewfinder and the picture-taking lens.
Other parts of the Camera:
Film Advancer - Film advance lever or knob
Designed to transfer the exposed film to the other
side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film
will be the opposite side of the lens for another
exposure.
Shutter Speed Control - The shutter speed control
is the point on your camera where you set the PARTS OF CAMERA (DIGITAL)
amount of time the shutter will remain open.
Is that part of the camera which regulates the time
exposure of the film thus, affecting the amount of
light reaching the sensitized material.
Typical shutter speeds are measured in fractions
of a second, such as: 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500
and 1/1000 of a second.
Note: The shutter speed is measured in fractions of
a second but is generally shown as the denominator
only. For example, 1/60 of a second is shown as 60.
​ ​ The speed number in the left is
always two times powerful in terms of light
gathering than that of the right number
​ ​ Using a fast shutter speed the
photographer can stop or freeze the action of a
person provided that necessary adjustment on the
lens opening be made in order to maintain normal ​ ​ ​ ​ Types of
exposure.​ focusing device
Lens Aperture - Is the ratio between the diameter 1.​ Range finder (Either coincidence or
of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of split image type)
the lens.It is the light gathering power of the lens. ​ ​ Coincidence - otherwise known
Otherwise known as lens opening or relative as superimposed image focusing. In this type of
aperture and it is expressed in F-number. focusing a single object will appeared double once
In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening the object is not in focus, but moving the focusing
through which light travels adjustment this double image will coincide or
Aperture affects depth of field, the smaller the superimposed to form a single object.
aperture, the greater is the zone of sharpness, the ​ ​ Split Image focusing - on the
bigger the aperture, the zone of sharpness is other hand will show an image in split or two parts
reduced. once the object in not in focus once the two parts of
Standard Combination​ the image has been united then the object is already
​ focused

17
2.Ground Glass - This is observed from the 1.Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to
viewing system of the camera, once the object is focus light passing the side of the lens producing an
not in focused the object will be viewed to be image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the
blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted. side.
3. Scale Bed - Estimating the distance of the object 2.Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) =
and adjusting the camera control based on his Inability of the lens to focus light that travels
estimation do this. straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the
TYPES OF THE CAMERA light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is
1.​ View Finder Type – it is considered as transmitted sharp.
the smallest and the simplest type of camera 3.Curvature of Field - the relation of the images
2.​ Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of the different point are incorrect with respect to
of camera best suited for police work due to its one another.
interchangeability of the lens 4.Distortion - Is a defect in shape not in sharpness.
3.​ Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving
camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
other for forming the image. 5.​ Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the
4.​ View or Press type – is considered the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens
biggest and expensive type of camera, used for refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly
movie making. than those of longer wavelength and therefore
LENS - It is the image-forming device of the lens bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.
that actually has a greater effect on the quality of 6.​ Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in
the image to be formed. a medium or system which which the horizontal and vertical axis are not
converge or diverge light rays passing through it to equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus
form an image. both horizontal and vertical lines.
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens 7.​ Flares = condition of the lens producing
in the camera. multiple images.
Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
1.​ According to the type of image to be Best used in long distance photographing but with
produced narrow area coverage. (More than 70 mm)
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) - ​ ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal
Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the length or that which can be adjusted continuously
center and thinner at the side which is capable of by the movement of one or more elements in the
bending the light together and forms the image lens system.
inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) - LENS CHARACTERISTICS
Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of
center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual the lens expressed in F-number
image on the same side of the lens. a.​ Depth of Field – is the distance measured
2. According to Degree of Corrections from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
​ a.​ Meniscus Lens = lens that has sharp focus when the lens
no correction. b.​ Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest
​ b.​ Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens distance at which when a lens is focused with a
corrected of distortion given particular diaphragm opening will gives the
​ c.​ Anastigmat Lens – correcting maximum depth of field.
astigmatism Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in
​ d.​ Achromatic Lens – correcting order to form a sharp image. The one that controls
chromatic aberration the degree of sharpness of the object.
​ e.​ Apochromatic Lens – correcting
both astigmatism ​and chromatic aberration

Inherent Lens Defects CHEMICAL PROCESS

18
The process of making the latent image visible Other terms used:
and permanent. ●​ Dodging = is the process of eliminating
a.​ Development (Use of either D-76, unwanted portion of the negative during
Dektol or Universal Solution) = Is the process enlarging.
necessary for reducing the silver halides ​ to ●​ Cropping = is the process of omitting an
form the image. object during the process of enlarging and
​ Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main printing.
developing agents ●​ Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the
b.​ Stop bath = normally composed of water image towards the side through skillful
with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves adjustment on the dodging board.
as a means to prevent contamination between the ●​ Dye toning = is the process designed in
developer and the acid fixer. changing the color tone of the photograph.
c.​ Fixation = Is the process by which all ●​ Burning-In = refers to additional
unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed exposure on a desired portion of the
from the emulsion surface and making the image negative used for purposes of making a
more permanent. balance exposure.
​ ​ Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the ●​ Condenser – a glass or plastic place after
main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver the light bulb of the enlarger design to
halides. ensure even distribution or illumination of
the light towards the film
Other chemicals used: -End of discussion
●​ Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as
neutralizer Sources:
●​ Sodium Sulfite = serves as the
preservative Compendium on Criminalistics, Dean Cirilo M
●​ Potassium Bromide = restrainer or Tradio, Central Books
hardener Review Materials from Crimzone Enterprises
●​ Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder Review Materials by: Prof Allan Tilla-in,
= serves as accelerator Philippine College of Criminology

19
 REVIEW NOTES ON FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Prepared by:

Table of Specification
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following sub-topics:
1.​ Explain the principles of forensic chemistry and toxicology in relation to crime detection and
investigation

2.​ Demonstrate accepted protocols for handling chemical and biological evidence (blood,
semen, fiber, explosives, drugs, etc.) from the crime scene to the courtroom

3.​ Recognize standardized tests and appropriate laboratory equipment in processing biological
evidence and physical evidence

4.​ Apply scientific procedures in the recognition, collection, and preservation of drugs, poisons,
and other toxicological concerns

5.​ Generate case reports and present factual reports in support of a court trial

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Acute Poisoning - A kind of poisoning characterized by sorts of contamination is examined. The positive result is
prompt and marked disturbance of function or death only indicative that the blood maybe present.
within a short time due to either taking a strong poison in
excessive single dose or several small doses at short Blood - Has been called the circulating tissue of the
interval. body. It is referred to as a highly complex mixture of
cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances. It is
Alkaloid - A nitrogenous organic basic compound with the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque. On
bitter taste containing usually oxygen that occur the treatment with either, water or other reagents
especially in seed plants. becomes transparent lake color. It is finally alkaline.
Normally pH is 7.35-7.45. It comprises 45% formed
Antibody or Agglutinin - These are properties or elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells
"principles contained in the serum which cause namely: Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES)
agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells. around 4-5 millions of red cell per cc. of blood, White
They are antitoxic substances within the body which Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES) & Blood
reacts when confronted determine the presence of Platelets (THROMBOCYTES), and 55% PLASMA.
nitrates, a test to with a specific antigen to protect the
system determine whether a person fired a gun or not. Casting Material - Is any material w/c can be changed
There are two different agglutinins classified as Anti-A from plastic or liquid state to the solid condition is
and Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% capable of use as casting material.
of newly born infants.
Chronic Poisoning - A kind of poisoning in which there
Antidotes - Are agent which neutralize a poison or is gradual deterioration of function of tissues and may or
otherwise counteract or oppose it or its effect. may not result in death. It is produced by either taking
several small doses at long intervals or taking only toxic
Benzidine Test - The most commonly used preliminary doses of the drug.
test for blood. The Benzidine test never fails to detect
blood even when very old, decomposed stain with all Compression Marks - A tool impression which
produced by a single application of tool is the area of

2
contact, for example: the impression of a single blow of a branch of science which treat of the color of the hair.
hammer. Black and brown hair differs only to the amount of
melanin.
Diphenylamine-Paraffin Test - A test to be determine
the presence of nitrates, a test to determine whether a Metallography - Branch of metallurgy that involves the
person fired a gun or not. study of the microstructures of metals and alloys.

Dust and Dirt - has been described as "matter in the Metallurgy - The art of extracting and working on
wrong place". The study of such piece of evidence may metals by the application of chemical and physical
often provide the investigator with agent which knowledge.
neutralize a poison clues as to the occupation or previous
or otherwise counteract or oppose it or its effect. Opacity - The quality of paper that does not allow light
Whereabouts of a person under investigation. Dust is a to pass through or which prevents dark objects from
matter which is dry and in finely divided form while mud being seen through the paper.
is dust mixed with water.
Paraffin Wax - A white, translucent, tasteless, odorless
Etching Fluid - A fluid used to restore tampered serial solid consisting of a mixture of solid hydrocarbons of
numbers. Choice of etching fluid depends on the high molecular weight.
structure of the metal bearing the original number. Phenolphthalein Test- An alternative test to benzidine
blood test. It can detect blood in a dilution of
Explosive - Is any substance that may cause an explosion 1:80,000,000 parts. A positive results with this test is
by its sudden decomposition or combustion. A material highly indicative of blood. The negative result is,
either a pure single substance or mixture of substances therefore, valuable and is conclusive as to the absence of
which is capable of producing an explosion by its own blood.
energy.
Physical Properties Examination - The most sensitive
Forensic Chemistry - That branch of chemistry, which method of determining differences of composition in
deals with the application of chemical principles in the glass samples and it depends upon the study of the
solution of problems that arise in connection with the physical properties of glass. Properties like specific
administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the gravity or density, refractive index.
elucidation of legal problems. It is chemistry used in
courts of law. Chemistry belonging to the court of law. Plasma - The yellowish fluid of blood in which
numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A
Friction Marks - A tool impression which consists of straw-yellow liquid formed when blood to which oxalate
series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to strand.
tool across the surface such as those produced by cutters
jimmy or axe. Poison - A substance which when introduced steam and
acting chemically, is capable of introducing noxious
Glass - A supercooled liquid that possess high viscosity effect or destroy life.
and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic substance.
Posology - A branch of science which treat of the form
Guaiacum Test - A fairly delicate test showing the and quantity of medicine to be administered within a
presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilution. certain period.
It may not react to very old stains
Precipitin Test - One method of blood test that
Haemochromogen Crystal Test or Takayama Test - determines whether blood is a human or non-human
One of the popular microchemical test. A delicate test for origin, and if non-human, the specific animal family
the presence of hemoglobin. from which it originated.

Hair - Is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin Qualitative examination - A type of forensic chemistry
which occur everywhere on the human body except on examination characterized by identification of substance
the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. Hair is not present in the sample.
completely round but maybe into the body and is
absorbed through the blood oval flattened. Quantitative examination - A type of forensic
chemistry examination that aims in determining the
Melanin - The brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. percent purity of the sample.
and it is the chemical responsible for Posology - A

2
Semen and Seminal Fluid - Is a viscid whitish fluid of
the male reproductive track containing spermatozoa Toxicology - Is that branch of science which treats of
suspended in seerission of accessory glands. poisons, their origin, physical and chemical properties,
physiological action treatment of their noxious effect,
Serum - A straw-yellow liquid formed when clotted and methods of detection.
blood is allowed to stand for some time and the clot
contracts. Watermarks - It is a distinctive mark or design placed in
the paper at the time of its manufacture by a roll usually
Spectrographic Test - A method of glass test/analysis a dandy roll.
that determines the presence of trace element. Shows the
constituent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient Wire masks - Marks produced on paper by the flexible
information to establish the origin of the samples wire soldered to the surface of the dandy roll that carries
examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method the watermark.
for glass analysis since it requires only a small amount of
sample. Yarn - They are made of fibers which have been twisted
together, linked thread.
Standard Specimen - Are known specimens to compare
with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a
suspect's relationship to the crime under investigation.

Textile fibers - These are fibers that can be converted

into yarns.

3
 REVIEW NOTES ON QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

Prepared by:

Table of Specification
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following
sub-topics:
1.​ Explain the scientific principles of identification and examination of standards and
questioned documents

2.​ Illustrate and apply the protocol in the selection and examination of standards and
questioned documents

3.​ Demonstrate the techniques in restoring and deciphering erasures and obliterations
in the handwriting, signature, and other questioned documents

4.​ Utilize the different equipment in questioned document examinations in identifying

and differentiating writing characteristics

5.​ Prepare document examination reports and testify forensic findings

Document b.​ Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.)

​ Any material that contains a mark symbol – a Standard document which are executed
or sign, either visible, partially visible or invisible upon request, they are prepare at one time.
that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning
or a message to someone. Contemporary document = documents which are
​ It is any written statement by which a right not more than five (5) years before or after.
is established or an obligation extinguished.
(People vs. Moreno, C.A., 38 O.G. 119) Legal Classification of Documents:
1.​ Public Document = a document
Two Categories of Document created, executed or issued by a
1.​ Questioned Document – Document to which public official in response to the
an issue has been raised or which is under exigencies of the public service, or in
scrutiny. The focal point of the examination the execution of which a public
and to which the document examiner relies as official intervened.
to the extent of the problem. (also referred to = is any instrument authorized by a notary public or
as disputed document). a competent public official, with the solemnities
2.​ Standard Document – Document in which required by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. Baens, 5 Phil.
the origin is known can be proven and can 724).
legally be used as sample to compare with 2.​ Official Document = a document
other things is questioned. which is issued by a public official in
the exercise of the functions of his
Types of Standards office. Am official document is also a
a.​ Collected/Procured Std. – Standard public document as a larger
specimen executed in the regular course of classification.
man’s activity or that which are executed 3.​ Private Document = A deed or
on the day to day writing activity. instrument executed by a private
person without the intervention of a

4
 notary public or other person legally Writing Habits – refers to any repeated elements
authorized, by which documents, of once handwriting which serves as an identifying
some disposition or agreement is characteristics.
proved, evidenced or set forth. (US Significant Writing Habits – elements of one’s
Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g. Theater writing that are sufficiently unique and well fixed
Ticket. to serve as a strong basis of individuality.
4.​ Commercial Document = any Slant = refers to the relative degree of writing
document defined and regulated by inclination relative to the baseline.
the Code of Commerce ( People Vs. Baseline = an imaginary or straight line in which
Co Beng, C.A. 40 OG 1913) or any the writing rest.
other commercial law.
Types of Handwritings
Classes of Questioned Documents: 1.​ Cursive – Writing in which the letters are for
1.​ Document with questioned Signature (most the most part joined together.
common). 2.​ Handlettering – refers to writing characterized
2.​ Document containing fraudulent alteration by a disconnected style.
(Any form of changes either an addition or 3.​ Natural Writing – a specimen of writing that is
deletion to the contents of a document). executed normally and without any attempt of
3.​ Holograph Document – a document that is altering its usual writing habits.
completely written and signed by one person 4.​ Disguised – a specimen of writing executed
4.​ Document questioned as to the material used in deliberately with an attempt of changing its
their production. usual writing habits in the hope of hiding one’s
5.​ Documents questioned as to their age or date. identity.
6.​ Documents involving typewriting 5.​ Guided/assisted – a specimen of writing
7.​ Document which may identify a person executed while the writer’s hand is at steadied.
through handwriting Usually employed by beginners in writing.
8.​ Genuine documents erroneously or
fraudulently attacked or disputed. Signature – a name of person signed by himself on
9.​ Documents containing printing or type prints. a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
Model signature – genuine signature which has
Writings and Signature: been used in preparing a simulated or traced
System of Writing – is the combination of the forgery.
basic shape and designs of letter and the writing Evidential Signature – specimen signature which
movement which was taught in school. was executed in particular date, particular time and
Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic place, under a particular writer’s condition and for
designs of letters that is fundamental to the writing a particular purpose.
system.
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to Classes of Signature
the motion of the pen such as, pressure, rhythm, 1.​ Formal or complete – used in signing
pen lifting, etc. very important document
Writing – is the visible result of a very 2.​ Informal or cursory – used for routine
complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a document
combination of certain forms which are the very 3.​ Careless scribble – used for not so
visible result of mental and muscular habits important document such as delivery
acquired by long continued painstaking effort. of mail or receipt of purchase
Handwriting – is a visible effect of bodily equipment etc.
movement which is an almost unconscious
expressions of fixed muscular habits, reacting from Forgery – is an act of falsifying or counterfeiting
fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated any treasure or bank notes, paper bills or any
with script form. documents which are payable to the bearer.

5
 -​ is an act of simulating or tracing 4.​ Buckle Knot is a horizontal or loop strokes
somebody’s signature without the used to complete letters A, H, F and D.
latter’s consent for profit. 5.​ Central Part – is the body of the letter.
Characterized by a small rounded or circular
Major types of Forgery strokes.
1.​ Simple forgery – a forges signature where no 6.​ Ductus-link, Ductus-broken- refers to the
attempt has been made to make a copy or connection between letters, either joined or
facsimile of the genuine writing of a person disconnected.
purported to sign the document. Also known 7.​ Eyelet/ eyeloop – refers to small oblong
as spurious signature strokes.
2.​ Simulated or Copied forgery – a forged 8.​ Hitch – an introductory backward strokes
signature which resembles the genuine found in most capital letters and in some small
signature written in free-hand. Considered as letters.
the most skillful type of forgery. 9.​ Hiatus = an obvious gap between letters.
3.​ Traced Forgery – forged signature which 10.​ Humps – is the outer portion of an upper curve
closely resembles the genuine made by some bend or crook, (see arc)
tracing process or outline form. 11.​ Knob – is a tiny pool of an ink at the beginning
Methods of tracing or ending strokes.
a.​ Carbon outline process – used of 12.​ Loop – is an oblong strokes
carbon paper. 13.​ Stem/shank/staff – is considered as the
b.​ Indention process- used of backbone of the letter characterized by a long
considerable pressure, Canal-like downward strokes
process. 14.​ Initial/terminal Spur – a long running initial or
c.​ Projection or transmitted light terminal strokes.
process- used of light from the back 15.​ Through – refers to any garland form of a letter
or bottom. strokes
d.​ Laser method – used of hologram. 16.​ Whirl – is the long upward strokes usually
found opposite the stem
CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING:
Characteristics – refers to any property, marks or Embellishments – added strokes that serves as an
elements which distinguishes. Also referred to as ornamental or flourish to the design of the letters.
identifying details. They considered unnecessary to the legibility of the
writing.
Types of characteristics: Diacritics = strokes added to complete certain
1.​ Class Characteristics – characteristics or letters. They are necessary to the legibility of the
properties which are common or which can be letters.
found in the specimen writing of other person. Writing Movement – refers to all factors relative
Gross characteristics. to the motion of the pen.
2.​ Individual Characteristics – characteristics
which are highly personal or peculiar. That Line Quality – is the visible records in the written
which is unlikely to occur in other’s strokes of the basic movements and manner of
handwriting. holding instrument. It is derived from a
Elements of Forms in Writing: combination of factors, including writing skill,
1.​ Arc – the rounded inner part of an upper curve, speed, rhythm, freedom of movement, shading and
bend or crook, pen emphasis.
2.​ Beard – is an introductory up and down strokes
found in some capital letters. Also called as ​ Types of movement:​
double hitch. ​ 1. Finger (used by beginners)
3.​ Blunt – is a part of a stroke characterized by a ​ 2. Hand (wrist serves as the point of
abrupt beginning or end at which the pen does pivotal & of limited freedom)
not creates a diminishing strokes. ​ 3. Forearm (most skillful type of
movement)

6
​ 4. Whole arm (used for ornamental or 3.​ Tremor – is the weakening of the strokes
large writings) characterized by a wavering or shaky strokes.
a.​ Genuine Tremor
Elements of Writing Movement a.1. Weakness of sickness
1.​ Pen pressure – is the average or usual a.2 Old age
pressure applied in the writing. a.3. Illiteracy (lack of skills)
2.​ Pen Emphasis – is the act of b.​ Tremor of Fraud
intermittently forcing the pen against
the paper surface with an increase in 4.​ Writing Conditions – refers to all factors
speed. affecting the over-all quality of writing such as
3.​ Rhythm – is the harmonious or the writer’s condition under which the writing
balance recurrence of strokes or was prepared.
impulses.
4.​ Skills – refers to the degree of 5.​ Writing instrument
writer’s proficiency in writing a.​ Ball point pen (John Loud) consisting
5.​ Speed – cannot be measured precisely of a ball bearing at the point of the
from the finished handwriting but it pen.
can be interpreted in broad term as to b.​ Fountain pen (Lewis Watterman)
either fast, slow or moderate. consisting of pen nib point.
6.​ Pen-lift – an interruption is strokes c.​ Fiber pen (originally designed by
caused by sudden removal of the Hongkong)
writing instrument from the paper
surface. Miscellaneous Document Problem
7.​ Shading – refers to the more obvious 1.​ Detection of Alteration
increase in the width of the letter Alteration - refers to any form of changes either an
strokes. addition or a deletion to the original content of the
8.​ Pen Position – is the relative location document which is not a part of its original
of the pen in relation to the paper preparation.
surface. 2.​ Decipherment of Erased Writings
9.​ Pen scope – represents the reach of Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or any
the hand with the wrist at rest. part of a document either by mechanical or
10.​ Retracing or retraced – is the strokes chemical process.
which goes back over another writing Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive
strokes that is slightly to occur in method through rubbing or scrapping.
other’s writing. Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of
11.​ Retouching or patching – is a stroke, bleaching agent called ink eradicator.
which goes back over a defective Usually examined with the aid or fuming,
portion of a writing to repair or transmitted light, oblique light and ultra-violet
correct an error. light examination.
3.​ Decipherment of Obliterated writing
Factors that affects writing characteristics: Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an
1.​ Natural Variations – is the usual or normal original writing to make it undecipherable or
deviation found in a repeated specimen of an illegible. Done with the used of superimposing
individual’s handwriting or in the product of inks. Usually examined with the used of
any typewriter. Infra-red light.
2.​ Transitory Change – are meant to those 4.​ Examination of Charred Document and water
changes which only continue to exist while the soaked document
basic cause of the deterioration is still affecting Charred Document – refers to partly burned or
the writer, once the such cause has been brittle document. Decipherment is usually
removed from the writer, the writing will accomplished with the used of infra-red light
reverts in its normal form. examination.
5.​ Development of Invisible writing

7
Invisible writing – writing that has no readily by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the
visible ink strokes. Made by Sympathetic inks ribbon.
such as acids, juice and others. They are possible 8.​ Permanent Defects – any identifying
of development depending on the ink used. typewriting characteristics of the type face
Methods of development can be by heat. Water, which cannot be corrected by simply
chemical fuming or by ultra-violet light process. cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
9.​ Mal alignment or alignment defects – refers to
6.​ Decipherment of Contract writing defect in the printing condition of the type
Contact writing – refers to partially visible ink character in which the letters are printed
strokes cause by sudden contact between a sheet of either at the top or bottom, left or right of
paper with another paper containing fresh ink. Can inclined from its proper position.
be enhanced through fuming or ultra-violet light
process. Principal technique utilized in typewriting
identification
1.​ Measure the type face pitch
2. Verify the type size and design (W-G-T)
3. Look for individual type face defects

Typeface Defects
EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING 1.​ Vertical mal alignment – a character printing
above or below of its proper position.
Definition of Terms: 2.​ Horizontal mal alignment – an alignment
1.​ Typeface – is the printing surface of the type defect in which the characters are printed to
block in a conventional typewriter. In electric the left or right of its proper position.
typewriter it is the printing surface of the 3.​ Twisted letters – letters and characters are
rotating head sphere. designed to be printed at a certain angle to the
2.​ Typeface defect – any form of peculiarity of baseline. Once letters leans to the left or right
the type printing caused by actual damage to of its proper position such is called twisted
the typeface metal or which maybe an abnormality letters.
in its printing condition. 4.​ Off-its-feet – is a condition of the type face
3.​ Characters – in connection to typewriting, it is printing at which then character outline is not
used to include letters, symbols, numerals equally printed, that is the printing is heavier in
or points of punctuation. one side than the remainder of the outline of
4.​ Pica typeface – type face impression ordinarily the character.
spaced ten (10) characters to the 5.​ Rebound – typeface defect in which a
horizontal inch. character prints a double impression with the
5.​ Elite typeface – type face impression lighter one slightly off-set to the right or left.
ordinarily spaced twelve (12) characters to 6.​ Actual breakage – any peculiarity of
the horizontal inch. typewriting caused by actual damage to the
6.​ Proportional spacing machine – a typewriter type face metal.
with a type letter spacing similar to the type Clogged type face (dirty) – is a typeface defects
spacing of conventional printed in which all characterized by dirty prints due to constant used
letters are allotted horizontal in conformity without cleaning of the type bar or due to use of
with their relative widths. new carbon. These are common in closed letter
7.​ Transitory Defects – is an identifying outline such as o, a, p, g etc.
typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated

8
 REVIEW NOTES ON LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

Prepared by:

Table of Specification
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following
topics:
1.​ Explain the scientific principles and the theory of psycho-physiology applicable to
lie detection and truth verification

2.​ Demonstrate procedures and techniques in the use of the polygraph and examine
other various lie detection techniques (Voice Stress Analysis, Iris Examination,
Psycho-physiological detection of deception i.e body language/eye movements,
etc.) with adherence to the rule of law

3.​ Analyze and interpret indications of truth and deception using the polygraph
machine and other similar equipment

4.​ Demonstrate ability to construct polygraphic questions following the various

acceptable formats used by the scientific community

5.​ Demonstrate competence in the examination, interpretation of polygraphic evidence

and communicate findings in a format acceptable by the scientific community and
the courts

Under CHED MEMORANDUM ORDER NO. 05

SERIES OF 2018: Policies,
Standards and Guidelines for the Bachelor of
Science in Criminology (BS Criminology) Program.
The Technical Committee herewith suggest the
minimum Course Description and Course Content for
the course prescribed under CMO 05, s. 2018 as
follows.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course includes the

study of the different methods and techniques in lie
detection. The anatomy of lying, its theory, kinds and
types. It includes the conduct of polygraph examination.
It covers also the history, personalities and
developments of Lie detection in different countries as a
tool of crime investigation and also in relation to court
proceedings.

COURSE OUTLINE:

CONTENT

9
 Theories of Lying, Psychology of Lying, Physiological re Historically, early human beings have their own way of
ways to detect a lie, and why People lie? determining lie or guilt on the part of the accused and
Different Methods of Detecting Deception. accuser. Their common method is thru the application of
Early and Contemporary Methods of Detecting Decept “ordeal.” An ordeal is a severe test of character or
Significance. endurance, trying course of experience, and a medieval
Phases of Polygraph Examination form of judicial trial in which the accused was subjected
Timeline of the Modern Polygraph. to physical tests, as carrying, or walking over burning
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Polygraph Technique. objects or immersing the hand in scalding water, the
Limitations and Barriers of Polygraph Technique. result being considered a divine judgment of guilt or
Modern Components of Polygraph Instrument: Its PartS an innocence. It is also a term of varying meaning closely
Question Formulation, Types of Test Question, related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning
“Miraculous Decision.”
Supplementary Test Question, Question Sequencing.
The term “Trial by Ordeal” refers to the ancient
Chart Making and Polygraph Interpretation
method of trial in which the accused was exposed to
Rules in Chart Interpretation
physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if
Evaluation of Polygraph Results
he was innocent.
Rights of Person under Polygraph Examination, Leg
According to historians, “Trial by Combat” was the
Polygraph Testing.
earliest method of determining truthfulness and
Validity and Reliability Issues of Polygraph Testing, P
deception of a person or persons suspected for the
Court.
commission of an offense. It is the resolving of an issue
Standards of Admissibility, Comparative Setting.
through strength of arms. For example, there are two
Status of Polygraph in the Philippines, Institutions using men approach a fallen victim, each claim he did not
the Philippines and Abroad.
killed it, and asserts to be righteous and innocent of the
accusation. To prove their allegations that engage in
combat. The ideal assumption is that the truthful
individual will win through. However, the most skilled
in combat usually will become victorious and thus made
him as having the rightful claim and that the loser will
be declared guilty and will suffer the consequence
thereafter.
The scenario changed very little by medieval times. The
customs knights engaged in mortal combat to decide
whose lord had the right in any controversy. While the
practice was functionally the same as trial by combat,
the ethical premise was different. It was held that the
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL fighting skill of an individual was not related to his
DEVELOPMENT OF LIE DETECTION truthfulness or lying. The knight representing the truth
would be victorious due to “Divine intervention” that is,
Since the dawn of civilization, mankind has sought that a just God would not allow injustice to prevail.
ways to distinguish truthfulness from deception in those The next development in the search for truth was the
individuals suspected of criminal wrongdoing. Various so-called, “Trial by Ordeal” (Keeler 1938). It was
inventive techniques for the verification of truth and the assumed once again that God would intervene on behalf
detection of deception have been tried over the of the innocent, that is God would not allow any
centuries, many of these being ridiculous and barbaric. innocent individual to be harmed, while these attempts
Despite their primitiveness, each technique was based to detect truth appeared to be laden by observations both
on the assumption that some form of physiological psychological and physiological phenomena which play
reaction occurred within a person when confronted with an important role in the truth finding processes.
certain stimuli regarding an event under investigation, 1.​ Red Hot Iron Ordeal
and that this physiological reaction would, in turn, be –​ practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in
manifested in certain recognizable external symptoms the North Bengal. An accused placed his tongue to
that were indicative of honesty or deception. a red hot iron nine times unless burned sooner. If
burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. Not only
Ancient Methods of Detecting Deception just licking the iron but also he is made to carry the
metal into his hands.

10
2.​ Ordeal by the Balance –​ the accused was given a decoction to drink
–​ an ordeal practiced in the Vishnu, India. by a priest – if innocent; no harm befalls him, but it
The scale of balance is used where the accused is guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria and India.
placed in the other end while a counter balance is 10.​ Trial of the Eucharist
made. If he were found to be lighter than before –​ this trial is reserved for the clergy, and
then he will be acquitted. administered with pomp and ceremony. If the
3.​ Boiling Water Ordeal accused was guilty, it was believed that Angel
–​ common in Africa. The method was that Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the
the subject will be asked to plunge their right arms accused from swallowing the food given to him.
into the boiling water to the elbow and step into the Practiced in the European countries.
other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test 11.​ Ordeal by Heat and Fire
without a murmur. And when all are finished, they –​ the accused was compelled to walk bare
are told to return at the same time the next footed through a fire; if he remains unhurt then he
afternoon. The one who showed blisters would is innocent. Practiced in East Germany, early
prove the thief (Point out who is the one who steal Scandinavian countries and early England.
among his tribe mates). 12.​ Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water
4.​ Ordeal by Rice Chewing –​ the accused was forced to dip his hands
–​ an ordeal practiced by the Indians, it is into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone
formed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared in it. If he remains unhurt then he is innocent.
with various incantations. The person on trial eats Practiced in Asian Countries.
the rice then spits upon an eyeful leaf. If the saliva 13.​ Ordeal of Red Hot Needle
is mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth –​ a red hot needle was drawn through the
swell or he trembles, he is declared them a liar. lips of the accused, if innocent, no blood will be
5.​ Ordeal of the Red Water – used in a seen flowing out. Practiced in East Africa.
wide region of eastern Africa. The ordeal of the 14.​ Ordeal of the Tiger
“sassy bark” or red water was used where the –​ accuse and accused were placed together
accused is made to fast for twelve hours then in the same and a tiger set loose up them. If both
swallows a small amount of rice until he is imbibed were spared, further elimination followed. Practiced
in dark colored water. This water is actually emetic in Thailand.
and if the suspect ejects all the rice, he is considered 15.​ Test of the Cross Ordeal
innocent; otherwise, the accused is guilty. –​ the accuser and accused each were made
6.​ Combination of Drinks and Food to stand with arms crossed on their breast. The one
Ordeal who endured the longest was deemed to have told
–​ an ordeal practiced by the west African the truth, the other, is the liar. Practice in Europe.
region where the accused first faster for 12 hours 16.​ Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
and the given small amount of rice to eat followed –​ a donkey was placed in one room alone
by large amount of black colored water. If the and was observed. If the donkey cried as judge of
connection was vomited, the accused was the guilty of crimes, then the accused is guilty.
pronounced innocent, otherwise, guilty. Popular Countries that Practiced Trial by Ordeal
7.​ Trial by Combat 1.​ Burma – the accuser and accused were
–​ a fight between the accuser and the given each identical candle and both were lightened
accused, whoever lost the battle will be the at the same time. The holder of the candle that
adjudged guilty. Originated in India where an consumed faster was adjudged the liar.
accuser could hire somebody or bigger one to fight 2.​ Madagascar – the supposed criminal was
the accused. After the fight the loser will be made to drink a poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a
adjudged as guilty of crime. It became the legal small dose can be fatal. By managing the size of the
ordeal in England during the time of “King Henry dose, those who administer can decide result.
III.” 3.​ Borneo – the accuser and accused were
8.​ Trial by Torture presented by shellfish placed on a plate. An
–​ the accused was put into a severe physical irritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and
test, if the accused can endure such torture, he will the litigant whose shellfish moved first was
be considered innocent. adjudged the winner.
9.​ Drinking Ordeal 4.​ Greece – a suspended axe was spun at the
center of a group of suspects. When the axe

11
 stopped, whoever was in line with the blade was them. His works helped in the development
supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine of the galvanometer.
providence. CHRISTIAN HANS STOELTING (1886)
5.​ Nigeria – the priest greased a cock’s –​ founded the Stoelting Co. which
feather and pierced the tongue of the accused. If the became a leading product supplier on
feather passed through the tongue easily, the physiological, psychological and
accused was deemed innocent. If not, the accused is psycho-physiological measurement.
guilty. Another method in Nigeria was the practice ANGELO MOSSO (1878)
of pouring corrosive liquid into the eyes of the –​ used an instrument called a
accused who was supposed to remain unharmed if Plethysmograph in his research on emotion
innocent. Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of and fear in subject undergoing questioning
the accused with the usual requisites for guilt or and he studied the effects of these variables
innocence is also practiced (if remain unharmed, he on their cardiovascular and respiratory
is innocent). activity. Mosso studied blood circulation and
6.​ Europe and Early United States (17th breathing patterns and how these changed
Century) – trial by water was commonly used on under certain stimuli. The use of the
those accused of witchcraft. The accused was plethysmograph revealed periodic
bound (hand and foot) and then cast into the body undulations or waves in a subject’s blood
of water. If the accused sank, he was hauled to the pressure caused by the respiratory cycle in
surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If he response to certain stimuli.
floated, he was deemed guilty and burned to death. Angelo Mosso was the first scientist to report on
experiments in which he observed that a person’s
TIMELINE OF THE MODERN POLYGRAPH breathing pattern changed under certain stimuli, and that
this change, in turn, caused variations in their blood
During the 19th century, DR. HANS GROSS, an pressure and pulse rate.
Austrian – known as the “Father of Criminalistics”, CHARLES SAMSON FERE (1888)
defined search for truth as the basis and goal of all –​ a French scientist who discovered
criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of that electro-dermal response is caused by an
the criminalist’s work is nothing more than a battle increase in the action of the heart and vital
against lie. He has to discover the truth and must fight energy converted with human emotions. He
the opposite. He meets the opposite at every step”. asserted that human body has the ability to
Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment generate, store, discharged high voltage of
with more scientific methods in determining truth and static electricity.
deception with the following scientists who have SIR JAMES MACKENZIE (1892)
contributed much in the development of the scientific –​ an English heart specialist who
instrument known as the “Polygraph” thus, the constructed the Clinical Polygraph an
polygraph technique was used as the scientific means of instrument to be used for medical
detecting deception. DANIEL DEFOE (1730) examinations with the capability to
–​ a British novelist who wrote an simultaneously record undulated line
essay entitled “An Effectual Scheme for the tracings of the vascular pulses (radial,
Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto
and Suppressing all Other Disorders of the a revolving drum of smoked paper.
Night”, wherein he recommended that taking –​ in 1906, refined his clinical
the pulse of a suspicious fellow was a polygraph in his article entitled. “The Ink
practical, effective and humane method for Polygraph”. This instrument used a
distinguishing truthfulness from lying. It was clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling
an early and insightful suggestion to employ and time-marker movements, and it
medical science in the fight agains crime. produced ink recordings of physiological
JACQUES D’ARSONVAL (1851) functions that were easier to acquire and to
–​ a French scientist who declared that interpret. Interestingly, it has been written
electricity is generated by the body. This was that the modern polygraph is a modification
known as external friction. He asserted that of
those sweat glands in the body at times store Mackenzie’s clinical ink polygraph.
the electricity and at other times discharged CESARE LOMBROSO (1895)

12
 –​ employed the first scientific JOHN A LARSON (1921)
instrument to detect deception. –​ developed the “Larson Polygraph”,
He modified an existing instrument called a an instrument capable of continuously
Hydrosphygmograph and used this modified device in recording blood pressure, pulse, and
his experiments to measure the physiological changes respiration. It was made on a Polygraphic
that occurred in a crime suspect’s blood pressure and apparatus in a portable form and became the
pulse rate during a police interrogation. Although he did first assemblage of apparatus used by his
not invent the Hydrosphygmograph, he was accorded co-workers in the Berkeley Police
the distinction of being the first person to have used the Department. Under the Larson Polygraph, a
instrument successfully as a means for determining strip of paper on which the tracings are
truthfulness from deception in crime suspects. recorded is mounted on two drums, which
GEORGE STICKER (1897) are turned by a spring mechanism known as
–​ first person to suggest the use of the a kymograph. The paper is smoked to reduce
Galvanograph for detecting deception. He the friction of the styluses or recording
theorized that the galvanic skin phenomenon levers which were actuated by many
was influenced by exciting mental Tambours. A manometer is placed on the
impressions. OTTO VERAGUTH (1907) right shoulder of the subject, the function of
–​ was the first to use the term which was to indicate the pressure in the
“Psychogalvanic Reflex”, an idea that the bag, the pressure bag, encased in a leather
electrical phenomenon was due to the cuff, is strapped pneumograph is strapped
activity of the sweat glands. around the chest to record respiration. This
HUGO MUNSTERBURG (1908) type of pneumograph or respiration
–​ proposed and advocate that lie test applicator is still being used in some of the
based on lie detector should be admissible as modern instruments.
evidence in court. LEONARDE KEELER (1925)
VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914) - gained firsthand experience in polygraph
–​ successfully detected deception interrogations as a result of working with John A.
with a pneumograph, an instrument that Larson at the Berkeley Police Department, worked to
graphically measures an examinee’s devise a polygraph that used inked pens for recording
inhalation and exhalation and demonstrated the relative changes in a subject’s blood pressure, pulse
that changes in breathing patterns rate and respiratory patterns, thus eliminating the need
accompany deception. for smoking the paper and then preserving it with
WILLIAM M MARSTON (1915) shellac.
–​ contribution to the science of the In 1926, the Keeler Polygraph came on the market as
detection of deception is more method than the new and improved lie detector, an enhanced version
instruments. He believed that verbal of John A. Larson’s polygraph.
deception could be detected by changes in In 1938, he further refined the polygraph when he
the systolic blood pressure. He used a added a third physiological measuring component for
standard a blood pressure cuff, or the detection of deception – the Psychogalvanometer – a
sphygmomanometer to take measurements component that measured changes in a subject’s
of systolic blood pressure during galvanic skin resistance during questioning, and in
interrogation. Later in his work with lie doing so, thus signaling the birth of the polygraph as we
detection, he used a pneumograph to record know it today.
respiration cycles. Both the In 1939, Keeler patented what is now understood as the
sphygmomanometer and the pneumograph prototype of the modern polygraph – the Keeler
were separate instruments. Polygraph. Today, Leonarde Keeler is known as the
“Father of Modern Polygraph”.
In 1948, he founded the world’s First Polygraph School
HAROLD BURTT (1918) – the Keeler Polygraph
–​ determined that respiratory changes Institute in Chicago, Illinois.
were indicative of deception. He found out CAPT CLARENCE D LEE (1930)
that changes in systolic blood pressure were -​ Designed the Lee Psychograph consists
of greater value in determining deception essentially of four units – Chart drive or recording unit,
than changes in respiration.

13
Pneumograph or respiration unit, Cardiograph or computerized polygraph system, which they marketed
pulse-blood pressure unit, and the Stimulus signal unit. in 1991. Computerized polygraphs entered the market in
CHESTER W DARROW (1932) 1992. They recognized the need to find new lie
-​ Made a third modification to the Larson detectors that could complement the polygraph because
Cardio-Pneumo Psychograph, by adding a the polygraph primarily measures emotional responses,
galvanometer. The new instrument included a not concealed knowledge. In April 2014, after more
psycho-galvanometric record, electrodes on the palm than 10 years fine-tuning the technology, EyeDetect was
and back of the hand, as well as a continuous blood introduced to the market.
pressure record, and a pneumographic record. DALE OLSEN & JOHNS HARRIS (1993)
MAX WASTL (1947) -​ Completed a software program called POLY
-​ Founded the Lafayette Instrument Company SCORE which used a sophisticated mathematical
which became a leading polygraph machine distributor. algorithm to analyze the polygraph data and to estimate
JOHN E REID (1945) a probability or degree of deception or truthfulness in a
-​ A lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, developed the subject. The Poly Score is a computerized polygraph
Control Question Technique (CQT), a polygraph chart scoring algorithm that uses statistical probability
technique that incorporated control questions to arrive at truthfulness or deception. It has been shown
(comparisons) which were designed to be emotionally that validated algorithms have exceeded 98 percent in
arousing for deceptive subjects that the relevant their accuracy to quantify, analyze and evaluate the
questions previously used. The Control Question physiological data collected from polygraph
Technique (CQT) replaced the Relevant/Irrelevant examinations administered in real criminal cases.
Question Technique
(RIT) which used relevant or irrelevant questions during FUNDAMENTALS OF LIE DETECTION
polygraph examination. The Reid
Control Question Technique was considered a major LIE DETECTION Defined
breakthrough in polygraph methodology. Is an assessment of a verbal statement with the goal to
He inserted a surprise control question in the reveal a possible intentional deceit. Lie detection may
relevant/irrelevant technique. Reid is therefore refer to a cognitive process of detecting deception by
considered the "Father of Controls". evaluating message content as well as non-verbal cues.
PAUL WILGEL & DONALD BURNS (1951) Lie detection took on aspects of modern science with
-​ Were known as Lie Detector Specialist in the development in the 20th century of techniques
Michigan City, Indiana, USA, who invented the intended for the psychophysiological detection of
Electronic Psychometric using Electrodermal Response deception, most prominently, polygraph testing. The
as a basis for lie detection. Both have proven that a polygraph instrument measures several physiological
result of lie detection test using their instruments was processes (e.g., heart rate) and changes in those
95% accurate. processes.
CLEVE BACKSTER (1960) Although polygraphs are sometimes known as lie
-​ Developed the Backster Zone Comparison detectors, they don't actually detect lies directly. Most
Technique (ZCT), a polygraph technique which modern polygraphs measure the interviewee's heart rate,
primarily involved an alteration of the Reid question breathing rate and sweating while they are asked yes/no
sequencing. He also introduced a quantification system questions.
of chart analysis, thus making it more objective and What is LIE?
scientific than before. This system for the numerical A lie is any of the following: untruthful statement,
evaluation of the physiological data collected from the falsehood, anything that deceives or creates false
polygraph charts has been adopted as standard impression, untrue statements especially with intent to
procedure in the polygraph field today. deceive or to give an erroneous or misleading
JOSEPH F KUBIS (1970) impression. It is also synonymous to deceit, deception,
-​ The first researcher to use potential computer fabrication, falsehood and untruth. Lying takes more
applications for the purpose of Polygraph chart analysis. mental effort.
JOHN KIRCHER & DAVID RASKIN (1988) •​ It takes more thought to create bogus dates,
-​ Produced the Computer Assisted Polygraph times, places and people.
System integrating the first algorithm for measuring •​ It takes more thought to maintain consistency
physiological data. They first published research on and believability in a fake story.
polygraph in the 1970s and then spent 10 years
developing the software/hardware for the world’s first

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 •​ It takes more thought to monitor behavior prevent embarrassment. As things get darker, some lie
when questioned—to keep things believable. What is for gainful purposes – lie to benefit the liar or to be
meant by DETECTION? malicious – lie to hurt others.
In this context, detection is the act of detecting, There are many reasons why people lie. But commonly,
discovery, perceiving, finding, or uncovering something it is due to fear of detection that one has committed
obscure such as a lie. something undesirable or would like to preserve
How Lie Detector Tests Work something valuable. For instance, he may feel that
Most lie detectors are instruments that measure changes detection would result to embarrassment, penalty and
in aspects of a person’s physiology while answering punishment, thus, placing his whole life at stake.
questions. The theory is that if a person reacts more A person’s fear, anxieties and apprehensions are
strongly to specific types of questions, the person can be channeled towards the situation that reminds his instinct
determined to be innocent or guilty. If a person’s of self-preservation to struggle out from the
reaction is considered neither innocent nor guilty, that is consequences of the wrong he had already done.
called an inconclusive result.
Over the years, lab and field studies have shown that Significance of Understanding Lie Detection
most liars show similar patterns of changes in physical In every criminal investigation, the truth must be
behavior that sensitive equipment can measure. Of established to ensure proper prosecution of offenders.
course, there are cases where some liars do not show the Criminal investigation must exert all effort to determine
same physical signs as most. For that reason, lie lying not only on the part of the suspect but as well as to
detectors have margins of error. everyone involved in the criminal act – witnesses,
In reality, the more prone to lying, the more a person victims, etc.
fabricates details and events to create a cover story. Lies In establishing the truth, criminal investigators apply
breed lies. Research indicates the accompanying stress various methods such as:
can be harmful and even exhausting. The longer a observation; mechanical lie detection; use of drugs that
person attempts to “keep a cover story straight,” the inhibits the “inhibitor”; hypnosis; and interrogation.
more stress and strain is felt. Kinds of Lie
That discomfort may lead to more serious side effects in 1.​ White Lie or Benign Lie – these are the
the future. A Columbia University study shows kind of lies used to protect or maintain the harmony
stressed-out people were 27% more likely to have heart of friendship or any relationship.
attacks compared to those who worried less. Stanford 2.​ Pathological Lie – this is a lie made by
researchers conducted a study to measure the effect of persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong.
lying on a group of participants who said dishonest acts 3.​ Red Lie – this involves political interests
made physical tasks, such as working out or helping and motives because is a part of communist
someone move, feel more taxing. In addition, deceptive propaganda strategy. This is prevalent in communist
participants suggested that hills seemed steeper and countries or communist infested nations. Example:
distances seemed farther. propaganda-brain-washing and blackmail via
Deceptive thoughts may activate parts of your brain tied espionage and treason.
to perception and vision in the same way as when you 4.​ Black Lie – a lie which accompanies
are physically weighed down. This can lead to physical pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing to cause
overexertion, exhaustion, and stress. Therefore, the dishonor or discredit one’s good image.
heavier the lie you carry, the heavier those bench presses 5.​ Malicious or Judicial Lie – this is very
may feel. pure and unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended
Notre Dame researchers found that subjects that were purely to mislead or obstruct justice.
told to explicitly tell the truth reported lying less 6.​ Fabrication – a lie told when someone
frequently and reported having improved relationships, submits a statement as truth, without knowing for
better sleep, and less tension, as well as fewer headaches certain whether or not it actually a true. Although
and sore throats. the statement may be possible or plausible, it is not
How many ways are there to lie? based on fact. Rather, it is something made up, or it
There are many methods to be deceptive. At the heart of is a misrepresentation of the truth. Examples of
these methods is the intention to be deceptive. Some lie fabrication: “the dog ate my homework”, or “I did
to be protective – lie to guard the liar from a perceived unplug the iron”.
danger. Some, to be heroic – lie to protect others from 7.​ Bold-faced Lie – is one which is told
danger. Others lie in a playful manner – lie to enhance when it is obvious to all concerned that it is a lie.
a story. For others, it’s about ego – lie to help the liar For example, a child who has chocolate all around

15
his mouth and denies that he has eaten any
chocolate is a bold-faced liar.
8.​ Lying by Omission – one lies by omission
by omitting an important fact, deliberately leaving
another person with a misconception. Lying by
omission includes failures to correct pre-existing
misconceptions. For example, a husband may tell
his wife he was out at a store, which is true, but lie
by omitting the fact that he also visited his stress,
although it is disputable whether or not this is
actually a lie.
9.​ Lie-to-children – often a platitude which
may use euphemism, which is told to make an adult
subject acceptable to children.
10.​ Noble Lie – one which would normally
cause discord if it were uncovered, but which offers
some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly
society, therefore potentially beneficial to others. It
is often told to maintain law, order and safety.
11.​ Emergency Lie – is a strategic lie when
the truth may not be told because it may harm a
third party. For example, a neighbor might lie to an
enraged husband about the whereabouts of his
unfaithful wife, because said husband might
reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury
should he encounter his wife in person.
Alternatively, an emergency lie could denote a
(temporary) lie told to a second person because of
the presence of a third.
12.​ Perjury – the act of lying or making
verifiably false statements on a material matter
under oath or affirmation in a court of law, or in any
of various sworn statements in writing perjury is a
crime, because the witness has sworn to tell the
truth and, for the credibility of the court to remain
intact, witness testimony must be relied on as
truthful.
13.​ Bluffing – pretending to have a capability
or intention which one does not actually possess. It
is an act of deception which is rarely seen as
immoral, because it takes place in the context of a
game where this kind of deception is consented to
in advance by the players. For example, an athlete
who indicates he will move left and then actually
dodges right is not considered to be lying. In this
situation, deception is accepted and can be expected
as tactic.
14.​ Jocose Lie – are those which are meant in
jest and are usually understood as such by all
present parties. Teasing and sarcasm are examples.
15.​ Contextual Lie – one can state part of the
truth out of context, knowing that without complete
information, it gives a false impression. Likewise,
one can actually state

16
accurate facts, yet deceive with them. To say “yeah, pattern of inspiration and expiration, a continuous
that’s right, I slept with your best friend” utilizing a pattern of relative blood pressure and pulse rate, and a
sarcastic, offended tone, may cause the listener to pattern of electro-dermal responses.
assume the speaker did not mean what he said, when in It is well known that the body adapts itself as
fact he did. efficiently as possible to its environment, if the
16.​ Promotion Lie – advertisements often environment changes, the body will rapidly adjust it to
contain statements which are incredible, such as any changes. This is done by a complicated system of
“we are always happy to give a refund”, or internal checks and balance primarily involving the
exaggerated predictions such as “you will love our automatic nervous system. This ability to adjust is
new product”. necessary if the organism or body is to survive in a
constantly changing world. Those organisms that cannot
Types of Liars adjust rapidly die out.
1.​ Panic Liars – one who lie in order to
avoid the consequences of a confession, they are Theory of the Lying Person
afraid of embarrassment, and it is a serious blow to The polygraph technique uses the principle that the
their ego. They believe that confession will just bodily functions of a person are influenced by his
make the matter worst. mental state. The physiological changes accompanying
2.​ Occupational Liars – are practical liars deception are capable of being recorded, measured and
and lies when it has a higher “pay off” than telling interpreted with reasonable certainty.
the truth. Telling a lie is usually an emotional experience. A
3.​ Tournament Liars – are those who love conscious act of lying causes the mind of a person,
to lie and are excited by the challenge of not being which produces an emotion of fear or anxiety,
detected. For them an interview is contest and manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure,
wants to win, these people realizes that they will breathing and perspiration. The physiological
probably be convicted but will not give anyone the fluctuations that come with the emotion are in nature
satisfaction of hearing them or her confesses, the automatic, self-regulating and beyond conscious control
want that people will believe that the law is because they affect the functioning of the internal
punishing an innocent person. structures that prepare the body for emergency.
4.​ Psychopathic Liars – the most difficult
type, this person have no conscience and show no The underlying psychology here includes:
regret for dishonesty and no manifestation of guilt. 1.​ The lying person fears detection, causing
5.​ Ethnological Liars – are those who physiological changes to take place in his body.
taught not to be a squealer (squeal – to cry or to 2.​ Fear of detection must be experienced by
shrill voice-used by underworld gang in order for the subject; otherwise no physiological changes
their member not to reveal any secret of their will occur.
organization). 3.​ A person “tines in” that which indicates
6.​ Pathological Liars – are persons who trouble or danger by having his sense organs and
cannot distinguish right from due to their sick attention for a particular stimulus, and he “tunes
mind. They are insane. out” that which is of a lesser threat to his
7.​ Black Liars – are persons who always self-preservation or general well-being.
pretend what he is and what he thinks of himself. 4.​ In a series of questions during the
polygraph test containing relevant and control
Theory of Lie Detection questions, the lying subjects will “tune in” on the
It must be recognized that there is no such instruments most intense relevant questions and “tune out” the
that could detect lies. The popular name, “lie detector”, control question and may not be materially affected
given to a polygraph, is somewhat misleading. No by other weak relevant questions.
collection of inanimate objects including the very finest 5.​ The truthful subject will direct his
and complicated modern computers, can detect attention to the control question wherein the
deception on the part of any human being. consciously known he is deceptive and “tune out”
This so-called “lie detector” simply certain the relevant ones.
physiological activities of the body. These physiological
activities are constantly in operation as long as the External Observable Signs and Symptoms of
person is alive. You should be aware that the most Lies/Deceptions
common lie detection instrument records the breathing

17
 Generally, when a person fears to be detected, signs In general, what is being evaluated is the body of
and symptoms which indicate lies, guilt, or deception natural, unintentional, often instinctual physical
could be observed through facial expression or postural responses to certain stimuli.
reactions such as: Sigmund Freud confirmed the significance of
1.​ Stammering and swearing to or before nonverbal behavior in assessing the overall
God that he did not commit the offense. psychological state and the subconscious effect of
2.​ Pointing his guilt to somebody else. concealment:
3.​ Refuses to answer questions thru alibis “He that has no eyes to see, and ears to hear, may
and excuses convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret. If his
4.​ All the time absent-minded lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips; betrayal
5.​ Always requesting for repetition of comes of him from every pore.”
questions
6.​ Often asks counter-questions and Categories of Non-verbal Behavior
counter-queries 1.​ Emblems – these are non-verbal behavior
7.​ Blushing, paling or profuse sweating of that expresses the entire communication. No
forehead spoken words are necessary. Emblems are accurate
8.​ Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs clues of person’s true feelings and statements.
and elevation of upper eyelids However, emblems cannot be seen as universal or
9.​ Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, they do not have the same meaning in all society.
distrust, etc.) Interviewers must be very careful against
10.​ Twitching of the lips and or excessive misreading emblems and must take into
winking of the eyes consideration that emblems are dependent on an
11.​ Failure to look the inquirer “straight into interviewer’s societal and cultural background.
the eyes” Example:
12.​ Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple •​ Rising of a person’s hand standing
and the vein at the temple due to dryness of throat alongside the road to “hitch” a ride, even
and mouth. Sometimes with shivering of nose or though he never said a word.
nostrils. •​ Thumb rising when asked how he
13.​ A peculiar monotone of the voice or a feels about being interviewed.
forced laugh 14. Rolling of eyeballs from one 2.​ Illustrators – are non-verbal behaviors
direction to another 15. Often asks permission to go which assist the listener better understanding the
to comfort rooms, etc. verbal communication. They indicate consistency
16.​ Fidgeting, tapping or drumming of fingers between nonverbal and verbal messages. Since the
on the chairs or the other surfaces speaker is attempting to assist the listener in
17.​ Swinging of legs or one leg over the other understanding what is being said, as illustrators
18.​ Unnecessary movements of hands and feet increase, the probability of truthfulness increases.
(like scratching, nail biting, thumb or finger As they decrease, or suddenly stop, the possibility
sucking) of deception increases.
19.​ Pulsation of the artery in the neck Example:
20.​ Incoherence, trembling and sweating of •​ Speaker who uses his hand to
the whole body demonstrate the beat of his words.
•​ A distasteful facial expression of a
NON-VERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT person as he tells you that what he is eating is
not very good.
The corresponding line of suspect assessment is the •​ Banging on the table by a person with
nonverbal. In order to achieve a high level of his fist as he speaks angrily.
assessment reliability, the verbal portion of the 3.​ Adapters – are non-verbal behaviors that
assessment needs to be linked with the more obvious serve no purpose in helping the verbal
responses of non-verbal behavior. The combined total communication, and often detract from it. They are
response record is what provides the interrogator or indicators of deception. As with illustrators,
interviewer with the information and insight necessary adapters often occur as hand gestures and body
to the determination of truth and deception. position and include any type of rubbing, stroking,
picking, massaging or touching of the body or face.
Example:

18
 When asked, “Did you commit that crime?” the suspect easy to produce, which can become automatic after
may verbally reply, “No I did not” off the response were time.
accompanied by an illustrator, like touching the chest, Thus, masking or the attempt to conceal the truth
he would be confirming his innocence. Verbally he through false facial expression is common. While
would be saying, “I didn’t do it!” then he reinforces the masking may be attempted to disguise any or all of the
statement nonverbally by pointing to him saying, “You five natural, basic emotions that the human face can
can look right at me, because I didn’t do it!” On the display (sadness, happiness, anger, surprise, and
other hand, if he had covered his mouth as he squeezed disgust), the interviewer or interrogator can usually
his nose, he would have used negative adapters. identify the underlying emotion. This is possible
Covering his mouth makes the verbal message more because masking frequently occurs out of context
difficult to understand, while squeezing the nose (smiling at an inappropriate point), is often held too
indicates disbelief on what is being said. In observing long, or repeated too often. Moreover, masks are
this nonverbal behavior, it is important that the usually distorted – exaggerated or incomplete.
interviewer or interrogator should consider cultural Most often, all persons in an attempt to mask a genuine
differences. What may be an adaptor or an illustrator in reaction, such as fear is smiling. One of the differences
one cultural setting may have an entirely different between genuine, spontaneous reactions and masking
meaning in another. For example, people from the behavior is illustrated by the false smile. These do not
Middle East maintain closer distances than westerners affect the eyebrows, which normally are involved in a
during conversation. In Thailand, staring someone in genuine expression. Other common attempts used by
the eye is a challenger to fight. In South Africa, young subjects or suspects to mask include appearing to be
persons are taught to cross their arms and look down, to surprised, angry or disgusted.
show respect, when communicating with an elder. To get beyond masking, it is important to analyze the
face as a complex structure and isolate individual
expressive elements to check for consistency among
them. When both eyebrows are raised, with the mouth
partially open, it usually suggests surprise. One
eyebrow raised indicates confusion or skepticism. If the
Areas to Note when Assessing Non-verbal Behaviors eyebrows are squeezed together and lowered, it
When assessing nonverbal behavior, the interviewer suggests anger, worry, and/or confusion.
can note five separate areas, which respond separately In observing the head and face, begin with noting the
and sometimes differentially. Proper timing for position of the head. The tilting of the head to the side is
observation and assessment of these nonverbal areas is an illustrator and generally suggests cooperation;
from the time the interview begins, until a few seconds interest a belief in what is being said. If the jaw extend
after the interviewee have answered. forward, not slanted, it indicates anger or aggression. If
the chin is on the chest, it indicates defeat, depression
1.​ General Posture – Truthful people usually use and/or boredom.
body position as an illustrator and have an open, settled,
upright position. Often they will lean slightly forward, 3.​ Eyes – Eye behavior provides an excellent
indicating interest in what is being said. Shoulders tend source of nonverbal information. Breaks in eye contact,
to remain squared and the body is aligned with the which occur at the appropriate time, can be indicative
interviewers. Deception people often show very close of deception. Exaggerated eye contact is likely to be
and defensive positions, such as crossed arms and/or masking behavior and should be considered an
legs. They often lean back or stretched out their legs, to indicator of the deceptive. People who maintain
perceptually increase the distance between the eye-to-eye contact too long are trying to replicate
interviewer and themselves. They may assume a sincerity or attempting to dominate you.
position of defeat, with their shoulders forward and Most liars come into the interview with a preconceived
their chin on their chest. idea of what adaptors label suspects as liars. One of
these preconceptions is that a “liar” cannot look the
2.​ Head and Face – Face is the most common interviewer directly in the eyes. Masking attempted;
part of the body to observe; however, it is also the most thus, extended eye contact does not mean the person is
difficult to interpret. It has a very complex muscular extremely truthful, nit on the contrary, deceptive.
structure and can show more than one emotion at a Occasionally, the interviewer may be caught in a
time. In addition, people know that we look at their “staring contest”: a contest of psychological dominance.
faces when they speak, and false facial expressions are The suspect may be staring purposely in order to face

19
truthfulness, but more likely to assert dominance over indicators of stress and the suspect has his arms crossed
the interviewer. It is a good practice to avoid becoming across his stomach, it is more likely a sign of
involved in a staring contest; however it is important truthfulness. If the suspect is pointing away from his
that, if this does occur, the interviewer should not break body when he is talking, subconsciously he may be
eye contact first. Staring can be ended appropriately, trying to misdirect your attention away from the topic of
pointing the attention of the persons being interviewed himself. This adaptor is comparable to the magician’s
or interrogated to something else. For example, ask him misdirection or boxer’s trick to the side before
or her to look at a document or identify some object. punching.
On the other hand, eye pupil dilation, although difficult On the other hand, suspect who touches his chest as he
to observe, is a good indicator of emotional change. is talking is directing the interviewer to look at him; he
Theoretically, eyes dilate when the individual is aroused has nothing to hide. This gesture is an illustrator. Hand
or excited. Aside from pupil dilation, there are other position independent of arm movement is irrelevant. If
things that can be derived from observing the eyes. This the suspect has his hands crossed tightly in front of him,
includes closing, blinking, and squinting of the eyes. it suggests fear and the probability that he is
Closed eyes suggest trying to mentally escape and block withholding information or is being deceptive. If his
visual sensory input. A sudden increase in eye blinking hands are steeple, it shows a superior attitude, and
indicates an increase in tension. Squinting suggests possible truthfulness. The higher the steepling the more
distrust and can occur in times of emergency to help confident the person is.
protect the eye from being struck during a battle.
Therefore, these three behaviors mean distress or 5.​ Sense Arousal Gestures – under times of
sympathetic arousal, and should be viewed as deceptive stress the body’s senses are enhance by sympathetic
criterion. arousal. A person’s olfactory (smelling), aural
(hearing), visual (sight), and tactile (touch and skin
4.​ Arms and Hands – Arm and hand movements sensitivity) perceptions are noticeably increased. These
give clearer nonverbal cues. Most people do not pay changes in the blood flow to the organs, causing
attention to what their hand are doing during increase itching sensation resulting in subconscious
conversation and, therefore, do not attempt to mask scratching. Touching or scratching the nose is reliable
these subconscious gestures. Moreover, hand indicator of deception when it is done as the suspect
movements are less fleeting than facial expressions, are answers a critical question or is explaining something.
easily observable and are the main nonverbal means of If the suspect holds his nose or touches it as he speaks,
recognizing illustrators and adapters. Take note that he does not believe what he is saying. If he touches it
increased illustrators are signs of truthfulness, and while he listens, he is signaling that he does not believe
adaptors indicates deception. what the interviewer is saying.
A person or suspect whose elbows are close to the body A response to stress can often be felt as a change of
may be under severe tension. sensation in the ear lobes due to slight blood pressure
This can be associated with protecting one’s own body changes. Touching the ear during stress may be due to
and providing a self-comforting touch. When someone his physiological process, or a psychological attempt to
sits with his elbows away from the body, it shows he is shut out auditory stimuli. If the suspect covers his eyes
relaxed, less defensive and more likely to be truthful. and looks away, he is probably trying to hide or escape
The suspect to set up defensive barriers may also utilize from the predicament. Rubbing the eye is a sign of
arms and hands. These barriers are used to establish disbelief. Like the nose squeeze, the suspect is telling
safe zones around themselves for protective or the investigator je does not believe what the investigator
territorial reasons. In the interview setting, physical is saying, or does not believe what he himself is saying
barriers such as desks, chairs and partitions are likely to if he is answering.
be unavailable. Where inanimate barriers are not
available, they may be established by closed arms or 6.​ Feet and Legs – The involuntary movement
legs, or by outstretched legs. of feet and legs are also reliable illustrators or adaptors.
Arms across the chest act as barriers but also suggest They move slowly, are easily observe, and
defiance. The higher the arms mean the more defiant unconsciously, no one pays attention to them.
the suspect. The more he leans forward with his arms Unfortunately, the legs and feet are limited in the
crossed and the more he frowns, the more intimidating variety of movements compared to the arms and hands.
he is. This individual is extremely confident in his Truthful people generally use open and “settled” foot
ability to resist the interviewer’s attempts to ascertain and legs positions.
the truth. On the other hand, if there are no other

20
Every suspect, whether truthful or deceptive, will be at at the center of the brain and its central controls is in the
a heightened emotional state, probably not normal for “hypothalamus” - a group of nerve cells of the brain
him. Thus, the interviewer must establish the that reflexes – those that we cannot control consciously
individual’s situational norm by observing him before such as our heartbeat, pulse rate, increase and decrease
the interview begins, and noting his verbal and in blood pressure and the expansion and constriction of
nonverbal behavior during the early stages of the arteries are governed by the autonomic nervous system.
interview when conversing about something of mutual When one of our senses detects a threat to our
interest that has nothing to do with the case under well-being, it sends a signal to the autonomic nervous
investigation. system, which activates its sympathetic division
As the interviewer, be alert on the many open gestures regardless of whether threat is physical or
that suggest truthfulness. If the suspect maintains psychological.
normal eye contact with the interviewer, sits with his In polygraph testing, the receptor is the ear of the
arms open throughout the interview, palms up and legs subject, which receives the threatening questions or
apart, he is probably truthful. stimulus from the polygraphist. The stimulus is
Interestingly, deceptive suspects often show similar transmitted from the ears via sensory neurons into the
qualities during an interrogation when they are about to brain where the hypothalamus analyzes, evaluates and
give up. If the suspect’s palm suddenly become open, resolves that particular question. It makes a decision for
and he previously was tense and uncooperative, it is an the subject as to whether it is threatening situation. If
indication that he is about to confess. affirmative, the hypothalamus immediately activates
Ideally speaking, seek nonverbal behavior that occurs in sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous
clusters. Clusters are a host of nonverbal behavior system. When the sympathetic system is activated, it
symptoms occurring in the suspect’s body at the same immediately prepares the body for the fight or flight by
time. For example, he touches his nose, crosses his legs the situation by causing the adrenal glands to secret
and shifts in his chair. If you observe a cluster, return to hormones known as epinephrine and
the same material later in the interview and see if the norepinephrine, so that the blood will be distributed to
clusters reoccur. If it does, chances of deception are those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet
very high. the emergency, such as the brain and the larger muscle
group. The chemical norepinephrine causes the
Usual Problems encountered by Police Investigators arterioles in certain parts of the body to constrict.
during Interrogation? Thereby preventing blood from entering those areas
1.​ The determination whether subject is where it is not immediately needed.
telling the truth regarding the crime under Other obvious effect took place when the sympathetic
investigation. system is activated, the heart pumps blood harder and
2.​ Obtaining admission or confession from a faster, increasing blood pressure, pulse rate, and
suspect after his guilt has been established. strength, thus furnishing more oxygenated blood to
3.​ Reluctance of fearful witnesses and those areas of the body where it is vitally needed to
informants who are in possession of helpful meet the emergency, such as the brain when increased
information to disclose them to the interrogator. mental activity is demanded.
The second division of the autonomic nervous
Role of the ANS in the Polygraph Examination system is the parasympathetic nervous system. It is
In the conduct of polygraph examination, it is based on functionally antagonistic to the sympathetic nervous
the idea that a conscious mental effort of a mentally system. Its role is to maintain the homeostasis of the
normal person lie causes physiological changes within body necessary for normal functioning. Therefore, it
his body. The physiological changes could be recorded follows to re-establish the chemical balance of the body.
by the polygraph instrument and diagnosed or evaluated
by the polygraph examiner. 1.​ The NERVOUS SYSTEM
The physiological effectors in polygraph examination Serving as the activator of the body system, the
are the Autonomic Nervous System. It is the one Nervous System thru the brain and all the nerve tissues
responsible for regulating mechanism that corrects the receives, evaluates, integrates and stores any stimulus
slightest deviation from a particular standard within brought to the body from the environment and at the
very fine limits. Sleeps, oxygenation of the blood, levels same rate, the system send out to the various body parts
of potassium, sodium, calcium magnesium and all the and organs for a specific response.
essential chemical substances that maintain the activity To illustrate how the NS operates in the body, a sample
of all cell membranes are finely adjusted. This is found layout of a chain reaction process is as follows;

21
 a.​ Stimulus was given contraction of each chamber is followed by relaxation
b.​ Received by RECEPTORS also (diastole) and then by a brief period of inactivity.
Senses such as; In the case of Polygraph Test, tracing in the
➢​ Sight (eyes) CARDIO-SPHYGMOGRAPH discloses an up-sweep
➢​ Hearing (ears) of the pen movement following the contraction of the
➢​ Smell (olfactory organs heart, this is the SYSTOLIC TRACING. The
including nose) down-sweep tracing discloses the relaxation of the heart
➢​ Taste (gustatory organs which is considered as the DIASTOLIC TRACING.
involving tongue) The DICROTIC NOTCH TRACING is produced by the
➢​ Touch (through skin and blood rebounding as in the AORTA which suddenly
muscles) checked its flow-back by the semilunar valves.
➢​ ESP (Extra Sensory
Perception) also 6th Sense 3.​ The RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
➢​ Kinesthesia (movement Responsible in the taking of air into the lungs and also
of the parts of the body with expelling carbon dioxide therefrom and rests of the
respect to one another) body; this system like nervous and circulatory system is
➢​ Equilibratory (informs equally important to lie detection. As a common notion,
other parts of the body about a man can live for 40 days or more without food survive
movements of the head in space) for 3 days without water but dies within a minute
c.​ Passed to EFFECTORS composed without oxygen. Its function is automatic, it has the
of muscles and glands following major parts:
d.​ Transmitted through a.​ Respiratory Tract comprising the
CONNECTORS which comprise the most nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi
complex structure of Neurons (single nerve and lungs;
cell which has the characteristics of all b.​ Bony Cage including thoracic
living cells which is specialized for vertebrae, the ribs and the breastbone or the
excitability and conductivity) as Long sternum. The breathing capacity…as adult, at
Conducting Neurons and Inter Neurons. It rest with normal respiration may inhale about
has Dendrites (the axon that centers the 500cc of air, a less similar amount is also exhaled. This
peripheral nerves and transmit impulses to EBB and FLOW of air is called TIDAL AIR
many fibers in the muscles) and the RESPIRATION. In addition to the tidal air, human can
End-Brushes or End-Plates (responsible for inhale another 1500cc of air called
affecting actions in the muscles) COMPLEMENTARY AIR, after normal expiration, a
Synapses – the association with or without direct similar amount is exhaled called the SUPPLEMENTAL
contact between the end-brushes of one neuron and the AIR. The combination of TA and CA is called the
dendrites of another. VITAL CAPACITY of human life; an average person
can breathe about 200cc of air and ran about 3500cc.
2.​ The CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Men are DEEP breather coz they breathe up to stomach
Responsible for the movement of the blood in the veins while Women are SHALLOW breather coz they breathe
and arteries throughout the body. Giving life to the body up to their chest.
is the Heart, it is a hallow muscle located inside the
chest cavity that pumps out blood into the arteries by 4.​ The EXCRETORY SYSTEM
contrasting and relaxing process. It has 4 chambers or The skin is defined as the external covering of the body
hallow bags, the upper 2 chambers are the Auricles consisting essentially of the epidermis, dermis and
(receives blood being returned to the body by veins), corium. The anatomical composition of the epidermis
and the lower 2 chambers are the Ventricles (receives have four layers of stratified epithelium while the
blood from the auricles and pump it out into the corium is composed of connective tissues containing
arteries). lymphatic nerves and nerve endings, blood vessels,
The heart action of the Cardiac Cycle consist of sebaceous and sweat glands and elastic fibers.
SYSTOLE and DIASTOLE; the whole cycle begins Galvanic Skin Reflex/Response or GSR test record
with the connection of the auricles (systole) and then changes in subjects increase or decrease resistance to a
followed closely by contraction of the left auricle. After constant electrical current generated through the
a short pause, both ventricles/chambers contract; the amplifier, recording galvanometer and rectifier of the
polygraph. Since recording of these responses comes

22
from the stimuli causing a change in sweal glands This concerns bodily reactions usually a muscular or
activities, the theory behind it is that it implies the glandular process that depends upon stimulation. Said
fingers, target area. Sweat varies according to different process may either be external and internal ones; it is
circumstances such as muscular exercises, nausea, pain, this third aspect that the polygraph examiner has to keep
mental excitement, nervousness including certain drugs his eyes wide open the all the information regarding
which someone affect sweating activity. Temperature emotional responses. The theory of polygraph is based
and humidity affect the sweat gland. Cold environment primarily upon this third aspect.
decreases sweating, enhances urination and a.​ External responses - this response is
dehydration. are very much observable even without the aid
of any emotion stress recording machine.
EMOTIONS b.​ Internal responses - scientifically
known as VISCERAL RESPONSES which
Since the study of Lie Detection involves psychology, pertain so the responses of the internal organs
the science of behavior, it is just imperative, the study of the body systems and property of the human
of emotions be involved, as such is a widespread body as applied in the study of lie detection
process, almost affecting every organ or part of the with the use or aid of polygraph such us;
body nearly all of the nervous system, the respiratory ➢​ Nervous System – this controls
and the circulatory systems and electrical properties of the glands, muscular tissues and the rest of
the skin. Directly relating to lie detection, consciousness the nerve connected organs to and from
of guilt engenders a fear reaction. Therefore, if an the brain
individual is guilty, he will respond emotionally to ➢​ Respiratory System – this takes
questions related to his crime. care of the inhalation and exhalation
It is true and impossible that an individual being aware process or the breathing cycles
of his emotions can suppress the same by inhibiting ➢​ Circulatory System – this
voluntary external responses that is by controlling regulates heart actions, blood pressure and
outward signs of bodily responses indicative of guilt blood volume and pulse rates
such us paleness, dryness of mouth, nervousness, etc. ➢​ Excretory System – also the
Yet he cannot control his internal psychological changes electrical properties of the skin; this
brought about by his fear reaction especially his blood facilitates the changes in the electrical
pressure and heart auction his respiration rate and he‘s phenomena of the galvanic skin reflex,
galvanic skin reflex producing sweat and skin each resistance and the brain potentials
resistance. SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF DETECTING
DECEPTION
3 ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS
1.​ Emotions As Conscious Experience Forerunners of Scientific Methods
This concerns human feelings in response do a wide 1.​ Hypnotism
variety of inner and outer stimuli which are of This method was introduced by an Austrian Physician
paramount importance to our personal and social Franz (Friedrich) Anton Mesmer (1734 – 1815) in
adjustment. This involves every day emotional 1778. He believed in animal magnetism, by which in his
experiences of man such as: own personal electro – magnetism, therapeutic effect
- anger, elation, delight, affection, fear, annoyance, influenced other persons. These effects produced were
worry, dejection, jealousy, envy, frustration and shame. attributed to the state of mind of a subject whereby he is
2.​ Emotions As Motives set up, and thereby instructed to sit quietly and gazed at
This involves human behavior read motivating factor or flashing light or shiny object tangled in front of his eyes
power directing one's behavior toward/facilitating or and to cooperate with whatever the hypnotist would like
away/interfering from objects and persons in his him to do.
environment differentiating both categories as: Detected deception through hypnosis was not
a.​ Emotional Motives As Facilitating admissible in court due to the following:
Behavior - examples destruction, attack or •​ It lacks the general scientific
fight, assault or offend acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in
b.​ Emotional Motives As Interfering ascertaining the truth from falseness.
Behavior - examples retreat fighting, •​ The possibility that the
surrender, hide or defend hypnotized subject will deliberately
3.​ Emotions As Responses fabricate.

23
 •​ The prospect that the state of all the following conditions proper to the conduct of the
heightened suggestibility in which the test will be observed:
hypnotized subject is suspended will •​ The test must be performed by
produce distortion of the fact rather than skilled experimenter, operator, technician,
the truth. or physician.
•​ The state of the mind and •​ The subject expresses his consent
professionalism of the examiner are too to undergo the test.
subjective to permit admissibility of the •​ The dosage of drugs injected or
expert testimony. administered is sufficient for acquiring
2.​ The Word Association Test desired results.
This method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis •​ There is sufficient time during
Galton (1822 – 1911) – an English Scientist and the test.
Anthropometrist. His experiment was later developed •​ Assurance of result is acquired to
by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung determine truth or deception.
(1875 – 1961) – a Swiss Psychologist and Psychiatrist Though statements taken from the subject under this
and the founder of Analytical Psychology. process is not admissible as evidence in court because
This method is done by giving a subject a long list of its nature is involuntary, its application to criminal
carefully selected stimulus words or objects with other investigation is very useful because of its psychological
pictures combined with other irrelevant words, objects effect, before, during, and after. Just as well, a person
or pictures with the instruction to respond with the very not knowing the misleading notion of the test may tell
first word that may come to subject’s mind. Dr. Jung the truth to avoid pain of needles and possible brain
was able to observe how the thinking reactions were destruction even before the test is done.
linked into the emotional habit of his subject. The 4.​ Narco – Analysis or Narco – Synthesis
theory behind this method is that, one word or idea is This method of detecting deception was practically the
reflective of another word or idea and the expression of same as that of administration of truth serum. The only
their association forms a meaningful picture. difference is the drug used. The drug Sodium Amytal
3. The Truth Serum Method or Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject.
This method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel When the effects appear, questioning starts. It was
House (1858 – 1938), a US Physicist and diplomat and claimed that the drug causes depression of the
a confidential adviser to former US President Woodrow inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks
Wilson. freely, the administration of the drug and subsequent
The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure interrogation must be done by a psychiatrist. Like the
does not make someone tell the truth and the thing administration of truth serum, the result of test was not
administered is not a serum but is actually a drug. admissible in court.
​ This method is based on the theory that 5.​ Intoxication
“intervention through interrogation is made possible Famous Latin Verse “In Vino Veritas” which means,
after dosage of drugs has been appropriately “In wine, there is truth”, or “under the influence of
administered, which depresses the cerebral activity to alcohol, a person tells the truth”.
point of unconsciousness, an influence called as the This was practiced by means of drinking alcoholic
“House Receptive beverages as stimuli to obtain truth on the part of the
Stage” or the “Twilight Zone”. On this condition the subject. The subject for interrogation will be allowed to
subject is half asleep. take alcoholic beverages up to the point of intoxication.
The objective of the test is to extract from the Theoretically, when under the influence of alcohol, the
subconscious mind of the subject the stored contents of power of control is said to be diminished; thus, the
the mind called “memory”. During the test, a drug subject will tend to tell everything he knows or reveal
called Byosine Hydrobromide is usually administered all the relevant information. Interrogation is to be made
hypodermically to the subject in repeated doses until a during the excitatory effect of alcohol.
state of delirium is induced. When the proper point is Under this method, there is eventually lack of
reached, the questions were answered by the subject self-control of the subject under intoxication. When the
truthfully. He forgets his acts or may even implicate subject is already in the depressive state due to excess
others. Accordingly, he will disclose everything without alcohol intake, he will not be able to answer questions
evasiveness. anymore, and perhaps fell asleep. Confession made by
Of all the deception detection methods, the “truth the subject while intoxicated is admissible if he is
serum” test is considered most favorable and effective if physically able to recollect the facts and state them truly

24
and exactly even after the influence or “spirit” of One Husband” technique or the 5 W’s and 1H which
alcohol has disappeared. But in most instances, the stands for WHAT,
subject can recall his utterances or usually refuses to WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY and HOW. These
admit the truth of the statement given. questions are used to gain the so called
6.​ The Physical Stress Evaluator (PSE) “three eyes” (3 I’s) of investigation which refers to the
When a person speaks, there are audible voice following:
frequencies, and superimposed on these are the 1.​ Information gathering – through
inaudible frequency modulations which are products of record check, surveillance and intelligence
minute fluctuation of the muscle of the voice check.
mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles or micro 2.​ Investigation – through interrogation
tremor occur at the rate of 8 to 14 cycles per second and and/or interview to obtain admission or
controlled by the central nervous system. When a confession.
person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro 3.​ Instrumentation – through
tremor in the voice utterance is moderately or criminalistics processes with the use of the
completely suppressed. The degree of suppression different investigative forensic sciences such
varies inversely to the degree of psycho logic stress on as medico legal or forensic medicine, forensic
the speaker. The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) chemistry, forensic photography, forensic
detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice ballistics, questioned documents examination,
modulations that we cannot hear. Dactyloscopy, and Polygraphy or
When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to Deceptography.
the questions, those inaudible frequencies are registered
clearly on the instrument. But when a person is under VARIOUS METHODS IN USE TODAY FOR LIE
stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to DETECTOR TESTING
disappear. Under this method, the following procedures
are followed: Most organizations rely on one, some, or none of the
•​ The examiner meets the following lie detector testing methods:
requesting party to determine the specific 1.​ Personal interview
purpose of the examination and to begin 2.​ Personality test
formulation of relevant questions. 3.​ Integrity test
•​ A pre-test interview is conducted 4.​ Voice stress analyzer
with the subject to help him or her feel at 5.​ Electroencephalogram
ease with the examiner, to provide an 6.​ fMRI
opportunity to specify matters, to 7.​ Polygraph
eliminate outside issues, and to review 8.​ EyeDetect (ocular-motor test)
questions that will be asked.
•​ An oral test of about 12 to 15 Research shows most lie detector test solutions have
“yes” or “no” questions is given which is “issues.”
recorded on a tape recorder. The questions 1.​ Personal interview = 54% accurate at
are a mixture of relevant an irrelevant detecting deception
question. 2.​ Personality test = do not measure or detect
•​ Immediately following the test or deception
are a late time, the tape is processed 3.​ Integrity test = up to 64% accurate at
through the Psychological stress evaluator detecting deception
for analysis of answer. 4.​ Voice stress analyzer = 65% accurate at
•​ If stress is indicated, the subject detecting deception
is given authority to provide additional 5.​ Electroencephalogram = 87% accurate at
clarification. A retest is given to verify detecting deception, but very invasive
correction and clarification. 6.​ fMRI = 72% accurate at detecting
deception, but very costly
Methods of Detecting Deception through regular 7.​ Polygraph = one of the most accurate, but
Police Works exams are expensive, take time, are invasive, and
The Police Methods sought to answer the legal are difficult to keep a safe social distance.
investigative process are the so called “Five Wives and Accuracy in detecting deception: 87%

25
 8.​ EyeDetect = 88% accurate in detecting A​ study conducted by researchers in
deception 2012 evaluated over 100 integrity tests from
test publishers and non-publishers to determine
There really is no such thing as a lie detector. But, there if they were accurate at predicting job
are various instruments today that measure aspects of performance, training performance,
physiological changes, which scientists have associated counterproductive work behavior (such as
with lying (deception). substance abuse, theft, withdrawal, etc.) and
When certain physical changes occur during a lie employee turnover.
detector test—under controlled conditions while These tests have a low predictive value for behavior.
questions are asked—a person may appear “guilty” Most data are gathered from selfreporting participants,
based on their physiological reaction. who easily fake their responses.
Some physiological changes measured during lie >>Accuracy in the detection of deception: 53-64%
detector testing include: >>Source: The Criterion-Related Validity of Integrity
•​ Heart Rate ​ • Pupil Dilation ​ • Body Tests, Journal of Applied Psychology, 2012.
Movements ​ • Blood Pressure ​
•​ Eye Fixations ​ • Leg Movements ​ • 4.​ Voice Stress Analyzer
Respiration • Blink Rate ​ • Question This lie detector testing method is based on the premise
Response Time ​ • Skin Conductance • Brain Activity that small, involuntary frequency modulations occur in
​ • Question Error Rate the voice when under the stress of lying. Essentially,
Through scientific studies conducted with EyeDetect, muscles in the voice box tighten or loosen, which
specific physiological changes have been shown to be changes the sound of the voice.
similar among liars. This means EyeDetect can be an A​ precision instrument must be used to
effective lie detector test. In fact, it is the most accurate measure these slight frequency modulations.
lie detector today. They cannot be heard with a human ear. But,
Note: There is no perfect lie detector test. All tests have the accuracy slightly better than tossing a coin.
a margin of error. They can give false-positive results >>Accuracy in the detection of deception: 50-65%
and false-negative results. EyeDetect minimizes false >>Source: Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53(1),
positives (when an innocent person looks guilty). 183-193, 2008.

CHALLENGES WITH SOME LIE DETECTOR

TESTING METHODS
5.​ Electroencephalogram Using probes
Organizations commonly rely on a favorite lie detector attached to a person’s skull, the EEG measures
testing method such as those previously mentioned. electrical activity at the surface of the brain. It
Here is a brief description of each of those lie detector compares familiar and unfamiliar stimuli (i.e., the
tests and their reported rates of accuracy. person sees a friend vs. a stranger). The comparisons
are used to
1.​ Personal Interview determine
Concerned about being believed, liars often seem when someone
helpful and truthful in an interview, and put more effort is lying.
into impressing their interviewer. Because of that, >>Accuracy of
personal interviews are not very accurate at detecting the EEG in the
deception. detection of
>> Accuracy in the detection of deception: 54% deception: 87%
>> Source: Bond & DePaulo, 2006 >>Source: various research papers

2.​ Personality Tests 6.​ Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

These tests do not measure deception. (fMRI)
They are used to see if a person is a good fit in the Using powerful magnets to charge hydrogen protons
company culture or if there is a good fit from a within cells, the fMRI translates radio frequencies that
behavioral perspective. As such, there is no reported are absorbed or reflected into an image of the area of
rate of accuracy at detection deception. the brain scanned. A map is created of pattern vectors
associated with specific cognitive states.
3.​ Integrity Tests

26
 A​ radiologist predicts the cognitive state
by observing these patterns and looks at
changes in whole-brain patterns to predict the
cognitive state the brain is experiencing.
>>Accuracy in the detection of deception: 72% 7.​ Computerized Polygraph System in 1992.
>>>Source: National Academy of Sciences, February 2. Lafayette Instrument Company
2014. In 1946 Max Wastl, a young man recently emigrated
from Germany, graduated from Purdue University with
7.​ Polygraph a degree in
An instrument that gathers multiple signals from Electrical
sensors connected to a subject. Data includes Engineering. In
cardiovascular, respiratory, and electro-dermal activity. 1947, after
In simple terms, it comes down to respiratory activity, working for a
blood pressure, and sweat / skin conductance. national firm, his strong desire for personal
Measurements are recorded and analyzed to detect these achievement propelled him into the world of the
physiological changes and correlate them with the entrepreneur and Lafayette Instrument Company was
statements made about the questions. born. LIC started with one employee and was located in
>> Accuracy in detecting deception: 87% an 8 x 10-foot shed. Hours were long and work was
>> Source: American Polygraph Association hard, but rewards came too, and shortly the company
Meta-analytic survey, Table 2, 2011. expanded into a garage and then to a newly constructed
brick building.
8.​ EyeDetect In 1965, LIC moved again to its current location at 3700
A​ computer with a high speed, precision Sagamore Parkway North in Lafayette, Indiana. Over
eye tracker measures involuntary changes in the next ten years, this building would have to undergo
the eyes and reading behaviors while a person three modifications to accommodate the growth in
answers true / false questions. These measures business. In 1968, LIC began to dabble in the sports
have been shown to be associated with editing market while sales of physiological recording
increases in cognitive load, which have been instrumentation and related psychology testing
associated with deception. >> Accuracy in apparatus continued to be major contributors to the
detecting deception: 88% company’s growth. In 1972, LIC built and marketed
>> Source: A. Potts Dissertation, University of Utah, "The Examiner Series" polygraph directly to polygraph
2020 examiners.
Since 1993, the Lafayette Instrument Company
INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT USED FOR Computerized Polygraph System has been a mainstay in
DIAGNOSING TRUTH AND DECEPTION the Polygraph industry. Today Computerized Polygraph
Line is built upon LX5000 and LX4000 Polygraph
A. Stoelting and Lafayette Polygraph Instruments Systems.
1. The C.H. Stoelting Instrument Company
Polygraphs
Founded in 1886, Stoelting Co. has furnished
physiological measurement instruments and
psychological test materials for over a century. Stoelting
invented the first modern polygraph in 1935, and
virtually every advance in polygraph instruments since
then has been by Stoelting.
1.​ Electronic Recording Channels Were LX5000 Computerized Polygraph System
Introduced By Stoelting In 1946; You can simultaneously record up to 9 channels. The
2.​ Multifunction Recording Channels in system's
1966; small, compact design makes transport and storage very
3.​ CAM in 1968; easy. LX4000 Computerized Polygraph System The
4.​ Modular Design in 1977; LX4000
5.​ CLC Push-Button Re-Centering in 1980; The LX5000-S package includes a seat sensor. System
6.​ Computerized Assisted Polygraph in combines conventional polygraph procedure with
1988; and the

27
sophisticated state-of-the-art technology. A total of
seven channels can be recorded at one time

The company's first promotional catalog was printed in

1954, and a message on the front read, in part: "We are
always open to constructive criticism and suggestions
from our customers. It is our aim to build instruments
of high quality and at a reasonable cost." - Max Wastl

Lafayette Instrument Timeline

B. Larson and Keeler Polygraph Instruments

1. John Larson Sphygmomanometer Interested by William Marston’s studies in how a laboratory subject’s
attempt at deception effects blood pressure changes
using the discontinuous method, and encouraged by from that,
Berkeley Police Chief August Vollmer, John it became
Larson attempted to use a deception test in actual known in
criminal investigations. He examined a variety of the
instruments that were available at the time, industry
as ​ well ​ as ​ methodology. ​ He
​ selected ​an
Sphygmomanometer modified to produce
permanent recordings of blood pressure using a
smoked drum and kymograph.
His first apparatus, he referred to as a
"Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram", consisted of a
modification of an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer.
The modification was done by Earl Bryant for Dr.
Robert Gesell of the Department of Physiology of
the University of California. The first instrument
Larson used in his experiments was borrowed from
Dr. Gesell.
In 1921, Earl Bryant made another instrument for
John Larson, which was used at the Berkeley
Police Department. It is believed that this second
instrument was a duplicate of the first. This is the
instrument that brought fame to Larson’s
experiments and that drew the young Leonarde
Keeler into the field of detection of deception. He
used a breadboard as a base for the instrument, and

28
as the "Breadboard Polygraph". Ink Polygraph which had been used in medical
John Larson collected hundreds of files on science since the early
successful criminal cases where his Cardio-Pneumo 1900's. It was smaller, easier to use,
Psychograph solved murders, robberies, thefts and August Vollmer described Keeler’s first lie detector
sex crimes. His instrument was nicknamed as "a crazy conglomeration or wires, tubes, and old
"Sphyggy" by the press who covered Larson’s tomato cans." It’s first use resulted in a confession
crime solving escapades in the 1920’s and 30's. in a murder case. That day,
They couldn’t pronounce "Sphygmomanometer" Leonarde Keeler’s career in lie detection was
hence "Sphyggy". launched in the press.
Later, after moving to Chicago, Earl Bryant made Keeler's Third Instrument Western Electro
the second modification to this first instrument by Mechanical Co. In 1924, Leonarde Keeler’s first
replacing the smoked drum as a recording device handmade polygraph instrument, he called "the
with a Jacquet Polygraph to record the tracings on Emotograph," was destroyed in a fire at Keeler’s
paper and ink. residence. Eloise Keeler reports that before the
In 1932, Chester W. Darrow, of the Institute for ashes were cold from this fire, Leonarde was busy
Juvenile Research, made a third modification to the designing a new instrument. August Vollmer, Chief
Larson Cardio-Pneumo Psychograph, by adding a of Police of the Berkeley Police Department took
galvanometer. The new instrument included a Keeler to William Scherer of the Western Electro
psycho-galvanometric record, electrodes on the Mechanical Company.
palm and back of the hand, as well as a continuous Following Keeler’s plan and written instructions,
blood pressure record, and a pneumographic Scherer developed a mechanical metal bellows, a
record. motor drive, a pneumograph to go around the chest,
2. Keeler Polygraph Instruments and a mechanical indicator to mark the graph when
Leonarde Keeler, above all others involved in the
history of modern polygraphy, can be considered as
one of its founders. He was born in 1903 in North
Berkeley,
California. While in high school, he worked for the
Berkeley Police Department for August Vollmer.
He assisted John Larson during his early polygraph
work. At the time, John Larson was beginning his
experiments into detecting deception using his
"breadboard" polygraph. A cumbersome
instrument, requiring smoked drums, he tested
criminal suspects for the Berkeley Police
Department. Leonarde Keeler was fascinated with
the process, a fascination which would turn into a
life long pursuit. He would sneak into the basement
of the Berkeley Police Department and "test" his
friends using this cumbersome device. John
a question was asked. The new polygraph was
Larson’s instrument nicknamed "Sphyggy" was
encased in a mahogany box that looked like a
Leonard
traveling case.
Keeler’s first instrument.
In 1930, Leonarde Keeler moved to Chicago to
Keeler's Second Instrument, "The Emotograph"
work in the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory
was
at Northwestern University. He became the head of
conceived and designed with the help of two old
the crime laboratory at the university in 1936. He
high school friends, Ralph Brandt and Elwood
held that position until 1938 when he entered
"Doc" Woolsey. He replaced the smoked paper with
private business. Leonarde Keeler opened the first
an ink polygraph system based on Sir James
polygraph school, known as the "Keeler Institute."
MacKenzie’s

29
He worked as a private polygraph consultant until during the examination. The examiner in this
his death in 1949. picture is John E. Reid. It was manufactured by the
C.H. Stoelting Company and was available only to
C. The Lee Psychograph/Berkeley Psychograph examiners who were trained by John E. Reid and
The Berkeley Psychograph is a three-channel Associates.
polygraph instrument first introduced in 1926 by
Clarence D. Lee ​ and ​ Sons ​ of ​ San
​ Rafael,
California. Clarence D. Lee was a Captain with
the Berkeley Police Department. Captain Lee
tutored under Leonard Keeler, and August Vollmer,
recognized as the
“fathers” of modern polygraph. He retired in 1937
to manufacture polygraph instruments for police
and private examiners.
It has three channels; a pneumograph, a 2.​ The Cleve Backster Special by C.H.
cardiograph, and a stimulus marker. Although Stoelting Company
functionally similar to Keeler’s instruments at the The components for this unique polygraph
time, C.D. Lee altered the blood pressure unit to instrument are from a Stoelting Model #22500.
make the instrument more sensitive to changes in The case, made of plywood, was hand made for
pulse and blood pressure. Housed in a mahogany Cleve Backster by a cabinetmaker in New York
case with Bakelite finish, it was the favorite of around 1960. This is
police examiners. one of six such
instruments that Cleve
D.​ The Darrow Photopolygraph Backster used to test
In the early 1930's, C.W. Darrow developed his audience reaction to
Photopolygraph. Manufactured by the C.H. television shows for a
Stoelting Company it retailed for $999. It had five commercial advertising
channels; pneumograph, cardiograph, agency.
galvanograph, a stimulus marker, and one Cleve Backster reports that the six instruments
additional channel that could be used to record were laid side by side in a 3 X 2 matrix, and used to
either an abdominal respiration, a gastrointestinal record emotional responses of subjects as they
balloon, a plethysmograph, or carotid or radial watched commercials to judge their effectiveness.
pulse. Cleve sold it to Jim Allen of the Spokane County
It’s recording system was unique in that all Sheriff’s Department upon his graduation from the
tracings are recording on photographic paper. It Backster/Arthur Polygraph School in 1961 for
was used by the U.S. Bureau of Prisons at $600. Jim Allen used the instrument until 1963.
Lewisburg and the Narcotic Farm in Kentucky. The other five copies of this instrument have been
lost.
E.​ Reid and Backster Polygraph
1.​ The Reid Polygraph F. Polygraph and EyeDetect
In 1945, John E. Reid of Reid and Associates in 1. Polygraph
Chicago, Illinois developed what he called the The polygraph
“Reid Polygraph.” Besides recording blood instrument was first
pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR, this new conceived in the 1920s.
polygraph instrument recorded muscular activity in Essentially, it is a
the forearms, thighs, and feet. These muscular device that records
movements were picked up from metal bellows changes ​in ​ three
under the arms and seat of the polygraph chair. ​ types ​ of
​ This instrument was the first instrument to ​ physiology:
use a movement sensor to detect subject movement ​ (1)

30
cardiovascular activity such as heart rate and blood It is a computer-based system with a
pressure, (2) respiratory activity, and (3) skin high-definition eyetracking camera that measures
conductance. eye behaviors such as pupil dilation, eye
The polygraph started out as a simple analog device movements (fixations), and blink rate during a 15
but was updated in the early 1990s to the digital to 30-minute test during which a person answers
world and is now software-based. True/False questions with a computer mouse.

Cardiovascular activity is measured with a blood Eye behaviors and test responses are gathered and
pressure cuff like those you have seen at a doctor’s then analyzed by a computer algorithm to
office. The depth and frequency of respiration are determine a credibility score. EyeDetect has many
measured by tube-shaped sensors attached to a features similar to polygraph because its developers
person’s chest and abdomen. are polygraph experts. EyeDetect tests are
Skin conductivity or resistance, which is also standardized and automated. They are scored
referred to as electrodermal activity, is measured without intervention from a human examiner, other
with small electrodes attached to a person’s fingers than test preparation. No sensors or other devices
with a small adhesive or Velcro wraps. Most are attached to the person being tested.
polygraph examiners also have a motion sensor
attached to the chair used when a person is tested. THE POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUE
That sensor detects subtle movements in the trunk,
legs, and feet. Polygraph tests rely on examiners for POLYGRAPHY defined—
questioning and test scoring. It is the scientific method of detecting deception
with the use of a polygraph instruments. The term
“polygraph” means “many writings” which came
2. EyeDetect from two Greek words: POLY which means
EyeDetect is the world’s first technology to MANY and GRAPHOS which means WRITINGS.
accurately detect lies in 15 to 30 minutes by The name refers to the manner in which selected
analyzing eye behavior. It’s also cost-effective, physiological activities are simultaneously
efficient and secure. collected and recorded. The polygraph is a
First conceived in 2002, it’s the first ocular-motor recorder, of a psycho-physiological changes
deception detection test. The same scientists that occurring within the series of test questions.
invented the computerized polygraph in 1991 also Basically, the polygraph instrument is a
developed EyeDetect. In combination of medical devices that are used by
September 2013, the technology was given the physicians in monitoring the physical conditions of
brand name “EyeDetect.” their patients. As an examinee is questioned about a
EyeDetect is a new way for organizations to certain event or incident, the examiner records and
manage risk and create workplace integrity. It helps monitors the relative changes in the examinee’s
law enforcement agencies and governments find heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and
liars. Ultimately, it helps protect countries, electro-dermal activities.
corporations and communities from corruption, It is also called “TRUTH VERIFIER” since
fraud and threats. statistics show that most of the instances the

31
instrument verifies an innocent person’s In law enforcement, polygraph examination is
truthfulness. significant because it is considered as one among
the effective ways of establishing the truth.
Concepts of Polygraph Examination Through it, guilt can be established and is
1.​ Used to test an individual for the scientifically accepted where the investigator can
purpose of detecting deception or verifying the evaluate the evidence.
truthfulness of his statements.
2.​ It is done by recording identifiable Ultimate Objective of Conducting Polygraph
physiological reactions of the subject, such as Examination
blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and skin Its ultimate objective is to obtain the subject’s
resistance. admission or confession to the offense committed.
3.​ The effectiveness of the polygraph in Admission is a statement of fact of the accused
recording symptoms of deceptions is based on which do not directly involve acknowledgement of
the theory that “a conscious mental effort on guilt in committing or having participated in the
the part of a normal person to deceive causes commission of an offence while Confession is a
involuntary physiological changes that are in declaration made by a person voluntarily, stating or
effect a body’s reaction to an imminent danger acknowledging that he has committed or
to its well-being.” participated in the commission of a crime.
Tripod Foundations of Polygraph Technique
Objectives of a Polygraph Examination 1.​ Mechanical Basic Premise (the
1.​ Obtain additional investigation leads to instrument itself)
the facts of case/offenses. The polygraph machine is mechanically capable of
2.​ Ascertain if a person is telling the making graphical records containing reliable
truth. information regarding physiological changes.
3.​ Locate the fruits or tools of the crime 2.​ Physiological Basic Premise (body
and whereabouts of wanted persons. reactions exhibited by the subject)
4.​ Identify other persons involved Among the physiological changes that may be
(accomplices of crime). recorded and identified are those that automatically
5.​ Obtain valuable information from occur only following the stimulation of specific
reluctant witnesses. nervous system component and from which
6.​ Eliminate the innocent suspects. stimulation of those specific nervous system
components can be reliably diagnosed.
Principal Uses of the Polygraph Examination 1. 3.​ Psychological Basic Premise (study
Aid in investigating criminal incidents and issues. of the mind reactions)
2.​ Speeds up the process of investigation. Under the polygraph leg premise, the specific
3.​ Eliminates innocent suspects. nervous system component whose stimulation can
4.​ Pre-employment screening. thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the
5.​ Honesty test (periodic test). involuntary mental and emotional processes of the
individual who is consciously attempting
Polygraph Examination is generally used as an concealment of deception specially if that
investigative aid/technique aid in the investigative individual has something at stake and the
process. It is used to verify if the statement of the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that
victims/complainant, establish the credibility of the exposure to detection is quite possible though
witnesses and evaluates the truthfulness of the undesirable.
suspects. It is also used for pre-employment
screening and loyalty check of personnel, security Physiological Phenomena as basis of Detecting
risk such as leakage of information and Deception as per the Tripod Foundation
counter-intelligence, infraction of criminal law, 1. Blood Pressure and Heartbeat Frequency
misconduct and likewise used in in medical Increase of blood pressure and heartbeat
measurements. frequency following relevant questions and the

32
suppression in breathing are the criteria for physical movement by the subject during
detecting deception. the lie test. The result of such physical
Ink curves as shown on the heartbeat recorded on a movement causes physiological changes
moving graph paper of a polygraph represent the to take place within the body that shows
beat frequency (pulse) and the two pressures (blood up electro-dermal response.
pressures)— c.​ Outside Interference Response –
a.​ Systolic or high pressure – they exist interfering response which is in the form
when the heart is contracted, and the valves are of unwanted auditory or stimuli, such as
open with the blood rushing into the arteries; slamming of the door or the ringing of
b.​ Diastolic or low pressure – this exist telephone, a cough or sneeze by spectators
when the valves are closed and the heart in the room or any unusual noise to which
relaxed. the subject is not accustomed at the
​ Take note: Normal blood pressure is location.
120/80. d.​ Mental Tie-up Response –
The heart is an automatic organ that continues to interfering response otherwise known as
beat even when removed from the body; provided, guilt complex.
with proper blood. The rate and force of the e.​ Deception Response –
heartbeat as regulated by two sets of nerves –- a. abnormalities as a result of telling a lie
the sympathetic set, which accelerate the beat; and, which is more on psychological and such
b. cranial automatic system, which retard the beat. also is accompanied by physical changes.
It is also known as adrenaline, a certain hormone
that increases the heartbeat frequency. 2. Breathing Accuracy of Polygraph Technique
​ It consists of two steps –- Current polygraph research indicates that when a
a.​ Inspiration – caused by the specific single issue polygraph exam conducted and
contraction of the diaphragm and properly administered by a qualified, trained and
expansion of the chest cavity that result in experienced polygraph examiner, the accuracy rate
the air rushing into the lungs. is between 95% and 98%. This percentage is still
b.​ Expiration – caused by the higher than other forms of evidence including
relaxation of the diaphragm and psychiatric opinions, suspect identification
contraction of the chest cavity resulting in provided by victims and witnesses and fingerprint
the air rushing out of the lungs. identification.
The following affects the breathing rates: muscular The polygraph is the most accurate tool available
exercise (muscle movement, jogging), anticipation today for determining truth or deception. The
of muscular exercise (thinking to perform heavy accuracy of the multi-issue exam drops in accuracy
works), recalling mentally emotional experiences, due to a number of psychological factors. These
mental activity, anxious expectancy, shock and statistics do not include “inconclusive” test results
surprise. in which no opinion of truth or deception can be
3. Electro-dermal Response made from the physiological data collected on the
This is the most current popular name for the polygraph charts.
human body phenomenon in which the body, The technique itself and the result of the polygraph
mainly the skin, changes resistance electrically examination has been a source of unending
upon the application of certain external stimuli. It question. However, practitioners have agreed that
consists of two categories – normal and abnormal the accuracy of the polygraph results is high
response. Examples of Abnormal depending upon the factors that affect it.
Responses are;
a.​ Machine Fright Response – Factors that Affect the Accuracy of Polygraph
interference abnormal response that Results
appears on the first question or so and no Generally, the following are the factors affecting
longer appears throughout the test. polygraph examination accuracy; a. the instrument
b.​ Physical Movement Response – b.​ condition of the
interfering response caused by voluntary subject

33
 c.​ condition of the ➢​ Excessively
examination room high or excessive low
d.​ qualification and blood pressure
skills of the examiner ➢​ Diseases of the
Specifically, the 15% errors of lie detection test heart
come from the following circumstances; 1. ➢​ Respiratory
Nervousness or extreme emotional tension disorder
experienced by a subject who is telling the truth 3.​ Mental
regarding the offense in question but who is Abnormalities such as;
nevertheless affected by: ➢​ Feeblemindedn
➢​ Apprehension ess as I idiots, imbeciles
induced by the mere fact and morons
that suspicion or ➢​ Psychosis or
accusation has been insanities as in maniac
directed against him. depressives, paranoids,
➢​ Apprehension schizophrenia, etc.
over the possibility of an ➢​ Psychoneurosis
inaccurate lie detector and psychopathy as
test result. among the so-called
➢​ Over-anxiety to “peculiar” or
cooperate in order to emotionally unstable
assure an accurate test persons
result. 4.​ Unresponsiveness in
➢​ Apprehension a lying or guilty subject
concerning possible because of;
physical hurt from the ➢​ No fear of
instrument. detection
➢​ Anger ➢​ Apparent
resentment over having inability to consciously
to take a lie detector control response by
test. means of certain mental
➢​ Over-anxiety sets of attitudes
regarding serious ➢​ A condition of
personal problems sub-shock or adrenal
unrelated to the offense exhaustion at the time of
under investigation. test
➢​ Previous ➢​ Rationalization
extensive interrogation, of the crime in advance
especially when of the test to such an
accompanied by extent that lying about
physical abuse. the offense arouses little
➢​ A guilt or no emotional
complex or fear of disturbance
detection regarding ➢​ Extensive
some other offense interrogation prior to the
which he had test
committed. 5.​ Attempt to “beat the
2.​ Physiological machine” by controlled
abnormalities such as; breathing or by muscular
flexing 6. Unobserved
application of muscular

34
 pressure which produces pneumatically operated mechanical recorder of
ambiguities and misleading changes in respiration, blood pressure/pulse beat
indications in the blood supplemented with a unit for recording galvanic
pressure tracing skin reflexes or an additional unit for recording
abdominal respiration, muscular movements and
Limitations of the Polygraph Technique pressures or a plethysmograph for recording
1.​ It is an invaluable investigative aid, changes in blood oxygenation.
but never a substitute for instigation. The polygraph simultaneously records various
2.​ It is not a lie detector but only a physiological phenomena by means of a horizontal
scientific diagnostic instrument. kymograph. The resulting POLYGRAM indicates
3.​ It does not determine facts; it record tracing of external respiration in the thoracic and
responses to that which the subject knows to abdominal cavities by means of a pneumograph
be true. tambour assembly, systolic and diastolic
4.​ It is only as accurate as the examiner contraction of the heart as well as pulse fluctuations
is competent. with the resistance of a sphygmomanometer and
5.​ The test will not be given until psycho-galvanic skin response by means of the
enough facts have been established to permit electrodes to the person’s fingers. Each
the examiner to prepare a complete set of phenomenon is recorded by a hallow tube ink styles
suitable questions. moving across horizontally and vertically ruled
6.​ The test will not be given without the being driven by a synchronous electronic motor.
voluntary consent of the subject. The physiological changes within the examinee’s
7.​ No indication will be given to any body are monitored by the following polygraph
person or placed in any report that a person attachments:
will be considered guilty because he refused to
take the test. 1.​ Respiratory Rate:
8.​ A test will not be given until the Two rubber tubes filled with air called
accusations have been explained with the pneumographs are placed around the examinee’s
subject. chest and abdomen. When the chest or abdominal
9.​ No attempt to use polygraph for muscles expand, the air inside the tubes is
mental or physical evaluation of any person. displaced. The digital or computerized polygraph
10.​ No examination will be conducted on employs transducers to convert the energy of the
unfit subject. displaced air into electronic signals.
2.​ Blood Pressure/Heart Rate: A
blood pressure cuff is placed around the
Barriers to the Polygraph Examination examinee’s upper arm. Tubing runs from the
There are instances where it is impossible to make cuff to the polygraph. Again, in digital or
an analysis of polygraph tests because of the computerized polygraphs, these signals are
following; converted into electrical signals by
1.​ Pathological liar transducers.
2.​ Mental cases 3.​ Galvanic Skin Resistance:
3.​ Persons under the influence of This is also called electro-dermal activity and is
intoxicating liquor basically a measure of sweat on the subject’s
4.​ Narcotics related cases fingertips. The fingertips are one of the most
5.​ Various heart and other organic porous areas on the body and therefore are a good
troubles place to look for sweat. The theory is we sweat
more when we are placed under stress. Finger
THE COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH electrodes are attached to two of the examinee’s
MACHINE fingers. These electrodes measure the skin’s ability
to conduct electricity. When the skin is hydrated (as
The instrument used in the proper application of with sweat), it conducts electricity much more
the polygraph technique is essentially a easily that when it is dry.

35
 notch situated about the middle of the diastolic
Major Components of the Polygraph limb of the tracing.
Instrument
1.​ Pneumograph Component 4.​ Kymograph Component
​ Comprise of Pneumo Tube 1 and Pneumo This is the chart-drive recording unit of the
Tube 2. instrument. It has a synchronized motor that drives
This component occupies the two upper pens of the the charts at the rate of six (6) to twelve (12) inches
instrument which records the thoracic and per minute and its speed constant is vital because
abdominal breathing patterns of respiration. This is the vertical lines, which are spaced either at
accomplished through the use of a pneumograph one-half (1/2) of an inch interval, represents five or
consisting of two hollow corrugated tubes about ten seconds interval on the chart. This provides the
seven inches in length, each attached to a unit by a polygraphist with a means of determining pulse
rubber hose no longer that six feet and not larger rate and the questioning space.
than one quarter inch in diameter. This breathing or
pneumo unit is a low pressure unit. The Built-in Accessories of the Polygraph
inhalation/exhalation of the subject causes the tubes Instrument
to expand and contract, thereby reflecting the 1.​ KYMOGRAPH or Chart Driving
change through billows to the pen into the chart. Mechanism – chart roll arbor, idler roller, pen
table paper guides, sprocket roller, cutter bar,
2.​ Galvanograph Component off and on power switch, synchronous motor
​ Compose of the Finger Electrodes. 2.​ Pen and Inking System – capillary
This is the longest and the third pen of the pen, ink well plates, ink dropper, cuct bill
instrument. The electrodes are attached to the index 3.​ Pneumograph Section – rubber
finger and the ring finger of the left hand or to the jellows, beaded chain, rubber flexible tubing,
palmar and dorsal surfaces of the left hand. The pneumograph tube connection, pneumograph
electrodes used for obtaining the recording of the connecting tube, pneumograph distributing
GSR or electro-dermal responses, are fastened to ink, pneumograph pipe line, vent valve and
the hand or finger by means of the passage of an vent bottom, tambour assembly,
imperceptible amount of electrical current through sphygmomanometer, resonance control
the hand or finger bearing the attached electrodes, a 4.​ Cardio Section – pump bulb
galvanometer unit provides recording of the assembly, blood pressure pump connection,
variation in the flow of the electrical current. blood pressure cuff assembly, connector
block, sphygmomanometer pipe line
3.​ Cardiograph Component 5.​ Galvanograph Section – finger
​ The Blood Pressure Cuff with electrode, electrode jellow, galvanometer
sphygmomanometer.
This is the fourth and the bottom pen of the
instrument. This cardio unit is a mechanically
operated unit. It is a high pressure system. This
system records changes in the blood pressure, rate
and strength of pulse beat by means of a medical
blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that
is wrapped around the upper arm, in a manner that
places the bladder against the brachial artery. The
bladder is connected to the rubber hose, past a
pressure indicating gauge to a very sensitive
billows and its connected lever system that powers
the pen.
The polygraphist inflates the bladder with a hand
pump to a constant air pressure that will provide
tracing amplitude of 0.75 to 1 inch with a dicrotic

36
37
DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR g.​ Subject whose guilt is
EFFECTIVE POLYGRAPH TESTING doubtful or uncertain.
1.​ The INSTRUMENT
Polygraph examination uses the polygraph A subject for the polygraph testing must be in good
instrument as the device used for recording the physical and mental condition before he/she may
results. Hence, all its components and accessories be submitted for examination. On the other hand,
must be operational and functional. The examiner there are group of subjects who cannot be
should check the sensors/transducers attached to recommended to undergo Polygraph Testing such
the body of the subject: as the following;
a.​ Pneumograph tube - is a.​ Persons who have extreme
fastened on the subject’s chest and nervousness.
abdomen through the beaded chain. b.​ Persons who have
b.​ Blood pressure cuff - the physiological abnormalities such as
same type used by physicians is high blood pressure/ hypertension,
fastened on the subject’s upper right heart disease, respiratory disorder,
arm or bicep. toothaches, severe headaches and
c.​ Finger electrodes - fastened practically any painful ailments.
to the left index and ring fingers of c.​ Persons with mental
the subject. abnormalities.
d.​ Unresponsive persons, such
2.​ The EXAMINER as those who suffer mental fatigue or
Basis to all that has been said with regard to the under the influence of drugs or
utilization and accuracy of the polygraph technique alcohol.
is the matter of the examiner qualifications and e.​ Pregnant women.
skills. An Examiner must be an intelligent person, f.​ Persons below 18 years of
with reasonably good educational background – age.
preferably college degree. He should have an
intense interest in the work itself, a good practical 4.​ The EXAMINATION ROOM
understanding of human nature, and suitable The examination room is importantly considered
personality traits which may be evident from his for effective polygraph testing. The condition of the
otherwise general ability to “get along” with people room must be as follows;
and to be well liked by his friends and associates. a.​ Lie detector test should be
No amount of training or experience will overcome conducted in a quiet private room.
lack of these necessary qualifications. b.​ A room with none of the
usual police surroundings and with no
3.​ The SUBJECT distraction within the subject’s view.
Generally, there are three types of subjects for c.​ A room without any
polygraph testing, a) suspect b) the victim or windows at all.
complainant and c) witness. d.​ The interrogation room
Specifically, the following can be subjected for should contain no ornaments, pictures
polygraph testing: a. Subject whose guilt is definite or other objects which would distract
or reasonably certain. the attention of the person being
b.​ Emotional offender. tested or interviewed; preferably
c.​ Person who commit crimes sound proof and without any furniture
in the heat or passion. other than the polygraph desk, a
d.​ Person whose offenses are subject’s chair with armrest and an
accidental in nature. examiner’s stool.
e.​ Non-emotional offender. e.​ The room free from noise
f.​ Person who commit crimes such as the ringing of a telephone or
for financial gain. the conversation of persons outside
the examination room.

38
 f.​ The presence of other case, all the available facts and circumstances
officers or other spectators in the forming the basis of the accusation or
room itself may produce disturbances suspicion directed against the person to be
and distraction which will interfere examined.
with a satisfactory diagnosis of b.​ The subject should be informed of the
deception; hence, this should also be nature of the test and purpose of it. The
avoided. instrument should be pointed out to him as one
Adequate ventilation is needed with comfortable which is capable of determining whether or not
temperature. If a glass window is needed for this a person is telling the truth about a given
purpose, it should not be installed facing the matter. He should be informed that it records
subject and the lightings should not be excessive. certain bodily changes and that the instrument
There should be an “observation room” adjacent to will not cause any physical pain except for a
the examination room as in psychology slight temporary discomfort occasioned by the
laboratories. A “one-way mirror” (a panel of glass blood pressure cuff.
chemically treated so as to permit someone from c.​ The subject should understand the
the observation room to see into the lighted following statements: “If you are telling the
examination room without being seen) must be truth you have nothing to worry about, this
installed on the wall in between the rooms, so the instrument will indicate you are telling the
subject may be viewed from the observation room truth, and I’ll report the fact to the officers who
by the co-examiners for observable behavior requested me to make the test. The machine
symptoms relevant to the issue of truthfulness or itself will show it, and I’ll tell you so, and then
deception. I’ll ask you to let me hear the truth. That is fair
If practicable, the examination room should be enough, isn’t it? And you don’t mind taking
equipped with a hidden microphone so that persons the test, do you?” Experience has indicated
in the observation room may hear the questioning that such statement tends to relieve the
as well as witness what take place in the emotional tensions in a person who is telling
examination room. Only those persons who have the truth and at the same time they offer no
relevant purpose and/or interest to the case or in the relief to the liar. Moreover, asking the subject’s
polygraph technique should be permitted access to consent has proved worthwhile in those cases
the observation room. where the criminal confessions are obtained as
Since the test must be conducted under conditions a result of the test.
of privacy, in order for the examiner to safeguard As an important reminder to the examiner, the
himself against the possibility of subsequent following must be considered;
accusation of misconduct, either physical abuse or a.​ Do not wait until the last minute to
sexual abuse toward a female subject, a secretary ask a person to take the test.
preferably female in the observation room should b.​ Do not tell the subject everything that
be designated for tis will afford protection as to the you know about the offense or about him.
female subjects. c.​ Do not fail to investigate the case
Moreover, there are additional advantages to an before you ask a person to take the test.
observation room, a subject in police custody can d.​ If for some reasons, it must be
be watched by his guard to prevent escape and the temporarily taken, the investigator must
viewing may afford protection to the examiner continue investigating the case.
from physical harm and against damage to the e.​ Do not depend on mass screening of
instrument by a subject in an attempt to spoil an possible suspects to produce a real or the guilty
effective examination. one.
f.​ Do not tell anyone that the lie detector
5. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS will decide whether one is innocent or guilty;
In order to conduct a satisfactory lie detector test, the court will make the decision.
the following must also be considered; g.​ If the test indicates that the person did
a.​ It is advisable for the examiner to not tell the truth or if the person confesses after
obtain from the investigators interested in the

39
 the test, do not think that the investigation is laboratory. Notes should be made of any illogical
over. or unreasonable objections to taking the test such as
strange physical ailments that are sometimes
PROCEDURES/PHASES IN THE devised by the subject in an attempt to avoid taking
POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUE the test.

Phase I: PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS Phase II: THE PRE-TEST INTERVIEW

This stage is the initial interview with the This is the stage of interview to the subject. The
investigator handling the case or person requesting primary purpose is to prepare or condition the
it. The group involve in this stage are the victim or subject for the test, the following should be taken
the complainant, suspects, and witnesses. It considerations;
includes obtaining, evaluation of facts, determining 1.​ The appraisal of subject’s
areas the subjects need to be asked, and the constitutional rights
investigator must furnish the examiner of the a.​ The right to remain silent
following; b.​ That anything he/she say
1.​ Sworn statement of the suspect, may be used in favor or against
witnesses and victim/complainant. him/her
2.​ Incident or spot report, BI of the c.​ The right to have a lawyer of
suspect, witnesses and victim/complainant. his/her own choice
3.​ Rough sketch or pictures of the crime d.​ Right to refuse
scene and amount of money stolen. 2.​ Obtain subjects consent to undergo
4.​ Peculiar aspect of the offense or any polygraph test by signing a statement of
strange set. consent
5.​ Exact time the offense was 3.​ The taking of personal data of the
committed. subject
6.​ Known fact about the suspect’s action 4.​ Determining his/her suitability as a
or movement. subject
7.​ Facts indicating any connection 5.​ Evaluating the psychological
between the suspects, victim and witnesses. preparation of the subject
8.​ Exact type of weapon, tool or 6.​ Informing the subject of his
firearms used. involvement with the case
9.​ Result of laboratory test. As earlier noted subjects will not be scheduled for
10.​ Unpublished facts of the offense examination when they are obviously fatigued or in
known only by the victim, suspects and the ill health, physically injured or in pain, their
investigator. judgment is obviously influenced by or impaired by
Preliminary Observations drugs or alcohol, or have just suffered emotional
Behavioral observations of the subject begin from trauma. The examiner’s interview with the subject
the time he enters the reception room until he is prior to the test is of considerable importance, both
escorted into the examination room and must be for the purpose of conditioning the subject for the
recorded by a secretary or receptionist. examination and also in order to provoke and
What to observe are the subject’s general conduct observe the helpful indications of guilt and
or behavior while in the waiting room. This will innocence which are often forthcoming at this time.
give the examiner a clue or guide in the most The following is the detailed outline of the pre-test
effective handling of the subject, particularly with interview which has been found to be effective;
regard to his possible resentment toward the test or 1.​ As the examiner enters the waiting
other attitudes which should be understood and room to request the subject to accompany him
alleviated before the actual administration of the into the examination room, the greeting that
test. the examiner extends should be cordial but
In addition, observations maybe solicited from the firm.
investigator as to the subject’s behavior from the 2.​ Upon entering the examination room,
notification of the test up to the arrival at the the subject should be requested to sit down in a

40
 chair alongside the instrument and instrument and permitted to make their blood
immediately thereafter, the examiner should pressure pulse respiration tracings before the
proceed to the taking of the consent of the question are asked of the subject.
subject. 4.​ During the test, the subject is
3.​ Then fill up the necessary data asked informed that he will be asked several
in the interrogation log. questions which should be answered by either
4.​ Afterwards, inquire from the subject “yes” or “no” only, and that they are so brief
whether he has been on a lie detector test and straight to the point.
before. The examiner should make no further 5.​ Approximately five (5) to ten (10)
comment but he should listen carefully to seconds after this instruction, first question is
whatever the subject himself may say. asked and then the other questions follows
5.​ If the subject has not told of the after or at the interval of fifteen (15) or twenty
purpose of his appearance in the testing (20) seconds.
laboratories, the examiner should explain that a Take Note: The questions may be written in
lie detector test is desired of him as part of the advance of the test or in the course of the test
investigation regarding the case. Much time during the intervals between the asking of each
should be spent in the preliminary interview as question. The phraseology of the test question is an
the circumstances reasonably warrants. extremely important aspect of the examination. The
questions, and every word used in the questions
Phase III: THE EXAMINATION PROPER must be unambiguous, unequivocal and thoroughly
After the pre-test interview, the examiner should understandable by the subject. The questions must
proceed to the placement or attachment of be in state as simply as possible and with a
polygraph sensors. The first to be attached is the complete avoidance of such double inquires as
Pneumograph, followed by the “Did you shoot him and then run into the house?”
Cardiograph/Cardiosphygmograph and the All questions must have only a single,
Galvanograph sensors. unambiguous meaning. Avoid lengthy questions
Review all the questions with the subject before and avoid legal terms such as rape, murder,
the actual examination is made. The examiner embezzlement, etc.
should discourage any comments or statement by
the subject. Test instrument must be given to the Phase IV: THE POST-TEST INTERVIEW
subject upon completion of the necessary This stage includes all consideration that bears on
preliminary preparation. The instrument is attached the examination. This is done just after the
to the subject then; instrument is turned off. If the polygraph test result
1.​ The blood pressure pulse cuff is indicates deception, the examiner will then proceed
wrapped around the subject’s upper arm or to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of
bicep and the Pneumograph tube adjusted which is to obtain confession. However, if the
around the chest and abdomen. polygraph indicates that, the subject is innocent; the
2.​ The cuff is then inflated to a point examiner will just release the subject cordially and
approximate midway between the systolic and thanks him/her for his/her cooperation. The
diastolic blood pressure. That is midway purposes of further questioning after the test are; 1.
between the pressure produced by the output To clarify the findings
action of the heart and that maintained at the 2.​ To learn if there are any other reasons
time of the hearts intake action. for the subject’s responding to a relevant
3.​ The synchronous motor carrying the question, other than the knowledge of the
paper upon which blood pressure pulse crime
respirations recording are made is then set in 3.​ To obtain additional information and
motion, the motor being so timid that the paper an admission for law enforcement purposes, if
moves along at the rate of six (6) to twelve the results suggest deception.
(12) inches per minute, then ten (10) to fifteen
(15) seconds after the instrument has been set Duration of a Polygraph Testing
in motion, the inked filled pens of the

41
 Polygraph Examination normally takes from 1 to 3 11.​ Chart number, name of subject, time,
hours depending on the purpose of the examination date and place taken
as well as the subject’s attitude and any other
factors that causes lengthy examination. Signs and Symbols Commonly Used
Examination sometimes may be very short due to Signs ​ ​ Meaning
the confession of the subject during the process of X / 60 /1.5 A ​ first marking of the chart
the test or may be prolonged when an examiner XX / 60 /1.5 A ​ examiner’s mark after the test
seeks to resolve inconsistent or inconclusive X​ ​ ​ start of test
patterns of responses. The actual questioning aspect XX ​ ​ ​ end of test
of the examination, which may be repeated three or 60 ​ ​ ​ mm of mercury in the
four times and lasts no longer that few minutes for sphygmomanometer dial
each questions. Limits maybe set in some cases, A or M ​ ​ automatic or manual galvo
because the blood pressure cuff can be inflated for amplifier
10 to 12 minutes causing the subject undue I I​ ​ ​ point where each
discomfort. question begins and ends (stimulus mark)
+​ ​ ​ yes answer
EVALUATION OF POLYGRAPH TEST - ​ ​ ​ no answer
RESULT A​ ​ ​ adjustment
T​ ​ ​ subject talk
CHART MARKING R​ ​ ​ repeat question
Chart Marking is one of the most important things C​ ​ ​ coughed
in the conduct of polygraph examination because it N​ ​ ​ noise
assists the examiner in interpreting and evaluating PJ ​ ​ ​ paper jam
the test result, without these markings, the BI ​ ​ ​ breathing instruction
examiner will find it difficult to interpret the C+ ​ ​ ​ increase in galvo
tracings which will be the basis in drawing out sensitivity
conclusions and recommendations. C- ​ ​ ​ decrease in galvo
To facilitate evaluation and interpretation of the sensitivity
test result, chart markings are made using signs and IS ​ ​ ​ ink stopped
symbols to enable the examiner determine the CT ​ ​ ​ clear throat
following;
1.​ Exact time the test commenced and POLYGRAPH CHART OR PAPER
terminated Polygraph Chart is about 100 feet long, 6 to 8
2.​ Initial and final blood pressure and inches in width with ½ or .5 inch top and bottom
galvanograph readings margins. Chart papers are imprinted with horizontal
3.​ Particular point where each question lines spaced at ¼ inch intervals or 20 divisions and
asked started and ended vertical lines at 1/10 inch intervals with heavy lines
4.​ Corresponding identification of the at ½ or .5 inch intervals. Each ½ inch division of
question and the type and time of answer given the vertical lines represents 5 seconds of time.
by the subject Pulse rate per minute may then be computed
5.​ Duration and amplitude of reaction according to number of beats per ½ division by 12.
patterns
6.​ Any instruction given or repetition of CHART OR POLYGRAM INTERPRETATION
question made The accuracy of instrumental detection of
7.​ Any movement, cough tracing by the deception is dependent upon the examiner’s ability
subject or outside distractions that occurred to diagnose truth or deception by reading and
8.​ Mechanical adjustment or interpreting a subject’s charts. The polygraph chart
re-adjustment made is the composite record of the Pneumograph,
9.​ Extraneous factors affecting test chart Cardiograph and Galvanograph tracing from the
such as paper jams series of questions.
10.​ Time interval between questions

42
 In every polygraph test chart, there are two kinds
of responses where deception may be traced, FOR : Director, PNP Crime Laboratory
namely;
1.​ Normal Responses – refers to the FROM :
tracing of responses on the chart which does
not deviates from the norms of the subject’s SUBJECT : Request for Polygraph Examination
psycho-physiological response and usually
appears when the subject is being of irrelevant DATE :
questions.
2.​ Specific Response – refers to any
deviation from the normal tracing of the 1.​ Request conducts polygraph
subject in the relevant and control question. examination on the person of
__________________ (or following
General Rules for an Effective Chart persons):
Interpretation
1.​ There must be an specific response a)​ NATURE OF CASE :
2.​ To be specific, it must form a
deviation from the norm b)​ VICTIM :
3.​ It must appear in at least two test
charts c)​ SUSPECT :
4.​ The best indication of deception is the
simultaneous specific responses in the three d)​ TDPO:
tracings of the chart.
2.​ Further request that this Office be
furnished a copy of examination result for
our reference.

3.​ For consideration.

__________________________
(CHIEF OF OFFICE)

Sample Request Format Of Polygraph

Examination

Republic of the Philippines

Department of the Interior and Local Government
NATIONAL POLICE COMMISSION
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE

MEMORANDUM

43
44
 There are also five sets of tests that maybe applied
during the polygraph examination process;
QUESTIONS FORMULATION AND a.​ Test I: General Question Test
CONSTRUCTION – the purpose is to get the standard
tracing of the subject and to establish
The basic measurement of an effective polygraph a true telling pattern for the initial part
evaluation and analysis of result comes from the of the record.
factors affecting the instrument used, level of b.​ Test II: Number Test
training and skill of the examiner, condition of the (Psychological Test) – the purpose is
subject, condition of the examination room and the to check the possible deliberate
actual examination process. distortion when the chosen number is
As follows are the rules to be followed in the asked and to obtain a chart wherein
formulation of test questions; the subject is not under stress.
1.​ Questions must be simple and direct c.​ Test III: Spot Responder –
2.​ They must not involve legal the purpose is to determine the
terminology such as rape, murder, etc. responsiveness of the subject to
3.​ They must be answerable by yes or no crucial question on spot responses.
only d.​ Test IV: Mix Question – the
4.​ Must be short as possible purpose is to compare the degree of
5.​ Their meaning must be clear and reaction between control and relevant
unmistakable phrased in a language that the question.
subject can easily understand e.​ Test V: Silence Answer Test
6.​ They must not be in the form of (SAT) – it is a confirmatory test.
accusation
7.​ Question must never contain an GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GQT)
inference which presupposes knowledge on the The GQT is consists of a series of Relevant and
part of the subject Irrelevant Questions asked in a planned order.
8.​ All questions must refer to one Questions are so arranged as to make a comparison
offense only of responses to relevant questions with a subject’s
9.​ All questions must refer to only one norm made during the answering of irrelevant
element of an offense questions.
10.​ They must not contain interferences I.​ Relevant Questions
to ones’ religion, races or belief Functionally, these are questions directly related to
the offense under investigation. In pre-employment
Types of Test Question and periodic screening, the area of interest may be
The polygraph test consists of asking the the subject’s entire background. Thus, there may be
subject/person through a list of prepared questions a series of relevant questions, such as “Have you
in a planned sequence comprising of not more than ever been fired from a job?” or, “Have you stolen
twelve. At least three (3) test charts are taken, each more than P50 in one year from any of your
lasting not more than four (4) minutes with a rest employers?”
interval of five (5) to ten (10) minutes between Relevant question are classified according to its
charts. stimulation effect when applied, namely;
There are two general types of questions to be 1.​ Strong Relevant or Primary
constructed and maybe supplemented by other Relevant Question – which has an
types of questions; intense relationship to the crime or
a.​ General Question Test problem being considered. This is
(GQT) – the most commonly applied intended to produce strong emotional
b.​ Peak-of-Tension Test (PTT) response in guilty subjects. Example:
– which is usually used as Did you steal Nick’s Ipod?
supplementary test 2.​ Secondary or Weak Relevant
– are questions that concern with

45
 elements of the crime and deals establish his guilt, by linking
mostly on guilty knowledge and him and his predicaments to
partial involvement. the fingerprints, footprints,
Example: Between 10:00 to 12:00am, 10 February tool marks, etc… collected at
2011, did you open the table drawer of Mr Dela the crime scene.
Cruz? Example: Were the footprints outside the house of
Further, the weak relevant is classified into the Nick your?
following; II.​ Control Questions
a.​ Sacrifice Relevant These are used for purposes of comparison.
or DYAT Question (Do You Essentially, truthful subjects are believed by
intend to Answer Truthfully) polygraph examiners to be more concerned (and
– designed to absorb the thus more physiologically aroused) about control
response generally generated than relevant questions. The responses to both
by the introduction of the control and relevant questions are compared.
first relevant questions in the Control questions have two kinds;
series. Reaction to these 1.​ Primary Control Question –
questions gives the examiner recalls the offense done from the time
a clue as to the subject’s childhood up to three to five years
attitude of willingness or before the occurrence of the present
voluntariness to submit to offense being investigated. Example:
the test. Before reaching the age of 28, have
Example: Regarding the stolen Ipod, do you intend you ever stolen anything?
truthfully to answer each question about that? 2.​ Secondary Control Question
b.​ Knowledge – more specific in nature, it is based
Questions - This type of upon another sort of wrongdoing
question is propounded to which will enhance the subject’s
the subject to detect opportunity for the responsiveness. Its
information about a crime scope includes up to the present
that only a guilty subject period of examination.
would have. Such Example: Have you ever stolen anything from this
information might include locality?
details about the site of the The formulation of both types of control questions
crime or the means of necessitates reasonable certainty that the subject’s
committing it, such as the answer is a lie. It is theorized that although guilty
type of weapon used. subjects will also be concerned about control
It is hypothesized that guilty subjects will exhibit a questions, they will be more concerned about and
different physiological response to the correct thus exhibit more physiological reactions to
(relevant) detail than to the incorrect details, but relevant questions.
that innocent subjects will respond the same to all III.​ Irrelevant (Neutral) Questions
the items. Example: Do you know for sure who Types of questions which have no importance to
stole the Ipod of Nick? the case under investigation, these are questions
At this instance, the phrase “for sure” is included to which are believed to have no or very little
eliminate further suspicion just in case the subject emotional impact on a subject. Thus, such
knew the offender and the location of the evidence questions can be used as an indicator of a particular
but is only hesitant to answer “yes”. subject’s normal baseline level of arousal. This
c.​ Evidence must precede the relevant ones.
–Connecting Questions – Example: ​ Did you eat today?
This has to do with inviting ​ ​ Do you smoke?
subject’s attention on the ​ ​ Are you wearing black leather
probability of incriminating jacket now?
proof that would tend to

46
​ ​ Do you live in Sudipen, La the standard test in order to draw a better
Union? conclusion:
I. Peak-of-Tension Test (PTT)
Sample Set of General Question Test (GQT) The subject may be given this test if he is not yet
1.​ Have you ever been called by the informed of the details of the offense for which he
name Aldong? (Irrelevant) is being interrogated by the investigator, or by other
2.​ Is today Friday? (Irrelevant) persons or from other sources like the print media.
3.​ Do you have anything to do with the This valid test is only made when there is no
robbery at the market last night? (Weak widespread publicity about a crime where intimate
Relevant) details as to the methods of commission or certain
4.​ Are you over 18 years of age? facts of the case in known from the victim and
(Irrelevant) investigator.
5.​ Were you one of those who robbed The questions formulated are similar in nature and
the market last night? (Strong Relevant) construction, only one of which is true and the
6.​ Have you been involved in a robbery perpetrator who would naturally be in possession of
case this year? (Control Question Relevant) such unpublicized knowledge will usually exhibit a
7.​ Do you drink liquor? (Irrelevant) rise in the tracing up to that particular question
8.​ Was the pair of gloves found at the followed by a decline thereafter, caused by the
market yours? (Evidence Connecting relief of knowing that a dreaded question
Relevant) dangerous to his wellbeing, is past.
9.​ Do you know of anyone involved in Example: Do you know whether the stolen watch
the robbery at the market last night? from Rommel is a Rolex? (Introductory Phrase)
(Knowledge Question Relevant) ​ ​ Is it an Omega?
10.​ Have you ever been involved in any ​ ​ Is it a Seiko?
robbery in your entire life? (Secondary Control ​ ​ Is it Timex?
Relevant) ​ ​ Is it a Citizen?
11.​ Have you deliberately lied to any II. Guilt Complex Test (GCT)
question I have asked you? (Relevant Check This test is applied when the response to relevant
Question) and control question are similar in degree and in
consistency and in a way that the examiner cannot
Other Questions that maybe asked in the determine whether the subject is telling the truth or
Polygraph Technique not. The subject is asked questions aside from the
1.​ Check Question – last question asked irrelevant, relevant and control question, a new
in the lie test. It is direct question that relates to series of relevant questions dealing with a real
the fact that the subject has told the truth to all incident and that which the subject could not have
questions asked in the lie test committed.
2.​ Fishing Expedition Test Question – If the subject does not respond to the added
used to vagrants or loiters for routine relevant questions, it indicates that the subject was
interrogation. No idea about what offense has being deceptive as to the primary issue under
been committed. investigation. However, no conclusion can be
Examples: ​ Have you ever been arrested drawn if the response to added guilt complex is
before? similar to the real issue questions.
​ ​ Are you wanted anywhere now Example: ​ Did you steal that Ferrari toy
by the police? collection?
On this case, the stealing of Ferrari toy collection
SUPPLEMENTARY TEST QUESTIONS was not actually committed because the alleged
Aside from the standard tests, the following crime investigated was the loss of the Ipod.
special test may be performed and incorporated as III.​ Symptomatic Question
part of the procedure or may be used as Its function is to detect and evaluate the presence of
supplementary tests depending upon the result of outside issues which may suppress response to
relevant questions. This is often true that the

47
subject fear that they might be asked about another The most common techniques in sequencing
case in which they are involved but are not the questions are the Revised Reid-Inbau
subject matter under investigation. Relevant Irrelevant Test and the Backster’s Zone
Example: Are you completely convinced that I will Comparizon Test.
not ask any question on this test that has not The REID-INBAU Technique (11 Questions)
already been reviewed? 1.​ Irrelevant - Have you ever been called
IV.​ S.K.Y. Question by the name Aldong?
S – stands for SUSPECT 2.​ Irrelevant - Do you drink?
K – means KNOWLEDGE 3.​ Weal Relevant - Were you in the
Y – refers to YOU as the subject vicinity of Nick dela Cruz house between
These three questions are based on the Backster 10:00 and 11:00 last night?
Technique grouped together to confirm the 4.​ Irrelevant - Are you now sitting
previous charts and may detect indirect down?
involvement on guilty knowledge. 5.​ Strong Relevant - Did you steal the
Example: ​ S – Do you suspect anyone in Ipod of Nick?
particular of stealing Nick’s Ipod? 6.​ Primary Control - Before reaching the
​ ​ K – Do you know for sure who age of 25, have you ever stolen anything?
stole Nick’s Ipod? 7.​ Irrelevant – Do you drink softdrinks?
​ ​ Y – Did you steal Nick’s Ipod? 8.​ Evidence Connecting – Were the
V.​ Silent Answer Test (SAT) footprints outside the house of Nick yours?
This test is conducted in the same manner as when 9.​ Knowledge – Do you know for sure
relevant and control questions are asked but the who stole the Ipod of Nick?
subject is instructed to answer the questions silently 10.​ Secondary Control – Have you ever
to himself without making any verbal response stolen anything from this locality?
causes distortion in the tracing such as sniff or 11.​ Symptomatic – Have you ever lied
clearing the throat. answering any of my questions now?
VI.​ Zone Comparison Test
A twenty to thirty five seconds block of polygraph The BACKSTER’s ZONE Test (13 Questions)
chart time initiated by a question having a unique 1.​ Irrelevant – Have you ever called by
psychological focusing appeal to a predictable the name Aldong?
group of examinees. 2.​ Sacrifice Relevant – Regarding the
The Five Variations of ZCT are: stolen Ipod and Ferrari toy collection, do you
1.​ Matte Quadri-track Zone intend to answer truthfully each question about
Comparison Technique – used that?
exclusively for single issue test 3.​ Symptomatic – Are you completely
2.​ Backster Tri-Zone convinced that I will not ask any question on
Comparison Technique – permits the this test that has already been reviewed?
use of inside track “fear of error” 4.​ Control – Can you remember stealing
control question and the “hope of anything before you were 25 years of age?
error” 5.​ Strong Relevant – Did you steal
3.​ The Department of Defense Nick’s Ipod?
Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) Bi-Spot 6.​ Control – Other than what you told
Zone Comparison Technique me, did you steal any other things from your
4.​ Integrated Zone Comparison locality?
Technique – by Nathan Gordon, 7.​ Strong Relevant – Did you steal the
William Waid and Philip Cocheti in cell phone from Nick’s house?
1987 8.​ Symptomatic – Is there something
5.​ The Utah Zone Comparison else you are afraid I will ask you, though I told
Technique you I would not?
9.​ Guilt Complex – Did you steal that
Most Commonly Used Questions Sequencing Ferrari toy collection?

48
 10.​ Weak Relevant – Do you know where outcome of the case. However, the governing
the missing Ipod of Nick is now? standards of expert witness admissibility are not
11.​ S – Do you suspect anyone in uniform throughout the United States. States are
particular of stealing Nick’s Ipod? torn between the two primary admissibility
12.​ K – Do you know for sure who stole standards: Daubert and Frye.
Nick Ipod? The two major governing standards can be found in
13.​ Y – Did you steal Nick’s Ipod? two seminal cases—a D.C. Circuit case, Frye v.
United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923), and a
LEGAL ISSUES AND COMPARATIVE U.S. Supreme Court decision, Daubert v. Merrell
SETTING ON POLYGRAPH USE AND Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
ADMISSIBILITY The federal court system exclusively follows
Daubert while state courts are divided between the
Polygraph examinations or psychophysiological two. Interestingly, each state has taken on its own
credibility assessments are used in more than 50 interpretation of these two benchmark cases,
countries around the world by government making the admissibility of expert testimony more
organizations, law enforcement agencies, the legal variable between jurisdictions. Prior to trial— and
community, the corporate sector, and private ideally, prior to retaining your expert—it’s critical
citizens. to understand the difference between the Daubert
Withstanding more than a century of research, and Frye standards, their specific jurisdictional
development, and widespread use, the polygraph variations, and any recent, applicable case law.
examination remains the most effective means of The Daubert Standard: Enumerated Factors to
verifying the truth and detecting deception. Consider
In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.,
The Validity Issue of Polygraph Testing 509 U.S. 579 (1993), the Supreme Court effectively
The validity of polygraph testing means the overruled Frye in federal courts, holding that the
accuracy of the test in detecting deception and case law was inconsistent with the applicable
truthfulness. The problem of assessing polygraph evidentiary rules, namely, Rule 702 of the Federal
validity is especially difficult not only because Rules of Evidence. In Daubert, the Court held that
polygraph tests take a number of forms but also the twin standards of Rule 702—relevance and
because validity has different dimensions and can reliability—are incompatible with the stricter
be measured in a number of ways. “general acceptance” test.
The Court emphasized the importance of a trial
The Reliability Issue of Polygraph Testing judge’s “gatekeeping responsibility” when
The reliability of polygraph testing means the admitting expert testimony and listed a
consistency of the test in detecting deception and non-exhaustive list of factors to consider such as:
truthfulness. A reliable polygraph test should yield 1) whether the expert’s technique or theory can be
equivalent outcomes when subjects are retested and tested and assessed for reliability, 2) whether the
as well be scored similarly by individuals other technique or theory has been subject to peer review
than the initial examiner. and publication, 3) the known or potential rate of
error of the technique or theory, 4) the existence
ADMISSIBILITY OF POLYGRAPH IN and maintenance of standards and controls, and 5)
COURT: DAUBERT VS. FRYE whether the technique or theory has been generally
accepted in the scientific community.
Daubert vs. Frye: Navigating the Standards of Under this new standard, the Court encouraged a
Admissibility for Expert Testimony more liberal approach to admitting expert
Although there are many factors to consider when testimony, stressing the importance of subjecting
vetting an expert, the ultimate question is whether witnesses to vigorous crossexamination instead.
the expert’s testimony will be admissible in court. The decision in Daubert to relax the admissibility
If the court deems an expert’s testimony standards of expert testimony was further
inadmissible, especially suddenly and in the middle expounded by its progeny. In General Electric Co.
of trial, it can have a disastrous effect on the v. Joiner, 522 U.S. 136 (1997), the Court

49
emphasized the importance of expert methodology, as the “general acceptance” test, the Frye standard
opposed to focusing solely on the conclusory is aptly described as:
opinion, finding that “conclusions and Just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses
methodology are not entirely distinct from one the line between the experimental and
another.” demonstrable stages is difficult to define.
Importantly, Joiner also set forth the proper Somewhere in this twilight zone, the evidential
standard of review for appellate courts deciding on force of the principle must be recognized, and
a district court’s expert testimony evidentiary while the courts will go a long way in admitting
rulings. Holding that an abuse of discretion expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized
standard is appropriate, the Court stated that, scientific principle or discovery, the thing from
“while the Federal Rules of Evidence allow district which the deduction is made must be sufficiently
courts to admit a somewhat broader range of established to have gained general acceptance in
scientific testimony that would have been the particular field in which it belongs.
admissible under Frye, they leave in place the Although Frye was decided in 1923, for decades it
gatekeeper role of the trial judge in screening such was not widely followed. The case was not cited
evidence.” The Court “rejected the notion for over 10 years following the decision. The
propounded by several circuits that they should standard was increasingly used in the 1970s,
engage in a stringent review of decisions excluding predominantly in criminal cases. It then branched
scientific evidence proffered by plaintiffs in toxic itself out into civil cases, such as toxic torts. As the
tort and product liability cases.” standard gained momentum, so did its criticisms.
Less than one year after Joiner was decided, the Some commentators thought that the test was too
Supreme Court held in Kumho Tire Co. v. vague and could not reliably manage complex
Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137 (1999) that the Daubert scientific testimony. In the context of these
standard applies to expert testimony that is not criticisms, the standard set forth in Daubert
scientific in nature. Broadening the range of cases emerged.
to which Daubert pertains, the Supreme Court held
that the standard applies to witnesses that have The Difference Between the Daubert and Frye
non-scientific “technical, or other specialized Standards
knowledge” as specified in Rule 702. The Court Generally, the difference between the Daubert and
found no relevant distinction between experts who Frye standards is the broadened approach of the
rely on scientific principles and those who rely on latter. While Frye essentially focuses on one
“skill- or experienced-based observation,” citing question – whether the expert’s opinion is generally
Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence, which accepted by the relevant scientific community –
also makes no distinction between scientific Daubert offers a list of factors to consider.
knowledge and “technical or other specialized Describing the function of trial judges as
knowledge.” “gatekeepers,” the factors assist the judges in
determining admissibility, while Frye arguably
The Frye Standard: General Acceptance in the places the decision more in the hands of the
Scientific Community expert’s own community. Chief Justice Rehnquist
Unlike the Daubert standard, the general premise in famously noted that the gatekeeping function
Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923) should not impose on the court “the obligation or
states that an expert opinion is admissible if the the authority to become amateur scientists.” That
scientific technique on which the opinion is based being said, Daubert does not completely forsake
is “generally accepted” as reliable in the relevant the significance of the “general acceptance” test, as
scientific community. In Frye, the Circuit affirmed it is included as one of the factors.
the trial court’s decision to expert testimony Exactly how much weight is to be given to each
concerning a lie detector test. The test, which was Daubert factor over another is not explicitly
based on changes in systolic blood pressure, was expressed, as the focus is on whether the Court
considered to have “not yet gained such standing applies a set of criteria that is appropriate in
and scientific recognition among physiological and making the necessary evidentiary inquiry. As
psychological authorities.” What is now referred to Justice Scalia noted in Kumho, “the Daubert factors

50
are not holy writ, in a particular case the failure to admissibility of expert testimony is, in many
apply one or another of them may be unreasonable, respects, a continuum opposed to a bright-line rule.
and hence an abuse of discretion.”
However, testing for reliability is oftentimes the COMPARATIVE SETTING ON POLYGRAPH
crux of the analysis. As Daubert pointed out, “a USE AND ADMISSIBILITY
key question to be answered…will be whether [an
expert’s technique or theory] can be (and has been) United States
tested,” implying the particular importance of the Polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulation in
testing for reliability factor. Federal circuits have 19 states since 2007 and subject to the discretion of
typically followed suit and explored the reliability the trial judge in the federal courts. The use of
factor with more scrutiny than the other factors. For polygraph in court testimony remains controversial
example, in Bielskis v. Louisville Ladder, Inc., 663 although it is used extensively in postconviction
F.3d 887, 899 (7th Cir. 2011), the 7th Circuit supervision particularly of sex offenders. While
affirmed the trial court’s exclusion of plaintiff’s polygraph tests are commonly used in police
engineering expert. The expert, who planned to investigations, no defendant or witness can be
testify as to a defectively designed scaffold, used forced to undergo the tests. The employee
Google to search for issues pertaining to his polygraph protection act of 1988 generally prevents
testimony. The Court criticized the experts “shaky employers from using lie detector tests either for
proof” and found that he “made no attempt to test preemployment screening or during the course of
his hypothesis.” employment. Also, the state of New Mexico admits
When Daubert was first decided, a great deal was polygraph testing in front of juries under certain
made about its analytical differences with Frye. circumstances. While in the other states polygraph
Commentators opined whether the judiciary was examiners are permitted to testify in front of judges
equipped to evaluate the merit of scientific in various types of hearings.
testimony and whether it would have an effect on
expert admissibility rates. Interestingly, whether the Europe
standard does substantially impact the rate of In most European jurisdictions polygraph are not
admissibility is still up for debate, with several considered reliable evidence and are not generally
studies reaching drastically different conclusions. used by police forces. Courts themselves do not
Likewise, there is not even a consensus as to which order or pay for polygraph tests. In most cases
standard is stricter. Some courts have found that polygraph tests are voluntarily taken by a defendant
Daubert and the corresponding Federal Rules of in order to substantiate his or her claims. The
Evidence “favor the admissibility of expert federal Court of Justice of Germany has ruled that
testimony and are applied with a ‘liberal thrust.’” polygraph evidence is not admissible in court.
(MBIA Ins. Corp. v. Patriarch Partners VIII, LLC,
2012 WL 2568972, at *15 (S.D.N.Y. July 3, Canada
2012)). While other courts have found that, The polygraph it's regularly use as a forensic tool in
“Daubert assigned district courts a more vigorous the investigation of criminal acts and sometimes
role to play in ferreting out expert opinion not employed in the screening of employees for
based on the scientific method.” (Cavallo v. Star government organizations. In the 1987 decision of
Enterprise, 892 F. Supp. 756, 774 (E.D. Va. 1995)). RV Beland, the Supreme Court of Canada rejected
As Daubert applies to all federal courts, the the use of polygraph results as evidence in court.
differences between the two standards are more The decision did not however affect the use of the
aptly seen in the state court context. A number of polygraph in criminal investigations. The
states continue to use the Frye general acceptance polygraph continues to be used as an investigative
test, while the states that have adopted Daubert tool.
(approximately 27) have not all uniformly applied
the standard. Only nine states have adopted Australia
Daubert in its entirety, while other states have their The High Court of Australia has not yet considered
own completely different standard of admissibility. the admissibility of polygraph evidence. The New
Overall, the evidentiary standard governing the

51
South Wales District Court rejected the use of the the interrogator. his application was rejected
device in a criminal trial. because of two reasons:
1.​ the CIP called the peak of tension test
Israel in the main text of the judgment was
The High Court of Israel ruled that as the inapplicable in that situation; and,
polygraph has not been recognized as a reliable 2.​ the CQT was unreliable and not at all
device polygraph results are inadmissible as admissible.
evidence in a civil trial. Also, polygraph results
we're ruled inadmissible in criminal trials. POLYGRAPH USE IN THE PHILIPPINES
However, some insurance companies accept to
include a clause in insurance contracts in which the Polygraph evidence was first discussed with the
beneficiary agrees that polygraph results be Supreme Court in 1978 in People vs Daniel (GR
admissible as evidence. No. L-40330 Nov 20, 1978). In this case the
accused submitted to the trial court the results of
England polygraph tests to show that he was innocent of the
The current legal position with respect to the crime of rape. The trial court rejected the results as
second Bonython requirement is that for expert evidence. The supreme court sustained the trial
evidence to be admissible in England and Wales it court ruling. It held that a polygraph test is
must be sufficiently well established to pass the unreliable considering that the subject took the test
ordinary tests of relevance and reliability that is to after the trial was over. The court reasoned that the
say the expert witness evidence must be sufficiently subject no longer felt any fear or emotional distress
reliable to be fit for a jury to consider. that would allow any finding that he committed the
crime charged. It said the accuracy of a polygraph
India test depended largely on the time and place of the
Indian court adapted the brain electrical oscillations test and if the subject was already distance from the
signature tests as evidence the convict a woman Commission of the crime the results were bound to
who has accused of murdering her fiancé. It is the fail.
first time that the result of polygraph was used as
evidence in court. On May 5, 2010 the Supreme In 1999 the Supreme Court was again confronted
Court of India declared use of narco analysis, brain with polygraph evidence in People vs Adoviso 309
mapping and polygraph tests on suspects as illegal SCRA 1. In this case Pablo Adoviso was convicted
and against the constitution. Polygraph tests are of two counts of murder by the regional trial court
still legal if the defendant requests one the Supreme of Camarines Sur. He was identified by two
Court On February 15, 2006 afforded polygraph witnesses as the perpetrator of the crimes. Among
results judicial notice of acceptance with certain the evidence offered was the testimony of a
requirements that assure the reliability of the test polygraph examiner of the National Bureau of
and protect the rights of the defendant examinee. investigation who conducted a polygraph test on
Adoviso. The polygraph examiner opined that
Japan Adoviso’s polygrams revealed that there were no
On April 21, 1982 the Tokyo High Court admitted specific reactions indicative of deception to
a written expert opinion on polygraph examination pertinent questions relevant to the investigation of
as evidence. the polygraphist had use both the crimes. On June 2000 the ruling in the Adoviso
concealed information test and the control question case was reiterated in People vs Reanzares, GR No.
technique. The judge decided that the result of the 130656, 29 where the Supreme Court disregarded
CIT was reliable enough. the CQT result was the attempt of an accused to undermine the
question not because the CQT itself was unreliable credibility of a prosecution witness or refuse to take
but because the questionnaire used in this case was the lie detector test. The court reiterated that a lie
not in standard format. On October 25, 1989 Urawa detector test has never been accepted in our
District Court the defendant demanded the conduct jurisdiction as a means of ascertaining the truth.
polygraph examinations as to who was lying he or

52
On April 2001 the Supreme Court reiterated the
same rule in People vs Carpo GR No. 132676, Advantages on the part of the employer
further stating that the court does not put credit and •​ Provides an accurate method whereby
faith on the result of a lie detector test inasmuch as the employment background of an applicant
it has not been accepted by the scientific and relevant issues collateral there to can be
community as an accurate means of asserting truth immediately checked and verified at negligible
or deception. costs
Polygraph evidence is consistently rejected by our •​ Detect the chronic alcoholic job
Supreme Court for being unreliable and jumper and accident-prone person
inconclusive in determining the truth thus the •​ Reveals unusual aspect concerning
polygraph instrument is only useful as a valuable the psychologically maladjusted agitator
criminal investigative tools in the Philippines. The amateur and professional theft in private
major law enforcement and investigation agencies industry
in the Philippines such as the National Bureau Of •​ reduces costly personnel turnover by
Investigation And The Philippine National Police helping management put the right person on
have been using the modern method of polygraph the right job
testing and their respective criminal investigation •​ ACS has constant deterrent to
function. employee dishonesty and permit basically
honest employee to work on greater harmony
with basically honest employee

COLLATERAL ASPECT OF POLYGRAPH Periodic Screening

TESTING Conducted to organic employees only and use as
constant deterrent to employee's dishonesty and
Pre-Employment Screening create a bond of mutual strength among employees.
Provides a safe method and verifying statements on Similar to an organizational health check to detect
a job applicant prevent false evaluation and false workplace crimes and malpractices early before the
judgement as reported by previous employer who cumulative effect results in considerable financial
carry a personal grudge against him. While most loss damage to reputation or even bankruptcy.
job applicants are honest and hardworking
individuals some of them try to gain a job by
misrepresenting their backgrounds employment
history education experience and abilities on the
resume and application.

Advantages on the part of the employee

•​ Prevent false evaluation and unfair
judgment due to personality conflicts reported
by previous supervisor or employer.
•​ It does away with lengthy waiting
while employment application is being
checked telephone telegram or letter
•​ Eliminate the potential hazard of a
person knowing to work alongside with others
who might endanger their lives or job security
•​ Provides a safe method for a person to
be cleared of unwarranted suspicion and unjust
accusation and malicious gossip
•​ It will create a bond of mutual
strength between employees
•​ It creates a desire for incentives.

53
54
55
 Its main office is located at 2/F Cityland Bldg., 128
Pioneer St., Mandaluyong City, with

Computerized Lie Detector Test Company in

Philippines

TRUTH VERIFIER SYSTEMS, INC. (TVSI) is

a private detective agency in the Philippines
noted for its exemplary services expertise, integrity
and truthful reporting.
The TRUTH VERIFIER SYSTEMS, INC.
(TVSI) was founded in May 1966 as the first
Private Investigator Agency and lie detector
company to provide advanced Lie Detector Test
services in the Philippines. It was a business world for more than a few decades now. In the
partnership between CWO Chandler F. Williams, United States, most companies and branches of
Capt. Conrado G. Dumlao and Dr. Alcyone Thor government agencies have been using this as one of
Reyes. In 1973, the company was incorporated, and the most powerful and effective scientific tools in
in 1985 it opened its US office. investigations for a hundred of years already.
TVSI is the Philippines’ first and leading In the past few years, the use of lie detector test
licensed private detective and lie detector equally proliferate as security risks rises. Because
company is noted for its exemplary service, of the great effect in detecting and deterring fraud
expertise, integrity and truthful reporting. Founded in the workplace, other companies started making it
in May 1966, TVSI has given quality service for 50 as a business enterprise too.
years. On the other hand, many people still do not know
The company is duly licensed by the Philippine about Lie Detector Test. They have been fascinated
National Police (PNP) with License No.: PDA-001. about it. Many businessmen, entrepreneurs and
Its professionalism and dedication to quality executives got even mesmerized on Lie Detector as
service made the company topped among other it truly helps them solve various corporate cases.
emerging detective agencies. To date, TVSI is the Hence, most of the best-managed companies
only private investigator agency named by the employ such techniques as their new trend for
Philippine National Police as the “Hall of Fame decision making as well as to deter wrongdoings in
Best Private Detective Agency” for being the most the workplace.
consistent awardee in the years 1999, 2006, 2007 Computerized Lie Detector Test is used by the
and 2008. The company is also the first company to CIA, FBI, US Secret Service, Law Enforcement
be certified by the International Standardization and best-managed companies for Pre-employment
Organization (ISO) as a Private Detective Agency Screening, Periodic Audit, Pair Testing
for Lie Detector Testing, Detective and Investigation and Specific Case Investigation. This
Investigative Services and Training. is also used for criminal, civil and private
TVSI caters detective and lie detector services all investigations.
over the country. It specializes in Background
Investigation, Fraud Investigation, Surveillance & For Pre-employment Screening: Computerized
Undercover, Locating Persons or Properties, Lie Detector Test is used as a tool to screen the
Record Checking, Lifestyle Checking and Evidence most valuable asset – the right people especially
Gathering. The company guarantees secrecy and when the position requires a high degree of honesty
compartmentalization. and integrity; when honesty and confidence are
vested on the occupant of the position; and when

56
immediate information about the job applicant is polygraph expert scientific testimony in federal
needed. Likewise, to know the problems that might trial and in U.S. vs. Scheffer trial in 1998, the
interfere with the job and to help the companies polygraph provides another accurate form of
establishing the veracity of the information in the circumstantial evidence of consciousness of guilt
applicants’ resume. and found it sufficiently reliable to be admitted.
For Periodic Audit: The Lie Detector Test In the Philippines, the first and the Number 1
becomes the most applicable approach to reassess industrial lie detector company is Truth Verifier
the present employees and determine their honesty, Systems, Inc. (TVSI). Its President, Capt. Conrado
loyalty to the company and way to discover any G. Dumlao, decided to open such business to
activities inimical to the company. address the needs of the security industry to combat
For Pair Testing Investigation: Lie Detector Test the growing fraud activities as well as to strengthen
is a technique to determine the veracity of the two the pre-employment screening. Capt. Dumlao is
contradictory statements of two subjects, thereby, listed as an active Professional Polygraph Examiner
reducing expenses of establishing the truth. and International Liaison Committee Member of
For Specific Case Investigation: An in-depth and the American Polygraph Association, U.S.A.
thorough investigation method of shedding light on TVSI was awarded by the Philippine National
any case, the lie detector, detects the guilty and Police as the first “Hall of Fame Best Private
exonerates the innocent. Detective Agency” for being the most consistent
recipient of the award. Its professional and skilled
COMPUTERIZED LIE DETECTOR OR examiners also cope with the changes by
POLYGRAPH. continuous trainings and workshops. Established in
The term “polygraph” literally means “many the Philippines in 1966, it is now 45 years in
writing”. The name refers to the manner on which quality service. It is also the first ISO 9001:2008
selected physiological activities are simultaneously Certified Company for lie detector testing,
recorded. It is an accurate and delicately engineered detective and investigative services, and training. It
instrument that records blood pressure, blood has also been recognized for its exemplary service,
volume, pulse rate, sweating and breathing used for expertise, integrity and truthful reporting by
investigation, honesty check and pre-employment numerous local associations making it also known
screening. Polygraph Examiners may use the globally through satisfied clientele.
conventional instrument, sometimes referred to as Lie Detector really helps companies solve
analog instruments, or computerized polygraph corporate fraud and dishonesty. It also helps to
instruments. The examiner must have a college deter employees from committing activities
degree, polygraph and scientific interrogation inimical to the company thereby, minimizing
training, experience, integrity and adheres strictly company losses brought by fraud, internal theft
to the Code of Ethics and Standards and Principles and/or other forms of illegal acts.
of Practice of the American Society for Testing and The Lie Detector Test is used in specific case
Materials, the world’s oldest developer of industry investigation, periodic clearance and
standards. preemployment. It detects the guilty and exonerates
Accuracy and Reliability. The Treasury the innocent among suspects in any irregularity and
Department funded experiments showed that form unjust accusation unwarranted suspicion and
polygraph to be 90% accurate. In more recent malicious gossip. The Lie Detector Philippines test
research, the confirmed average validity was shown is reliable scientific tool. It is admissible as
to be 96%. Only 4 to 10% of the results were circumstantial evidence by the U.S. Supreme
declared inconclusive and almost no error. Court.
Admissibility in Court. U.S. Court of Appeals in
1989 in U.S. vs. Piccionnona declared in precedent EYEDETECT LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUE
setting decision that “the Science of Polygraph has
progressed to a level of acceptance sufficient to INTRODUCTION
allow the use of polygraph evidence”. U.S. CONVERUS (“with truth”) provides scientifically
Supreme court in 1993, in William Daubert vs. validated credibility assessment technologies that
Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., adopted help protect countries, corporations and

57
communities from corruption, crime and threats. It
all started with the 2014 release of the
revolutionary, game-changing lie detection
technology called EyeDetect.
EyeDetect is the first viable, scalable, scientifically
validated credibility assessment method invented
since the polygraph debuted nearly 100 years ago.
Currently being used by more than 500 customers
in 43 countries in 40 different languages.
Customers include:
•​ The world’s largest ride-share
company (to screen its drivers).
•​ Federal agencies in Singapore,
Mexico, Guatemala (funded by the U.S. HISTORY OF CONVERUS
Department of State), Peru, Colombia,
Panama, Jamaica, Czech Republic, and an World Class Team of Scientists and Business
Arabic-speaking agency. Professionals
•​ Dozens of state and local law The idea to create a lie detection technology by
enforcement agencies and corrections facilities
in the U.S.
•​ Hundreds of non-U.S. corporations
including financial institutions, security
companies, staffing agencies, manufacturers,
and others.
•​ And an ever-growing number of
therapists, attorneys, and private investigators.
In 2017 Converus released IdentityDetect, an
additional innovative credibility assessment
technology. These technologies help protect
countries, corporations and communities from tracking eye behavior originated in 2003. But the
corruption, crime and threats. precursor of Converus EyeDetect actually began
In May 2021 Converus announced EyeDetect+ 2.0 decades earlier.
(and Physio Tracker v2) as World’s First
Automated Polygraph. Professors John C. Kircher (left) and David C.
Converus is headquartered in Lehi, Utah, USA. Raskin (right) are internationally-known and
highly respected scientists in the polygraph
Mission: Help organizations, government, and community. They frequently consult and lecture on
society create and maintain environments of this subject, as well as provide guidance to the
honesty and safety. polygraph community, government agencies,
Vision: Be the leading technology provider of legislatures, and the courts. They first published
credibility assessment solutions. research on polygraph technology in the 1970s and
Tagline: The eyes don’t lie® then spent 10 years developing the software and
Products: EyeDetect; EyeDetect+; IdentityDetect hardware for the world’s first computerized
Contact Info: Converus, Inc., 610 S. 850 E., Ste #4 polygraph system, which they marketed in 1991.
Lehi, Utah 84043-3945 USA They
recognized the need to find new lie detection
methods that could complement the polygraph.
In 2002, John Kircher and his colleague, Doug
Hacker (right), an educational psychologist with
expertise in the psychology of reading, were
driving to Seattle to climb Mt. Rainier. En route,

58
they wondered if changes in eye movements and 1921.01.01 First Modern Polygraph Invented by
pupil size while reading and answering questions John Augustus Larson, a medical student at the
about a crime would reveal deception. They asked University of California at Berkeley.
themselves, “Would changes in cognitive load
affect the eye in such a way that we can capture 1939.01.01 The FBI Begins Using the Polygraph
those changes and be as accurate as the polygraph
in predicting whether 1991.01.01 John C. Kircher and David C.
Thus, the idea for an ocular-motor deception Raskin Computerize the Polygraph
(ODT) test was born —
In 2003, Professors Kircher and Hacker formed a 2002.01.01 Scientists John Kircher and Doug
science team that included cognitive scientists Hacker Come Up with the Idea of developing a
Anne Cook (left) and Dan Woltz (right). They deception detection technology based on measuring
began working together to produce and validate an the eyes during reading and answering true-false
ODT solution. In 2006, the Osher Dissertation statements.
documented the first lab study that demonstrated
the effectiveness of the ODT. A second formal 2003.01.01 Scientists John Kircher and Doug
scientific study in 2008 confirmed the effectiveness Hacker Form a Science Team that includes Anne
of the ODT technology, and its results were Cook and Dan Woltz to produce and validate an
published in the Webb Dissertation ocular-motor deception test (ODT).
In October 2009, Credibility Assessment
Technologies LLC (CAT) was formed to begin 2009.01.01 David Raskin Joins the Science Team
laying the groundwork for bringing this technology
to the market. 2009.10.01 Credibility Assessment Technologies
On December 12, 2013, the company was LLC is Formed to begin laying the groundwork for
officially renamed Converus, Inc. The name bringing this ODT technology to the market.
Converus is derived from two Latin words: con
(meaning “with”) and verus (meaning “truth”). 2013.09.01 The ODT Technology is Given the
After 10 years of the Converus science team Brand Name EyeDetect
fine-tuning EyeDetect, this innovative technology
has emerged as a viable, complementary method to 2013.10.01 Todd Mickelsen is Appointed the
the polygraph for business and government President and CEO
applications. Converus’ vision is to provide
trustworthy, innovative solutions for the deception 2013.12.12 Company Name is Changed to
detection industry. Converus, Inc. The name Converus is derived
from two Latin words: con (meaning “with”) and
verus (meaning “truth”).

2014.04.08 EyeDetect's Worldwide Release

Announced at a press conference in Mexico
City.

2014.05.22 1st generation EyeDetect Station is

Shipped

2015.01.13 1st Annual Converus Service Partner

Conference held in Lehi, UT.

2015.04.01 Morgan Freeman Features EyeDetect

TIMELINE on the Science Channel’s program
“Through the Wormhole”.

59
2015.08.01 EyeDetect Begins Selling in the USA
Salt Lake Police Dept. is the first customer. 2019.01.01 Converus Has Over 500 customers in
40 Countries
2015.12.01 Converus Begins Promoting EyeDetect
to the U.S. Federal Government at a seminar series 2019.01.30 5th Annual Converus Service Partner
in Washington, D.C. Conference Held in Lehi, UT.

2016.01.01 EyeDetect Has 175 Customers in 2019.10.10 EyeDetect for Investigations awarded
Various Countries first place at the 17th Annual Utah Innovation
Awards. The technology places first in the
2016.01.14 2nd Annual Converus Service Partner “Enterprise Software, Cloud and Big Data”
Conference held in Las Vegas, NV. category.

2016.03.01 Midas, in Spain, Becomes 1st European 2020.01.15 6th Annual Converus Service Partner
Brand to Use EyeDetect Conference Held in Las Vegas, NV.

2016.06.01 2nd generation EyeDetect Station 2020.02.19 4th generation EyeDetect Station
based on a Surface Pro tablet is Shipped based on Dell laptop is Shipped 2020.06.02
EyeDetect+ 1.0 (and Physio Tracker v1)
2017.05.10 3rd Annual Converus Service Partner announced which is a device that gathers data
Conference Held in Cancún, Mexico. similar to polygraph and allows EyeDetect to meet
the functional definition of polygraph.
2017.06.01 Converus Updates its Logo. Tagline
Added: "Truth validated." 2021.05.25 7th Annual Converus Conference -
CONNECT '21 Virtual Meeting with attendees
2017.07.01 3rd generation EyeDetect Station from 48 countries
based on Intel mini-computer is Shipped
2021.05.25 EyeDetect+ 2.0 (and Physio Tracker
2017.08.23 IdentityDetect Released. The first v2) announced World’s First Automated
browser-based identity verification technology that Polygraph
accurately detects fake identities in less than 3
minutes. 2021.06.28 EyeDetect Hybrid DLC Protocol
Released. Updated DLC Protocol combining
2018.01.01 Converus Has 116 Service Partners and EyeDetect and Polygraph testing methods
429 EyeDetect Customers in 35 Countries
2021.06.28 EyeDetect Hybrid MCT Protocol
2018.01.10 4th Annual Converus Service Partner Released. Updated MCT Protocol combining
Conference Held in Orlando, FL. EyeDetect and Polygraph testing methods

2018.04.02 First Politician Running for U.S.

Congress Tested by EyeDetect Edwin Duterte,
California candidate for the U.S. House of
Representatives, takes EyeDetect test to verify he’s
honest and trustworthy.

2018.05.15 EyeDetect Test Results Allowed as

Evidence in a U.S. Court for the First Time
The Best Lie Detector Test is Accurate
2018.11.01 EyeDetect Featured on Nationally
Get 86% accuracy in 30 minutes for screening
Syndicated Reality TV Show, “Couples Court with
tests.
the Cutlers”

60
And 88% accuracy in 15 minutes for single-issue detailed report is then generated. In essence, by
testing. means of a logistic regression equation, EyeDetect
computes the probability of truthfulness.
What is EyeDetect®? Only authorized personnel can access the report
It’s a next-generation lie detector that measures through a Web browser or mobile device to view
slight changes in eye behaviors to detect lies. World individual tests and the Converus Credibility Score.
renowned scientists at the University of Utah This score is the probability that the person was
developed the technology in 2003 and through truthful.
extensive research, they have made improvements 1.​ Answer True/False Questions - A
ever since. subject answers T and F questions appearing on a
computer screen while the optical scanner
What does EyeDetect do? photographs changes in the eyes (pupil diameter,
The award-winning EyeDetect technology blink rate, gaze position, etc.)
accurately tests job applicants, employees, patients, 2.​ Data Collected - During the test, the
parolees, drug users, athletes, criminal suspects and persons’s responses and the data captured by the
others about specific issues or crimes in just 15 to optical scanner are encrypted and stored on a
30 minutes. EyeDetect can be used for screening secure data locker.
tests on general topics. And, it can be used to for 3.​ Results Given - Data are sent to the
diagnostic (single issue) tests in criminal or civil secure cloud, where proprietary algorithms
cases. It’s a true game changer in the lie detection interpret the data and provide a report with the
industry. person’s responses and a Converus Credibility
Score
Why does it matter? (and both are accessible by authorized personnel
When you need to find the truth, get a second from any Web browser.)
opinion with EyeDetect and do a better job
protecting against corruption and crime. Ask for the What is the basic structure or process of an
best lie detector test. The eyes don’t lie® EyeDetect test?
Each test includes pre-test instructions, a practice
YouTube Video: test, and various sessions of questions. Questions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9gEM_7XmD are repeated in a randomized order.
Y&t=2s
World's Best Lie Detector Apr 22, 2020 What happens when you lie?
EyeDetect Converus\videos\20200422 World's Best Your brain has to work harder when you lie. The
Lie Detector.mp4 greater the consequences of the lie, the greater the
work load (cognitive load). This affects the eyes,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xi_iAlLSwfo whether you know it or not. EyeDetect measures
How Lie Detection Technology Has Changed Feb changes in pupil diameter, eye movement, blinks,
25, 2021 fixations and other things.
EyeDetect Converus\videos\20210225 How Lie
Detection Technology Has Changed.mp4 How can EyeDetect tell if someone is lying?
While reading a series of questions on a computer
screen, EyeDetect measures a person’s response
accuracy, response time, pupil diameter, reading
or her head. After being calibrated to the optical behavior and blink rates. This method is consistent
scanner, the person answers a series of true/false with the cognitive workload hypothesis.
questions. Observations include:
The question responses, along with pupillary •​ Liars blink significantly less often as
changes and eye movements are measured and are they answer questions deceptively, compared
stored on a secure, encrypted data locker. to answering truthfully.
At the conclusion of the test, the data are uploaded
to a secure cloud server where it is analyzed and a

61
 •​ Liars show greater increases in pupil 7.​ Incorruptible & Unbiased.
diameter for questions answered deceptively, Participants take an automated, computerized
compared to answering truthfully. test. The test administrator cannot change test
•​ Liars answer questions faster, make results. Test data is encrypted and
fewer fixations, and spend less time reading tamper-proof.
questions about a crime they committed than 8.​ Bank-Level Security. EyeDetect uses
questions about another crime or neutral security features that banks use. Test data are
statements. encrypted and stored using military grade
Simply put, an increase in cognitive load is mode encryption.
associated with remembering a task and is used to 9.​ Complete Analytics & Reporting.
distinguish between deceptive and truthful Authorized uses can see test results with a web
responses. This is more pronounced when liars browser. Results can be sorted by name, date,
respond to complex questions. It takes motivation test type, test score, and more.
and effort to deceive. 10.​ Flexible & Portable. One or more
test systems can be used at a time. The system
What happens during a test? is portable enough to carry to a regional or
During a test, participants answer True/False remote office for testing.
questions on a computer. A high speed camera
records eye behaviors and movements. When the What is the main use for EyeDetect?
test is finished, responses to questions and eye EyeDetect is used to screen job candidates and to
measurements are uploaded to a web server for conduct periodic testing of current employees. It
analysis and immediate scoring. Participants are can also be used for diagnostic, single-issue testing.
categorized as truthful or deceptive. Tests measure a person’s involvement in theft,
fraud, stealing confidential information, money
How can I get the results? laundering, bribes, drug use, identity theft, violent
Authorized users can get test results in a web-based crimes, ties to gangs or organized crime, receipt of
dashboard. A Converus Credibility Score shows the inappropriate benefits at work, and many other
probability the person was truthful. topics.
EyeDetect can be used by governments to screen
EyeDetect Features & Benefits refugees and visa applicants, especially for the
1.​ Very Accurate. Scientific studies purpose of identifying those with ties to terrorism.
show that EyeDetect has an accuracy range of It can also be used for parolee and offender
86 to 88%, depending on the type of test screening, as well as others that may pose a threat
administered. to communities. And, it can be used in conducting
2.​ Fast Results. Tests take 15 to 30 criminal or civil case investigations.
minutes and results are ready in less than 5.
Test reports show a credibility score and the
participants’ responses to test questions.
3.​ Nonintrusive. No sensors are
attached to the participant, who answers
True/False questions on a computer.
4.​ Economical. Test proctors are trained
in a day and can manage up to 3 EyeDetect
testing stations at the same time.
5.​ Simple to Use. The participant hears
and see instructions onscreen. A practice test
helps to get comfortable with the process.
6.​ Scalable. During an 8-hour workday,
one test administrator with 3 EyeDetect
stations can run up to 40 tests with great
results.

62
63
There are Many Types of EyeDetect® Tests EyeDetect was admitted as evidence (Daubert
Customers have access to all available tests created motion) in a criminal sexual assault case in the 8th
by Converus. There are preemployment tests, tests District Judicial Court, County of Taos, New
for ongoing evaluations, sex offender tests, tests for Mexico. The trial was held May 2018. Mark
criminal and civil case, and many more. New Handler of Converus was the expert witness. The
EyeDetect tests are created daily and can be case was State of New Mexico (plaintiff) vs. John
requested when needed. Tests are available in many Rael (defendant) with Judge – Jeff F. McElroy.
languages.
After the test, the examinee’s test responses and EyeDetect Research Summary
corresponding eye behavior are analyzed by The Converus Science Team, led by Dr. John
algorithm and stored on a secure cloud server. Kircher, has published 18 articles or reports about
A detailed report is created with a Credibility the technology underlying EyeDetect®. In the
Score, which indicates the probability that the research, EyeDetect is referred to as an
individual was truthful or deceptive. Only ocular-motor deception test (ODT). At this time,
authorized personnel can access the report. there are 9 peer-reviewed research articles on
1.​ Stealing. Stealing money, products or EyeDetect.
equipment for personal use or resale.
2.​ Serious Crimes. Commission of
serious crimes, whether caught or not
3.​ Confidential Information. Revealing
confidential company information to
unauthorized persons.
4.​ Drug Trafficking. Involved in
manufacturing, transporting or distributing
illegal drugs.
5.​ Documentation Fraud. Illegally
altering or modifying documents.
6.​ Unauthorized Transactions.
Irregularities in financial services transactions.
7.​ Urinalysis. Discover a history of drug
use instead of recent drug detection. 8. Drug
Use. Use of illegal drugs.
9.​ Bribes. Offering or accepting bribes
or unauthorized and undisclosed financial NBI – First Gov’t Agency in Philippines to
benefit. Purchase EyeDetect
10.​ Ties to Criminal Groups. Having The National Bureau of Investigation plans to use
ties to criminal groups such as organized EyeDetect for screening and field investigations.
crime, cartels or gangs. https://converus.com/press-releases/nbi-first-govt-a
11.​ Terrorism. Having ties to terrorist gency-in-philippines-topurchase-eyedetect/
organizations.
12.​ Cyber Crimes. Electronic vandalism
or sabotage such as email scams or viruses.
13.​ Fuel Theft. Stealing fuel from
company vehicles.
14.​ Identity Theft. Stealing or selling the
identity or financial resources of other
individuals.

Has EyeDetect been admitted as evidence in

court?

64
From left, bottom to top: Abie Laguitan (sitting) of gives local churches a tool for quickly determining
Truth Verifier Systems, John Exos Nulud of EXpress the truth in any alleged scandals. His company also
Order System, and plans to reach out to banks and
Lolito Basilio, Head of the NBI Polygraph Dept. business-process-outsourcing companies, which he
Basilio and his team (the remaining in the picture) feels can benefit from the ease and the speed of the
were trained in January at the NBI Headquarters results that EyeDetect offers. “Government
in Manila in how to use the EyeDetect technology agencies benefit greatly from using the most
to detect deception. current technological advances for detecting
deception,” said Converus President and CEO Todd
MANILA, Philippines – March 22, 2019 – The Mickelsen. “NBI, as well as other law enforcement
National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) is the first agencies, will find EyeDetect helps them hire a
government agency in the Philippines to adopt more honest, trustworthy staff. It will also prove
EyeDetect by Converus. The agency, which is the very useful for investigative cases.”
equivalent of the U.S. FBI, plans to use it for
screening and in field investigation cases.

NBI, formed in 1936, operates under the

PhilippineDepartment of Justice and has territorial
and case jurisdiction. Converus Service Partner
EXpress Order System (EXOS) trained the NBI
Polygraph Dept. staff in January at the NBI
Headquarters in Manilaon how to administer IdentityDetect is the first browser-based identity
EyeDetect tests and manage reports and test scores. verification technology that accurately detects fake
EXOS Marketing Manager John Exos and identities with a 91% accuracy in about 1-3 minutes
Polygraphist Abie Laguitan of Truth Verifier by analyzing variations in the motor nervous
Systems — the country’s first and mostawarded system responses of examinees.
private detective and lie detector company —
provided the training. TVSI is the sister company
of EXOS.

“I’m always looking for disruptive innovation, and

I was impressed by the EyeDetect technology from
the moment it was first demonstrated to me,” said
Nulud. “I believe EyeDetect has the potential to
revolutionize the lie detection industry in the
Philippines, if not worldwide.” “There are five
main advantages to the EyeDetect technology,”
said Nulud. “It’s accurate, fast, affordable, unbiased
and nonintrusive.”
Quickly Expose Fake Identities with 90%
EyeDetect can be used for either screening tests or
Accuracy
investigations. The investigative test takes 15
Discover if someone is being deceptive about
minutes. An initial field study shows EyeDetect’s
their identity.
DLC test is more than 90 percent accurate. The
Documents can be faked and identities stolen. Is
screening test takes 30 minutes and is 86 percent
the person you are interacting with actually the
accurate. Polygraph exams take at least 90 minutes
person he or she claims to be? Whether you work
to three hours to conduct, and reports can
for a financial institution, the government, or any
sometimes take hours to receive.
other organization, IdentityDetect can help.
Using scientifically-proven methodologies and a
Nulud says EyeDetect can not only help local law
simple online verification procedure, IdentityDetect
enforcement make better hiring decisions but also

65
will indicate if a person is being deceptive about Lab studies conducted by researchers at the
their identity. University of Padua, Italy and confirmed by field
studies run by Converus, Inc. confirm the accuracy
of IdentityDetect is 90%.

What is the basic structure or process for an

IdentityDetect evaluation?
IdentityDetect uses different evaluation models,
depending on the specific business requirements.
Generally, the evaluation is self-contained,
performed in a web browser or a mobile app, and
requires the user to complete a form or answer
some Yes/No questions. Instructions are included
with the test, when necessary.
What is IdentityDetect? Evaluations are processed immediately, with results
IdentityDetect is a quick and simple web-based test available usually within seconds. The user being
or mobile app that can quickly verify a person’s evaluated is typically not shown the results.
identity.
For example, when onboarding new customers, Features and Benefits
applicants provide their name, address, and other 1.​ Accurate. IdentityDetect catches 9
personal details. With that information, customers out of 10 imposters.
can be asked a few questions about their identity. 2.​ Fast. Tests take between 1 and 3
IdentityDetect measures the applicants’ responses, minutes.
applies a scoring algorithm, and uses machine 3.​ Unbiased. IdentityDetect is
learning to determine a credibility score for the automated and standardized. It can’t be swayed
person. by perfect documents, a dazzling smile, or an
Results are available immediately, allowing the unwelcomed threat.
process to continue or to be flagged for further 4.​ Secure. IdentityDetect is secure. All
review. data are encrypted during transmission.
5.​ Extensible. Tests can be embedded in
business systems or mobile apps. Customized
tests can be designed to meet specific needs.
6.​ Cost Effective. Catch fraudulent
behavior to reduce risk and costs. Attractive
How does IdentityDetect Work? pricing and high accuracy make IdentityDetect
Studies show that deception, such as presenting a a great investment.
false identity, increases cognitive load. 7.​ Scalable. Built in a secure private
IdentityDetect measures changes in the motor cloud, IdentityDetect can test and score up to
nervous system that result from increased cognitive 10 million evaluations per day.
load when answering questions deceitfully. 8.​ Actionable. Test scores are ready
immediately. Make decisions quickly and take
action. See trends in attempted fraud by
location. Data can be extracted or combined
with other sources for further big data analysis.
9.​ No Strings Attached. No specialized
hardware needed. No test administrator or
training required. Customers take tests anytime
on any Internet-enabled device.
10.​ Improves Security. IdentityDetect
can be used for immigration screening to catch
How accurate is IdentityDetect?

66
 travelers using false identities or, where Using a Software Development Kit (SDK),
allowed by law, use it to pre-screen employees. IdentityDetect can be integrated with existing

11.​ Analytics & Reporting. The web-based or mobile applications. Private label
Converus Dashboard shows test results in any integrations are available.
supported browser to those authorized. Results
shown in PDF, CSV or extracted using an
SDK.
12.​ Nonintrusive. With short tests and no
specialized equipment, most people feel
comfortable—and less like a criminal—than
with other deception detection methods.

What is the difference between EyeDetect and

IdentityDetect?
Who Should Use IdentityDetect? IdentityDetect EyeDetect measures changes in the eyes and other
is ideal when you need to validate a person’s behaviors. IdentityDetect measures changes in the
identity. Applications include: motor nervous system. EyeDetect requires a special
•​ To comply with Know Your Customer high-definition, infrared eye-tracking camera and
(KYC) procedures for new customers or to custom software. IdentityDetect requires a browser
verify existing accounts. or app and internet access. EyeDetect has numerous
•​ To validate transactions over an peer-reviewed studies on the technology.
established threshold. IdentityDetect is newer and has fewer studies.
•​ To fast-track and pre-screen travelers EyeDetect can test for a number of issues.
for better efficiencies. IdentityDetect focuses on identity verification.
•​ To verify loan applications prior to Both have a place in credibility assessment and can
funding. be used together.
•​ To verify identities before releasing
vehicles, goods or products. Does “The Employee Polygraph Protection Act
•​ To ensure the occupant is the one that of 1988 (EPPA)” cover IdentityDetect?
signed the agreement. Since IdentityDetect is ultimately determining if a
•​ To ensure the renter is legitimate. person is lying about his or her identity, we believe
Use IdentityDetect for fast and efficient IdentityDetect does not fall under EPPA. Although
pre-screening. Eliminate the deceptive or conduct the EPPA law specifically mentions polygraph, the
additional screening. This reduces workloads law has been applied in practice more broadly to
across all levels of Customer Identification the use of any lie detection solution. At the heart of
Programs (CIP) and Customer Due Diligence the law is the concept of protecting a person’s right
(CDD) processes.

67
to privacy in employment. Thus, any lie detector scoring is automatically performed by the
would be prohibited. However, lie detection computer, it allows polygraph examiners to use
solutions can be used today for screening or their skills in a pre- and post-test interview.
evaluating federal, state or local government The EyeDetect+ Station includes a device called
employees, including law enforcement. Outside of the Physio Tracker, which is used to
employment, IdentityDetect can be used to validate connect simple sensors to a person’s fingers, wrists
anyone’s identity. and abdomen for testing.

These sensors automatically record data similar to a

polygraph, including:
•​ Blood pressure (no arm cuff)
EYEDETECT+ IS THE WORLD’S FIRST •​ Electrodermal Activity (EDA)
AUTOMATED POLYGRAPH •​ Cardiovascular Activity such as heart
rate
It’s been 100 years since the invention of the first •​ Respiration Activity
modern-day polygraph by John Augustus Larson in •​ Body Movements
1921. Now, 100 years later, EyeDetect+ 2.0
emerges as the latest and next natural evolution in YouTube Video:
lie detectors as the world’s first automated https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTswI1_28eY
polygraph. &t=6s The NEW Lie Detector An Automated
EyeDetect+ detects deception by monitoring and Polygraph June 1, 2021
recording physiological activity — similar to EyeDetect Converus\videos\20210601 The NEW
polygraph — as well as the same involuntary eye Lie Detector An Automated Polygraph.mp4
behavior changes from a standard EyeDetect test.
This revolutionary automated polygraph testing
process is impartial, accurate, and less intrusive
than a traditional polygraph.
It gives credibility assessment experts worldwide:
•​ An optimized convergence of
2 trusted, proven testing protocols*
•​ Additional, improved
diagnostic data channels
•​ New, improved and
less-intrusive sensors
This means more reliable testing and valid data
analysis.
(* U.S. patent pending)

EyeDetect+ is the world’s first automated

polygraph. It monitors and records ocular-motor Legally Compliant Worldwide
activity, as well as physiological activity like a Because EyeDetect+ is functionally identical to
traditional polygraph — but it’s less intrusive. The polygraph, it should meet the legal definition of
testing and scoring process is automated by “lie detector” in most jurisdictions worldwide. But,
computer, making it twice as fast as a traditional unlike polygraph, the test is administered and
polygraph. And best of all, it’s 89-91% accurate. scored by algorithm — not an examiner — so it has
perfect reliability.
Functionally Identical to Polygraph This Automated Polygraph is Ideal for locations
EyeDetect+ uses testing protocols much like where the legal definition of “lie detector” is
polygraph, making it simple for polygraph polygraph, or any individual polygraph examiner or
examiners to easily transition to this innovative organization that requires polygraph for testing.
technology. And since the data recording and

68
How Does EyeDetect+ Work? 2.​ Impartial. Unlike human beings who
can vary, test administration and data analysis
are computerized.
3.​ Less Intrusive. Unlike a polygraph,
this measures blood pressure without an arm
cuff.
4.​ Fast Results. Tests take 20 to 45
minutes and results given in less than 5.
Reports include a credibility score and details
showing examinee responses to questions.
5.​ Quick ​ Training. ​
Standard ​ training ​takes ​ 1 ​ day;
​ advanced ​ training ​takes
3 additional days for trained polygraph examiners.
6.​ Scalable. Run 8 to 10 tests In an
The body responds to deception. The greater the 8-hour workday. Quickly do a screening test or
consequences of the lie, the greater the emotional investigate many people with great results.
reaction and increase in cognitive load. This affects 7.​ Incorruptible & Unbiased. Tests are
the brain and body. EyeDetect+ measures changes automated and scored by computer. Results
in the eyes, heart, lungs, and skin. cannot be altered. Test data is encrypted and
Participants answer True/False questions on a tamper-proof.
computer. The infrared camera records eye 8.​ Bank-Level Security. EyeDetect uses
behaviors. The Physio Tracker records encryption and physical security that banks
cardiovascular activity, skin conductance, and use. Data are stored using military grade
respiration activity. 256-bit AES / CBC mode encryption.
When the test concludes, all of that data are 9.​ Complete Analytics & Reporting.
uploaded to a secure web server for analysis. A Authorized personnel access test results via
person’s credibility score is immediately calculated web browser. Results can be sorted by date,
and available in a web-based Dashboard. The department, test type, credibility score, and
results are simple: truthful or deceptive. more. 10. Flexible & Portable. The system is
portable and can be carried to a regional or
What is the Physio Tracker? remote office for testing.
The Physio Tracker is a multi-channel physiology
monitor used with an EyeDetect Station that
manages the connections and sensors to measure
electrodermal activity, cardiovascular activity,
respiration activity, and body movements. It’s Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA)
powered by a USB cable connected to an
EyeDetect Station (version 3 or 4). What is EPPA?
On December 27, 1988, the Employee Polygraph
The Physio Tracker can be used during any Protection Act (EPPA) became law. This federal
EyeDetect test. When not used, standard test law established guidelines for polygraph testing
scoring is performed. When used, enhanced test and imposed restriction on most private employers.
scoring is performed. The following is a brief summary of the essential
elements of the law.
Features and Benefits of EyeDetect+
1.​ Highly Accurate. Scientifically Who is affected by EPPA?
validated at 89-91%, depending on the type of This legislation only affects commercial
test administered. businesses. Local, State and Federal governmental
agencies (such as police departments) are not
affected by the law, nor are public agencies, such as

69
a school system or correctional institution. In 1.​ The incident must be an ongoing,
addition, there are exemptions in EPPA for some specific investigation.
commercial businesses. These are: 2.​ It must be an identifiable economic
1.​ Businesses under contract with loss to the employer.
the Federal Government involving 3.​ Obtain a copy of the Employer
specified activities (e.g., Polygraph Protection Act of 1988.
counterintelligence work). 4.​ Provide the employee with a written
2.​ Businesses whose primary statement that includes: a. identification of the
purpose consists of providing armored car company and location of employee b.
personnel, personnel involved in the description of the loss or activity under
design, or security personnel in facilities investigation
which have a significant impact on the c. location of the loss d. specific amount of the loss
health or safety of any state. Examples of e. type of economic loss f. how the employee had
these facilities would be a nuclear or access to the loss Note: access alone is not
electric power plant, public water works, sufficient grounds for polygraph testing g. what
or toxic waste disposal. kind of reasonable suspicion there is to suspect the
3.​ Companies which manufacturer, employee of being involved in the loss.
distribute or dispense controlled 5.​ The Statement provided to employee
substances. MUST be signed by someone other than the
polygraph examiner, who is authorized to
How does EPPA affect businesses which are not legally bind the employee, and MUST be
exempt? retained by the employer for at least 3 years.
In general, businesses cannot request, suggest or 6.​ Read the Notice to Examinee to the
require any job applicant to take a preemployment employee, which should be signed, timed,
polygraph examination. Secondly, businesses can dated and witnessed.
request a current employee to take a polygraph 7.​ Provide the employee with 48 hours
examination or suggest to such a person that a advanced notice (not counting weekends or
polygraph examination be taken, only when holidays) to the date and time of the scheduled
specific conditions have been satisfied. However, polygraph test.
the employer cannot require current employees to 8.​ Provide employee with written notice
take and examination, and if an employee refuses a of the date, time and location of the polygraph
request or suggestion, the employer cannot test, including written directions if the test is to
discipline or discharge the employee based on the be conducted at a location other than at the
refusal to submit to the examination. place of employment.
9.​ Maintain a statement of adverse
What are the conditions that an employer must actions taken against the employee following a
meet in order to ask a current employee to take a polygraph test.
polygraph? The American Polygraph Association is 10.​ Conduct an additional interview of
furnishing the following information, which it employee prior to any adverse action following
believes is in good faith, and conforms with the a polygraph test.
Department of Labor's Regulations relating to 11.​ Maintain records of ALL of the above
polygraph tests for employees. This information is for a minimum of 3 years.
considered only as a guideline to assist in 12.​ Employees may not waive their
complying with the Act and Regulations, and the rights.
American Polygraph Association is disclaiming 13.​ Police and investigators are not
any liability in connection therewith. Employers exempt and must comply if they are
should develop their own forms, using their own conducting an employment related polygraph
company name, and should also review their final test, i.e., when conducting a polygraph test on
forms through their own legal counsel. an internal theft for a missing deposit.
Information about a polygraph provided to the
I. Checklist for the Employer employer by a police officer or investigator is

70
 prohibited under the Act, since employers are employee write out their answers and sign the
not allowed to use, accept or inquire about the question sheet for verification of review.
results. 11.​ Have an appropriate license, if so
14.​ There is a $10,000 penalty for EACH required, in the state where the test is to be
violation of the law. conducted.
15.​ Check out the credentials of the 12.​ Keep a log of company name,
polygraph examiner that you use and verify employee name, date and times for all
that the examiner meets EPPA requirements. polygraph tests during the course of a day
Never hesitate to ask for written proof of when 1 test is given under EPPA.
licensing, liability insurance, etc. 13.​ Inform the employee of the results of
16.​ Use your company letterhead on all the test and allow him/her an opportunity to
forms you provide to the employee. Have your explain any reactions.
corporate attorney review your actions to 14.​ Provide any opinion of deception or
assure your compliance of EPPA. non-deception in writing.
15.​ Results must only be based on the
II. Checklist for the Polygraph Examiner: polygraph test results, and should NOT be
1.​ Provide the employer with a copy of based on behavior.
EPPA guidelines. Do not just try to explain 16.​ Do not include any information not
what has to be done during a phone relevant to the original purpose of the test to
conversation with the employer. the employer.
2.​ The examiner should not get involved 17.​ Keep a copy of ALL reports, notes
in assisting the employer to determine who and records for a minimum of 3 years.
should or should not be tested, or who does or 18.​ Provide a copy of charts, questions
does not have access or reasonable suspicion. and reports to the employee upon request.
3.​ Obtain a copy of the signed statement 19.​ Provide a copy of charts, questions
of advance notice provided to the employee, and reports to the employer when results are
along with a copy of the explanation of their deceptive.
rights and written directions/appointment 20.​ Provide the Department of Labor with
PRIOR to the Interview. Obtain a photo I.D. of copies of the same, within 72 hours, upon
the employee. RULE OF THUMB: No form, request of the Secretary of DOL, or other
no test! No identification, no test authorized person of DOL.
4.​ Provide the employee with a written
explanation of the polygraph test and III. Preemployment Testing under EPPA
procedures. Have it signed by the employee For preemployment testing under EPPA, refer to
and be sure to include the date and time it was the Act for exemptions. Even though an employer
provided. may be exempt and able to use preemployment
5.​ Read and explain the rights to the polygraph testing, the guidelines under EPPA still
employee. Have it signed, dated and timed. apply. Follow the Checklist for both the employer
6.​ Advised the employee of any taping and examiner use, omitting the step for preparation
and/or one-way mirrors. of the employer's statement with respect to an
7.​ Carry a minimum of $50,000 or ongoing investigation, which would apply for
equivalent professional liability coverage. specific testing only. ALL OTHER GUIDELINES
8.​ Conduct no more than 5 polygraph WILL APPLY.
tests during one calendar day, even if only 1
test is under EPPA. This includes ALL tests for US Code : Title 29, Chapter 22
all employers and/or lawyers you conducted
during the day!
9.​ Administer no test that is less than 90 References:
minutes in duration.
10.​ Provide the employee with the 1.​ Caballero, Nicholas S. and Manwong,
polygraph test questions in writing. Have the Rommel K. Polygraphy: The Art and Science

71
of Lie Detection. Wiseman’s Books Trading
Inc. Quezon City. 2012.
6.​ PNP Memorandum Circular Number
2.​ http://www.lie2me.net/thepolygraphm 2014-037 dated July 4, 2014.
useum/index.html

3.​ https://galianospolygraphe.com/en/bri 7.​ https://truthverifier.com/computerized

ef.html -lie-detector-test-company-in-philippines/

4.​ https://converus.com/ 8.​ https://www.expertinstitute.com/resou

rces/insights/daubert-vs-frye-navigating-thesta
ndards-of-admissibility-for-expert-testimony/
5.​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J
YYQT4sqVgs

9.​ Other Criminology Books.

72
 REVIEW NOTES ON FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Prepared by:

Table of Specification
The registered criminologist can perform the competencies under the following
topics:
1.​ Recognize the scientific foundation and principles of firearms identification in
support of the admissibility of ballistic related evidence

2.​ Identify the types of firearms according to design, mechanism, action and make a
basis for the handling and examination of these kinds of evidences

3.​ Classify the types of ammunition according to design, component parts,

mechanism, and purpose to assist the examiner in the specific type of ballistic
examination to be conducted

4.​ Distinguish class and individual characteristics of firearms as basis for firearms
identification

5.​ Utilize the laboratory equipment and tools used in the examination of ballistic
exhibits in aid to report writing and case presentation in court

6.​ Explain the nature and characteristics of low and high explosives.

Ballistics is the science of the motion of the expansive force of gases from a burning
projectile and the condition that affects their gunpowder.
motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly 2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet
arranged knowledge, which is a product of series of passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm which
experimentation, observation and testing. Ballistics is either twisted to the left or to the right.
is not an exact science rather it is applied physics or 3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits
applied science, which is subject to changes and a target and subsequently ricocheted.
improvement depending upon the demands of the Origin of the Word Ballistics
modern civilization. Motion refers to the mobility The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek
or movement of the projectile from the time it words. The word “ballo” and the word “ballein”
leaves the shell empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and which literally mean, “to throw”.
until it reach its target or fall in the ground. A ​ The term also said to have been derived
projectile is any metallic on non-metallic ball from the Roman war machine called “Ballista”, a
which is propelled from a firearm. Its motion can gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or
be categories into three general types: Direct large object at a distance like stone, dead animal or
motion, Rotatory motion and Translation even dead person.
motion. ​ The study of Ballistics in the early age is
3 Types of Motion divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal Ballistics,
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal
bullet or shots out of the shell by the action of the Ballistics. From the time the gun was fired until it
reach the target and have its maximum effect. At

73
present ballistics is branches into four (4) and this ​ Energy generated at the muzzle point
is due to its subsequent used in solving problems in measured in foot-pound.
connection with the administration of justice c. Trajectory
particularly cases involving firearms and ​ Refers to the parabola-like flight of the
ammunition which is termed as Forensic projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until it
Ballistics. hits the target. It is also described as the actual
curve path taken by a bullet during its.
Branches of Ballistics d. Range
1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the ​ It refers to the imaginary straight distance
motion of the projectile while it is still inside the between the muzzle of the gun and the target.
firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the ​ d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within
breech to the muzzle. The conditions attributed to which the shooter or gunner has control of his
internal ballistics are as follows: shots.
a. Firing pin hitting the primer ​ d.2. Effective Range = the distance within
b. Ignition of the priming mixture which when the bullet was fired it is still capable of
The priming mixture (composing of the inflicting fatal injury.
KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either at the ​ d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a
cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the projectile can be propelled from a firearm. The
striking effect of the firing pin will ignite and such farthest distance the bullet could travel.
action is known as “Percussion action”. e. Velocity
c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder ​ Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet
charge or propellant. (during its flight) per unit of time usually express is
d. Expansion of heated gas. feet per second (ft/sec.)
e. Pressure developed f. Pull of Gravity
f. Energy generated ​ It is the downward reaction of the bullet
g. Recoil of the gun towards the earth surface due to its weight.
​ Is the equal and opposite reaction of the g. Air Resistance
gun against the forward movement of the bullet ​ Refers to the force of the air encounter by
upon explosion. The backward or rearward the bullet in its flight.
movement of the gun in relation to the forward
movement of the bullet. 3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics
Jump is another portion of the recoil action which deals with the effects of the impact of the
characterized as the backward and upward projectile on the target.
movement of that takes place before the bullet ​ a. Terminal Accuracy
leaves the muzzle. ​ ​ It refers to the size of the bullet
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel grouping on the target.
​ It is the relative speed of the bullet per ​ b. Terminal Energy
unit of time while it is still inside the barrel Is the energy or force of the projectile when it
expressed in feet per second. strikes the target same as striking energy.
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel ​ c. Terminal Velocity
j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the ​ ​ Is the speed of the bullet upon
bullet striking the target.
​ d. Terminal Penetration
2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the ​ ​ Is the depth of entry of the bullet
attributes or movement of the projectile after in the target.
leaving the gun muzzle.
a. Muzzle Blast 4. Forensic Ballistics
​ Is the noise created at the muzzle point of ​ This branch of ballistics is the product of
the gun. the application of the ballistics to law. The idea
b. Muzzle energy comes with the used of the word forensic. The
word Forensic was derived from the Latin word

74
“forum” meaning a “market place” where people model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the
gathered for public disputation or public making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
discussion. When used in connection with the word 13.​ Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace
ballistics or other natural science, it suggests a Smith in the making of Revolver.
relationship to the courts of justice or legal 14.​ David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of
proceedings. the first known Carbine.
​ Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study 15.​ Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest
of the motion of the projectile as applied to law or rifle and pistol maker.
simply the science of firearm identification by IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION
means of the ammunition fired through them. OF FIREARMS
Scope of Forensic Ballistics 1242 A.D.​ Roger Bacon published the “ De
1. Field Investigation Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Marvelous Power of Arts and Nature), which noted
Exhibits Black powder formula.
3. Legal Proceeding 1498 ​ Introduction of the rifling and sights
The Evolution of Firearms became better and breech loaders were attempted
MAN BEHIND FIREARMS although never succeeded yet even multi shots
1.​ John M. Browning - Wizard of the arms due to lack of good ignition system.
modern firearms and pioneered the breech 1500’s ​ The development of the Wheel
loading single shot rifled which was Lock, operates in the same principle as the modern
adopted by Winchester. day cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500’s
2.​ Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical “snaphaunce” was developed.
revolver and maker of the Colt Peace 1575 ​ Paper Cartridge was developed.
Maker, a famous revolver in the history. Ball and powder charged were wrapped in
3.​ Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of
percussion powder. numerous pre-measured charges or pre loaded
4.​ Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who rounds.
designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950. 1750 ​ The development of
5.​ Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of
modern Ballistics. FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson,
6.​ John C. Garand - Designed and invented COLLIER Rifle, which is a flint lock repeating
the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30. M1 rifle operated on a revolving principle and, the
garand. HALL Rifle patented in 1811 by Col. John Hall
7.​ George Hyde - A well-known expert in and was the 1st breechloader adopted by the U.S.
the field of SMG, (also known as grease Army.
gun) developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA). 1805 ​ The Percussion System.
8.​ Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK Alexander John Forsyth discovered a compound
(Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet that would ignite upon blow that would ignite the
Union) adopted by the Russian Army in powder charge. In 1840, it replaces the flintlock
the year 1951. ignition and was adopted in 1838 by the British and
9.​ Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of in 1842 by the American.
Smith and Wesson and pioneered in 1835 ​ The first real cartridge was
making breech loading rifles. developed “The Flobert Cap” same as the BB and
10.​ Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 was considered the forerunner of .22 short
Armalite under licensed by Colt Company cartridge.
from July 1959 onwards. 1835 ​ Samuel Colt patented the first
11.​ L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing revolver and marketed in 1872, a breech loading
his name now the Ithaca gun Company. revolver.
12.​ John T. Thompson - Developed in the 1836 ​ Pin fire Cartridge, was
course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire

75
cartridge was also developed in the same year by 1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that
Houiller. propels projectile with more than one inch
1845 ​ Rim fire cartridge, Flobert diameter.
developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which was ​ ​ Examples: Cannons, Mortars and
considered the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. Bazookas:
In the same year, New Havens Arms Company 2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels
owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the effort projectile with less than one inch diameter and it
of Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal rim fire can be handled, moved and operated by one man.
cartridge for Henry Rifle. ​ ​ Examples: Machine gun,
1846 ​ Smokeless powder was shoulder arms and handguns.
discovered. It was used in shotgun first in the year ​ 2.1 Machine guns
1864 by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in ​ Machine gun is a type of firearm that is
Rifle by the year 1884 by M. Vieille of France. primarily designed for military use. Even in
1873 ​ Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, investigation of shooting cases done in the city, it is
.45 cal. The most famous revolver in history and not usual or common to encounter this type of
legend was manufactured. firearm having been used. It can be grouped in
1884 ​ Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram three general types:
Maxim developed the first fully automatic gun. ​ ​
Firearms Sub Machine Gun
Legal Definition of Firearm Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a
​ Firearms or arms as herein used, includes pistol size ammunition, having a shoulder stock
rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers, that may or may not be folded and designed to be
and all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, fired with both hands.
ball, shot, shell, or other missiles maybe discharge Shoulder Arms
by means of gun powder or other explosives. This Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that
term also includes air rifle, except such of being of were normally fired from the shoulder.
small caliber and limited range used as toys. The Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a
barrel of any firearm shall be considered a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled
complete firearm for all purposes hereof. (Sec 877 bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.
Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle,
Internal Revenue Code). measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a
Technical Definition single projectile though a rifle-bore either
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press
projectile by means of the expansive force gases of the trigger.
coming from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle
Firearms Identification). loading military shoulder arms designed to fire a
Classification of Firearms shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed
A.​ Two General Classification of Firearms discussion of musketeers can be found on chapter 8
(According to Interior Barrel Construction) in the discussion of ignition system.
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading
rifling (lands and grooves) inside their gun barrel. shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead
​ ​ ​ Examples: Shotguns and pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)
Musket ​ ​ The barrel construction of
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have shotgun may also be found in different bore
rifling inside their gun barrel. construction.
​ ​ ​ Examples: Pistols, A.​ cylinder bore type = which the bore
Revolvers, and other modern weapons. size is the same through out the barrel
B.​ Main Types of Firearms B.​ choke bored gun = designed with a
(According to the Caliber of the projectile diminishing or reducing bore
propelled) diameter type towards the muzzle.
This type is designed to cause an

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 effect to the travel of the shots. It 5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which
makes the shots travel longer before it reloading takes place by manipulating the both
spreads. back and forth.
C.​ “paradox gun”.= still in a very rear ​ ​ Examples: Rifles, shotguns and
occasions another type of shotgun can machine guns.
be observed to be having rifling only 6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place
a few inch from its muzzle points. by lever action on the firearms.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are ​ ​ Examples: Rifles and shotguns.
designed or intended to be fired using one hand. Miscellaneous Types of Gun
Ex. Pistols and Revolvers 1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. =
a.​ Pistol devices principally designed for other purpose to
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called
called as pistols. There were three classes of pistols as Freakish gun.
in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi 1.​ Flare gun = designed for tracing or
automatic and the revolving pistols now known as sending signals or locating enemy troops.
the revolver. 2.​ Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm
mechanism is attached to prevent easy
identification.
b. Revolver 3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun
Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position designed from firing tear gas.
cartridge into position for firing with the aid of a 4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in
rotating cylinder serving as its chamber. There are hunting large fish.
two types of revolvers according to its mechanical 5.Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore
firing action. T gun used in Europe during war designed to fire an
Single action, a type of revolver that needs a automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
manual cocking of the hammer before squeezing 6. Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun
the trigger and the other is Double action, a type of containing a number of barrels.
revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just 7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains
press the trigger and it both cocked and released the lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle
hammer causing a much faster firing. point.
C.​ Types of Firearms 8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun
(According of Mechanical Construction) designed but are generally used for construction of
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms furniture.
designed to fire only one shot every loading. 1.​ Traps = refers to gun used for trapping
​ ​ Examples: Single shot pistols, animals that are fired to woods.
Revolvers and shotguns. 2.​ Zip Gun = refers to all type of home
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed made gun.
to fire several loads (shot) in one loading.
​ ​ Examples: Automatic pistols Ammunition
revolvers rifles and shotguns. Legal Definition
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that ​ Ammunition refers to loaded shell for
constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun, revolvers and
the trigger and while the trigger is press. pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other
​ ​ Examples: Machine guns and missiles maybe fired by means of gun powder or
rifles other explosive. The term also includes
4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in
loading take place by back and forth manipulation the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well
of the under/over forearms of the gun. as Sec 877 RAC)
​ ​ Examples: Shotgun and pistols Technical Definition
​ Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge
or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a complete

77
unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), Inches MM.
cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder (propellant). Cal. .22​ about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol
Origin and rifles​
​ The word cartridge was derived from the Cal. .25 ​ about 6.35 mm- used in pistols
Latin word “Charta” meaning – a “paper” and and rifles.
also from the French word “Cartouche” meaning Cal. .30 ​about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines
– a rolled paper. This only indicates that the first and other rifles
type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It Cal. .30 ​​ about 7.63 mm (luger)
was about the turn of the 16th century that the term Cal. .32​ about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and
“cartridge” comes to use. revolvers
A. General types of Ammunition (Fig. 6) Cal. .380​ ​ about 9 mm- used for
a.​ Dummy ( used as a model) pistols
b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder) Cal. .357​ used in magnum .357 revolvers
c. Black Ammunition (without bullet) Cal. .45​ about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols
d. Live Ammunition Cal. .50​ ​ used in .50 cal. Machine gun
B. Classification of Cartridge
I. According to the Location of the Primer
a.​ Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge
in which the ignition cap (primer) Shotgun Cartridge
is concealed inside the cartridge It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge
case and has a pin resting upon it. consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and
b.​ b. Rim fire = is a type of gunpowder .
cartridge in which the priming Gauge of Shotgun
mixture is located at the hallow ​ Compared with other types of firearms,
rim of the case can be fired if the shotgun has very unique characteristics in terms of
cartridge is tuck by the firing pin its diameter designation both for its firearm and
on the rim of the case (cavity cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in
rim). shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined
c.​ Center fire = t refers to a by the number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each
cartridge in which primer cup with diameter of the barrel that can be prepared
(ignition cap) is centrally placed from one pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge
in the base of the cartridge case shotgun is considered with the biggest diameter
and the priming mixture is while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed below are
exploded by the impact of the the equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.
firing pin and with the support of Gauge​​ ​ ​ ​ Inch
the anvil. 10​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .775
inch
II. According to Rim Diameter 12​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .729
a. Rimmed Case type. inch
b. Semi-Rimmed type 16​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .670
d.​ Rimless type inch
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with 20​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .615
rimless pattern, but which has a rim diameter inch
smaller than the body of the case 28​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .550
e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise inch
belt around its body just in front of the extraction .410​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .410
groove. inch
III. According Caliber Types of Shots
Calibers in cartridges in inches and their 1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly
approximate equivalent in mm and use: pure lead, to which a small amount of arsenic has
been added to make it take on the form of a

78
spherical drop as it falls down the shot tower. This mechanical construction makes it capable of
type is easy to deformed or flattened, loose their penetrating through some light vehicles.
velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string 3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a
out more. charge of explosive, which will detonate on impact.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a 4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used
small amount of antimony mixed with lead to to cause fire in a target, generally designed to use
increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to
patterns, less string and more uniform velocity and ignite.
penetration. 5.​ Tracer Bullet – a type of military
3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as bullet capable of leaving visible
“lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated with thin marks or traces while in flight giving
copper through electroplating design for greater the gunner the chance to observe the
strength and elasticity, great resistance to strike of the shot or make adjustments
deformation and leading and better pattern. in the event of a miss
​ Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for
used in shotgun Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic
Bullets tabular container usually of brass (70% copper and
​ The word “Bullet” was derived from 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and
French word “Boullette” which means a small ball. the gunpowder into one unit. It is also known as
This term is generally used when we are referring shell or casing.
to projectile fired from any small arms, which has a Functions of the Cartridge Case
variety of form, especially during the earlier 1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore
history. In a more technical sense, bullet refers to a of the firearm.
metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled 2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
from a firearm it is sometimes called as shots or 3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an
slugs. unwanted escape of propellant gas upon firing.
Bullets have various types depending upon their 4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant
specific nature and purpose. In general bullet can or powder charge.
be classified as either Lead or Jacketed. 5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and
General Types of Bullets the hot walls of the chamber in a rapid firing of
1.​ Lead Type – is a type of a firearms.
bullet that is basically
composed of lead metal. Its Parts of the Cartridge Case
used was due to its density; 1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case
having a good weight is a which contains the head stamp marking on the base
small size and easy for of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer
casting. and in some cases including the date, trade name,
2.​ Jacketed Type – Is a type of and batch number.
bullet consisting of the 2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to
regular lead core, coated limit the forward movement of the cartridge to
with a copper alloy in order chamber.
to prevent lead 3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols the rim of the shell designed for automatic
and other high power guns. withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
According to their Maximum Effect to their 4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which
targets provides the means for the primer to be put in the
1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold
for anti-personnel and general use. the primer in place; (b) to provide means to prevent
2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid support for
designed to penetrate light steel armor. Its primer anvil.

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5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which 4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed
house the gunpowder. over the priming mixture in order to protect it from
6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which moisture attack.
support the neck of the cartridge which is evident Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power
in a bottleneck type. Charge) is that mixture of chemicals of various
7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the compositions designed to propel the projectile by
outer surface of the cartridge case designed to means of its expansive force of gas when burned.
secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent Two of the most popular individual whose name is
bullet from being push down to the powder charge. always attached to gunpowder discovery were
In some instance it is even being utilized for Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a
identification. short description of how their names are always
8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually mentioned in the history.
occupied by the bullet. This is obvious in a ​ Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan
bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight monk, who wrote the ---“De Mirabili Potestate
type. Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art
9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth and Nature), including an anagram.
of the shell designed for two purposes: One (1) is to ​ Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was
hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious monk of
from the shell and Two (2) to offers resistance to Freiburg, who according to legend that is
the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning of the supported by an engraving dated 1643, while
gun powder. experimenting on some powder in a cast iron
10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid,
of the primer pocket as the passage way for the and from this deduced the principle of containing a
priming mixture to impart an ignition to the charge in a tube and propelling a shot
propellant charge. (Encyclopedia of ammunition).
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of The Black Powder
the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a Black powder, the oldest known explosive,
highly sensitive chemical compound that would was initially made from saltpeter (75%), charcoal
easily ignite or bursts into flame when struck by the (15%) and sulfur (10%).
firing pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer type. It ​ These problems in the used of black
is also known as the percussion cup. powder was later remedied with the introduction of
​ The Berdan is a type of primer the smokeless powder. According to Harrison,
construction, which was designed in 1860s by Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian Army, made
Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in
Ordinance Department. shotgun in the year 1864. (Although historically
​ The Boxer on the other hand, was nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in
developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal 1846). The basic ingredient used for smokeless
Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866 powder is a nitrocellulose that was first produced
by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.
Parts of the Primer ​ Later, M. Vieille of French developed the
1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup first smokeless powder for riffle in the year 1884
which contains the priming mixture, the disc and and named it “poudre B” taken after Gen.
the anvil. Boulanger’s name. In 1887, Alfred Nobel invented
2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0
chemical compound which ignites by the and nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition
mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called and called it “Ballistite”. In Great Britain, they
as percussion powder. utilized picrid acid in addition to cellulose powder
3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which which they called “Lyddite” and in germany TNT
provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the (Tri-nitrololeune ) was the one used, more powerful
firing pin causing friction that would initiates than picric acid but much difficult to detonate. Also
ignition. In the year 1889, Prof. Abel, a British War dept.

80
Chemist developed “Cordite” a smokeless powder 4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the
with same composition as Nobel in the form of shortest distance between the two dies or edge of a
cords or sticks. And in early 1890’s smokeless grooves.
powder had replaced black powder and became 5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of
uniformly used worldwide by the year 1900. the gun is either twisted to the left or to the right
Firearms Characteristics which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the
Stages in the manufacture of barrel bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its
A. Drilling flight.
B. Reaming 6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the
C. Rifling twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the
This process necessary for the making of the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in
helical groves inside the barrel and such can be order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.
performed in any of the following methods: 7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if
1. Hook – cutter system (cutter) measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are
2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper) usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which
3. Broaching system – (broach) equal to the height of the lands.
4. Button – system (button) B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for
D. Lapped those characteristics which are being determined
The Breech face only after the firearm was already been
Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech manufactured. They are the product of machine
face also bears with it the same important. imperfections and some later due to the used of the
Types of Characteristics in Firearms firearms.
A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or Types of Rifling
attributes of a firearms which can be determined 1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four
even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the width of
for such characteristics are considered to be a the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)
manufacture’s designs or specifications and 2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and
security. grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is two
Class Characteristics of Firearms (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter 3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands
to which the bore was reamed. The distance and grooves, right hand twist , the width of the land
measured between two opposite lands inside the and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In 4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and
most express in either caliber in inch or in grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is twice
millimeters. (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and
2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves
lands an grooves inside the barrel of a given is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
firearm are always the same or equal. It may run 6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and
from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are grooves, right hand twist, the width of the groove is
five and six. three time larger than the boarder of the lands.
Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of (7RG3X)
the firearm. 7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and
Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves
between the lands. is three time larger the width of the lands.
3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore Individual Characteristics in Firearms
diameter of the gun, grooves, width and number. Individual Characteristics in firearms are
The lands are the remainders of the circumference usually determined by the test firing which will
after subtracting all the grooves width. give us both the test bullet and the test shell that
will show the individuality of its property based on
the left marks on every bullet and shell fired from

81
it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens 6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the
with high magnification is necessary to discover two sides of the rim cause by the magazine lips
individuality. during the loading of the cartridge into the
Marks found of Fired Bullets magazine for firing.
1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet 7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around
caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) the body of the fired cartridge case cause by the
of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight irregularities of nips inside the walls of the
depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of chamber.
the fired bullet. In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet mark and the Breech face marks can be used as
caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the basis for identification, in the absence or none use
same number as that of the landmarks. of these two, both the ejector and extractor marks
3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on can be utilized as secondary choice.
fired bullet from a revolver. It is more or less Problems in Forensic Ballistics
located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due 1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber,
to its forward movement from the chamber to the type; make of firearm from which it was fired.
barrel of the gun before it initially rotates. 2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type,
4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet and make of firearm from which it was fired.
fired from a “loose-fit” barrel wherein the rifling 3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to
are already been badly worn-out. determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired
​ Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can from the suspected firearm.
be cause by either chemical reaction brought about 4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to
by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired
(erosion) from the suspected firearm.
5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on 5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine
bullet fired from a revolver cause by its forward whether or not they were fired from one and the
movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the same firearm.
cylinder. 6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to
6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets determine whether or not they were fired from one
passing through either on oily or oversize barrel. and the same firearm.
Marks found on Fired Shells Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms
1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the Identification
base portion of the cartridge case more specifically 1.​ Analytical or Torsion Balance
near center of the primer cup in a center fire 2.​ Bullet Comparison Microscope
cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. 3.​ Bullet Recovery box
Considered as one of the most important marks for 4.​ Chronograph
identification of firearms using fired shell. 5.​ Caliper
2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base 6.​ CP-6 Comparison Projector
portion of the shell cause by backward movement 7.​ Electronic Gun maker
to the breech face of the block of the firearm. 8.​ Helixometer
3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the 9.​ Micrometer
extracting groove of the fired cartridge case. Cause 10.​ Onoscope
by its withdrawal from the chamber. 11.​ Shadowgraph
4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on 12.​ Stereoscopic Microscope
cartridge case fired from an automatic firearms. It 13.​ Taper Gauge
is located near the rim of the case cause by the 14. Torsion Balance
throwing of shell from the firearm to the area of
shooting.
5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary
Firing Pin mark” found in the primer near the firing
pin mark.

82