Theoretical Approaches to Gender

Theory

2nd

First, let's define what a theory is. A theory is a way to describe, explain, and predict
relationships among phenomena. For example, a theory can help us understand why people
communicate in certain ways, how they interpret messages, and what effects communication
has on individuals and society.

 Theory way to describe, explain, predict relationships.

We’ll see how theories shape our communication. Theories are not just abstract ideas; they
are also practical tools that guide our actions and expectations. For example, if we have a
theory that people are more persuasive when they use emotional appeals, we might use more
emotions in our own messages and expect others to do the same.

 Theories shape how we act and expect others to act

 Theories are practical

3rd

Theories are tools that we can use to make sense of behaviors. For example, if we want to
know why someone acts in a certain way, we can use a theory to explain their motivations,
goals, beliefs, or emotions.

 Use theories to make sense of behaviors

Theories can also help us understand how sex and gender affect our thoughts and behaviors.
Sex and gender are not the same thing, they are different aspects of our identity that shape
how we see ourselves and how other see us. Theories can help us explore how sex and
gender influence our personality, preferences, roles, and relationships.

 Theories about sex and gender affects thoughts and behaviors

Theories can also influence how we see ourselves. Sometimes we may adopt a theory as part
of our self-concept, or use a theory to evaluate our strengths and weaknesses. Theories can
also challenge us to questions our assumptions and biases about ourselves and others.
Theories can also help us develop awareness of our own thoughts and behaviors, as well as
the social and cultural factors that affect them. By using theories, we can become more
mindful, critical, and creative in our thinking.

 Theories influence how you see yourself

4th

Four types of gender theories

 Focus on biology
 Emphasize interpersonal origins
 Concentrate on cultural influences
 Offer critical perspectives
5th

Biological Theories of Gender

 Biological characteristics of sexes are basis of differences

Influence of sex chromosomes

Most females – xx

Most males – xy

# Biological theories of gender assume that the biological characteristics of the sexes are the
basis of their differences
# For example, the influence of sex chromosomes on gender development and behavior
# Most females have two X chromosomes (XX) and most males have one X and one Y
chromosome (XY)
# The presence or absence of the Y chromosome determines the sex of the individual

6th

 Several genes controlling intelligence located only on X

o Some aspects of male intelligence only inherited from mother
o Females may inherit intelligence from both parents

7th

 Primary gene responsible for social skills only on x

o Women more adept in social situations

8th

 X carries genes that influence intelligence and susceptibility to hereditary conditions

# One example of a biological theory of gender is the X-linked hypothesis

# The X-linked hypothesis states that some traits related to gender are influenced by genes
located on the X chromosome
# For example, the X-linked hypothesis suggests that X carries genes that influence
intelligence and susceptibility to hereditary conditions
# This means that females, who have two X chromosomes, have more variation in these traits
than males, who have one X chromosome
# The X-linked hypothesis also implies that these traits are more likely to be inherited from
the mother than the father
# However, the X-linked hypothesis has been challenged by other studies that show that
intelligence and hereditary conditions are influenced by many factors, not just genes on the X
chromosome
# Therefore, the X-linked hypothesis is not a conclusive explanation of gender differences
9th

 Y’s function is ensuring egg will evolve into a male

 Larger variety in x
o More variation among women

# The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome that carries the genes for male development. It is
inherited from the father and paired with an X chromosome from the mother. The presence of
the Y chromosome triggers a cascade of events that lead to the formation of testes, which
produce testosterone and other male hormones. These hormones then influence the
development of male characteristics, such as facial hair, muscle mass, and voice pitch.
# The X chromosome is also a sex chromosome, but it has more genes than the Y
chromosome. It is inherited from both parents and paired with either an X or a Y chromosome.
Because women have two X chromosomes, they have more genetic diversity than men, who
have only one X chromosome. This means that women can have different combinations of
genes on their X chromosomes, which can affect their traits, such as height, intelligence, and
susceptibility to diseases.

10th

 Role of hormonal activity

# Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various bodily functions and behaviors.
# One of the main hormones that influences gender is estrogen, which is primarily produced
by the female reproductive organs.
# Estrogen has many effects on the female body, such as:

o Estrogen – primarily female

produce good cholesterol
blood vessels more flexible
strengthens immune system

11th

causes fat tissue to form around hips

impede liver function

12th

 Men have hormonal cycles

o Testosterone – primarily male
Drug use, violent behavior
Jockeying for power
Attempts to dominate
Physical expression of anger

# Men have hormonal cycles that affect their mood and behavior, just like women do.
# One of the hormones that is more prevalent in men is testosterone, which is associated
with aggression, competitiveness, and dominance. Testosterone levels can vary depending on
various factors, such as stress, drug use, or social status.
# Some studies have suggested that high testosterone levels can lead to violent behavior,
such as fighting, crime, or war. Other studies have argued that testosterone is not the cause
of violence, but rather a response to it.
# Another aspect of testosterone is that it can influence men's social behavior, such as
jockeying for power, attempting to dominate others, or expressing anger physically. These
behaviors can be seen as ways of asserting masculinity or coping with challenges.
# However, not all men have the same levels of testosterone, nor do they react to it in the
same way. There are also other biological and environmental factors that shape men's
behavior and personality, such as genetics, brain structure, culture, or upbringing.

13th

 Hormones influence cognitive abilities

 Men’s hormonal change is more gradual than women’s

# Biological theories of gender suggest that hormones influence cognitive abilities and that
men and women differ in their hormonal profiles
# For example, testosterone is associated with spatial skills and aggression, while estrogen is
linked to verbal skills and empathy
# According to these theory, men's hormonal change is more gradual than women's, which
may account for some of the observed differences in cognitive performance and behavior
across the lifespan

14th

 Testosterone deficiency can lead to:

o Increase in body fat
o Moodiness and depression

15th

 Hormones influence skills and tendencies

Girls favor trucks if mother had high levels of testosterone during pregnancy

16th

Males given estrogen experience:

o Decline in spatial skills
o Increase in verbal skills

17th

 Biological theories – differences in brain structure and development

 Each sex specializes in one side of brain

18th

 Men – better developed left lobes

o Linear thinking
o Sequential information
o Spatial skills
o Abstract, analytical reasoning

19th

 Women – better developed right lobes

o Aptitude for imaginative and artistic activity
o Holistic, intuitive thinking
 o Visual and spatial tasks

20th

 Women use both sides of brain for language tasks

 Prefrontal cortext larger
Restrains aggression

 Insula is larger
Affects intuition and empathy

- Women use both sides of their brain for language tasks, while men tend to use only one
side. This means that women may have an advantage in verbal communication, memory and
multitasking.
- Women have a larger prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the brain that controls planning,
decision making and impulse control. This may make women more cautious, rational and less
prone to aggression than men.
- Women have a larger insula, which is the part of the brain that processes emotions,
sensations and empathy. This may make women more intuitive, sensitive and compassionate
than men.

21st

 Male amygdala is larger

o Controls emotions like anger

22nd

 Corpus callosum links two lobes of brain

o Women have greater ability to use
o Men listen with left brain

One of the biological theories of gender is based on the structure and function of the corpus
callosum, which is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
According to this theory, women have a larger and more developed corpus callosum than
men, which gives them a greater ability to use both sides of the brain for different tasks. For
example, men tend to listen with their left brain, which is more specialized for language and
logic, while women tend to listen with both sides of the brain, which allows them to process
more emotional and contextual cues. Similarly, men tend to rely more on their left brain for
spatial tasks, such as finding directions or navigating a map, while women tend to use both
sides of the brain for these tasks, which may make them more flexible and adaptable.

23rd

o Women listen with both sides

o Men better able to use left side for directions

24th

 Splenium – fold of connecting tissue in corpus callosum

o Larger in women
 Increased verbal abilities

Another part of the corpus callosum that is relevant for gender differences is the splenium,
which is a fold of connecting tissue at the back of the corpus callosum. The splenium is larger
in women than in men, which may explain why women have higher verbal abilities than men,
such as better memory, vocabulary, and fluency.
25th

 Forces of biology evident in gender re-assignment cases

o David Reimer
 Penis amputated in surgery
 Could not accept self as “girl”
 Later surgically returned to male

One example of how biology influences gender identity is the case of David Reimer, who was
born as a boy but raised as a girl after a botched circumcision that damaged his penis.
Despite the efforts of his parents and doctors to make him accept his female identity, David
felt uncomfortable and unhappy as a girl. He faced bullying and rejection at school and at
home. He did not identify with the female gender role or appearance. When he learned the
truth about his past, he decided to undergo surgery and hormone therapy to return to his
male identity. He later married and adopted children, but he also suffered from depression
and eventually committed suicide. This tragic case shows that gender identity is not only a
social construct, but also a biological reality that cannot be easily changed by external
factors.

26th

Controversy about strength of biological forces

 Those with extreme view—biological factors determine abilities and behaviors

 Others argue biology edited by environmental factors

# Biological theories of gender are based on the idea that there are innate differences
between males and females that influence their abilities and behaviors. For example, some
biological theories suggest that hormones, genes, brain structure, or evolution are responsible
for gender differences in cognition, personality, sexuality, or aggression.
# However, there is a lot of controversy about how strong these biological forces are and how
much they can be modified by environmental factors. Some people have an extreme view
that biological factors determine everything about gender and that there is no room for
change or variation. These people may use biological theories to justify gender stereotypes or
inequalities.
# Other people argue that biology is not destiny and that environmental factors such as
culture, education, socialization, or personal choice can edit or override the biological
influences. These people may use biological theories to explain the diversity and complexity
of gender and to challenge gender norms or expectations.

Social learning Theory

35th

 Learn by imitating others and getting responses to behavior

This means that people can acquire new skills, attitudes, and values by copying what they
see others do, and by getting feedback from others on how well they perform or how
appropriate their behavior is.

 Behaviors that are rewarded reinforced

 Behaviors that are punished or seen as neutral rejected
These explains another important concept of social learning theory, which is reinforcement.
Reinforcement refers to the consequences of behavior that either increase or decrease the
 likelihood of repeating that behavior in the future. Behaviors that are rewarded, such as
praise, attention, or material benefits, are more likely to be reinforced and repeated.
Behaviors that are punished, such as criticism, rejection, or loss of privileges, are more
likely to be rejected and avoided.

 Social world amplifies personal inclinations

Social learning theory accounts for individual differences in behavior and personality. It
suggests that the social world amplifies personal inclinations, meaning that people tend to
seek out and interact with others who share similar interests, values, and goals. This
creates a self-reinforcing cycle of learning and behavior that can either enhance or inhibit
personal development.

36th

 Views children as passive in process

It implies that children do not actively construct their own knowledge or influence their own
environment, but rather simply absorb and reproduce what they observe from others. This
ignores the role of cognitive factors, such as motivation, attention, memory, and reasoning,
in shaping learning outcomes.

 Suggests reinforcement process continues through lifetime

Meaning that people keep learning from their social interactions and experiences
throughout their lives. This implies that behavior can change at any age, depending on the
nature and quality of the social influences one encounters.

Symbolic interactionism

47th

 Through communication with others we learn who we are

This means that our sense of self is not something that we are born with, but something that
we develop over time through our interactions with other people.
- For example, when we talk to our friends, family, teachers, or strangers, we receive
feedback from them about how they perceive us, what they expect from us, and how they
value us.
- Based on this feedback, we form an idea of who we are, what roles we play, and how we fit
into society.
- This process of self-construction is ongoing and dynamic, as we constantly adjust our self-
image according to new situations and experiences.

 As parents interact with children then tell them who they are

- This means that one of the most influential sources of feedback for our self-concept is our
parents, especially when we are young and dependent on them.
- As parents interact with their children, they communicate messages about their children's
identity, abilities, and worth.
- For example, parents may praise or criticize their children's behavior, appearance, or
performance. They may also label their children as smart, lazy, beautiful, or naughty.
- These messages shape the children's self-esteem and self-confidence, as well as their
aspirations and goals.
  Each label offers child self-image

- This means that the labels that parents use to describe their children have a powerful
impact on how the children see themselves and how they behave.
- Labels are symbols that convey meanings and expectations. They can be positive or
negative, accurate or inaccurate, consistent or inconsistent.
- For example, if a parent labels a child as smart, the child may internalize this label and
believe that he or she is intelligent and capable. This may motivate the child to work hard and
achieve academic success.
- On the other hand, if a parent labels a child as lazy, the child may internalize this label and
believe that he or she is incompetent and unmotivated. This may discourage the child from
trying new things and pursuing personal growth.

 Children internalize views to arrive at understanding

- This means that the labels that parents give to their children are not just words, but also
reflections of the parents' views and attitudes towards their children.
- Children internalize these views and adopt them as their own. They use them as a basis for
understanding themselves and their place in the world.
- For example, if a parent views a child as a leader, the child may internalize this view and act
confidently and assertively in social situations. The child may also seek out opportunities to
demonstrate his or her leadership skills and influence others.
- Conversely, if a parent views a child as a follower, the child may internalize this view and act
timidly and passively in social situations. The child may also avoid taking risks and expressing
his or her opinions.

48th

# Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on how people use

symbols, such as words, gestures, and objects, to create and maintain meanings in their
interactions with others.
# In this slide, we will explore how symbolic interactionism can help us understand how
gender is communicated and constructed through three different contexts: parent's
responses, play activities with peers, and interactions with teacher.

 Views of gender communicated

o Through parent’s responses

# First, let's look at how parent's responses can influence gender

communication. Parent's responses are the ways that parents react to their
children's behaviors, expressions, and preferences. These responses can
reinforce or challenge the gender norms and expectations that society assigns to
males and females.

# For example, if a parent praises a boy for being strong and brave, or scolds a
girl for being too loud and aggressive, they are communicating that these traits
are appropriate or inappropriate for their gender. On the other hand, if a parent
encourages a girl to pursue her interests in science and math, or supports a boy
who likes to play with dolls and dress up, they are communicating that these
activities are not limited by gender.
 # Parent's responses can shape the children's self-concept, identity, and sense
of belonging. They can also affect the children's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
towards themselves and others of the same or different gender.

o Play activities with peers

# Second, let's examine how play activities with peers can influence gender
communication. Play activities are the ways that children interact with each
other for fun, learning, and socialization. These activities can reflect or challenge
the gender roles and stereotypes that society assigns to males and females.

# For example, if children play games that are considered masculine or

feminine, such as sports or dolls, they are communicating that these games are
suitable or unsuitable for their gender. On the other hand, if children play games
that are considered gender-neutral or mixed, such as puzzles or board games,
they are communicating that these games are not determined by gender.

# Play activities can shape the children's skills, abilities, and interests. They can
also affect the children's relationships, cooperation, and competition with others
of the same or different gender.

o Through interactions with teacher

# Third, let's explore how interactions with teacher can influence gender
communication. Interactions with teacher are the ways that teachers interact
with their students in the classroom setting. These interactions can reinforce or
challenge the gender biases and expectations that society assigns to males and
females.
# For example, if a teacher calls on boys more often than girls, or gives more
feedback to girls than boys, they are communicating that these students are
more or less capable or deserving of attention based on their gender. On the
other hand, if a teacher treats all students equally and fairly, regardless of their
gender, they are communicating that these students are not differentiated by
gender.

# Interactions with teacher can shape the children's academic performance,

motivation, and confidence. They can also affect the children's participation,
engagement, and achievement in the classroom.

49th

 Role = set of expected behaviors and value associated with them

 External to individuals
 Roles assigned by society

# According to symbolic interactionism, roles are sets of expected behaviors and values
associated with them
# Roles are external to individuals, meaning that they are not inherent or natural, but
rather assigned by society
# Roles can vary depending on the context, such as family, work, or education
# Roles can also change over time, as society evolves or as individuals negotiate their
identities and relationships
# Roles influence how people perceive themselves and others, and how they communicate
and act in different situations
50th

 One primary way to classify social life – gender roles

o Women as caretakers
o Women represented in service and clerical jobs
o Men as breadwinners
o Men seen as leaders

51st

 Role is internalized
 Learn different roles for men and women
 Learn unequal values assigned to them

One primary way to classify social life is by gender roles, which are the expectations and
norms that shape how men and women behave, think, and feel. Gender roles are not fixed or
natural, but rather constructed and maintained through social interactions. Symbolic
interactionists argue that gender is not something we are born with, but something we do in
everyday situations.
For example, one common gender role is that women are supposed to be the caretakers of
the family and the home, while men are supposed to be the breadwinners and the providers.
This gender role is reinforced by various symbols, such as the division of household labor, the
clothing and accessories we wear, the media images we consume, and the language we use.
Women who perform this role may be praised as nurturing, loving, and supportive, while men
who perform this role may be respected as strong, responsible, and successful.
Another example of a gender role is that women are more likely to be represented in service
and clerical jobs, such as teachers, nurses, secretaries, and cashiers, while men are more
likely to be seen as leaders and professionals, such as managers, lawyers, doctors, and
engineers. This gender role is also supported by various symbols, such as the education and
training we receive, the credentials and titles we earn, the salaries and benefits we negotiate,
and the authority and power we exercise. Women who perform this role may be valued as
helpful, friendly, and cooperative, while men who perform this role may be admired as
competent, confident, and decisive.
Symbolic interactionists suggest that gender roles are not inevitable or permanent, but rather
flexible and changeable. They emphasize that people can resist, challenge, or transform
gender roles through their interactions with others. For instance, some women may choose to
pursue careers that are traditionally male-dominated or to share the household
responsibilities with their partners. Similarly, some men may choose to stay at home and take
care of their children or to work in occupations that are traditionally female-dominated. By
doing so, they can create new meanings and symbols for gender that reflect their own
identities and preferences.

Queer Theory

63rd

A critical approach that challenges the conventional categories of identity and culture. Queer
theory questions the views of normal and abnormal that are often imposed by society, and
argues that there is no single or natural way to be human.

 Critique of conventional categories of identity and culture views of normal and abnormal
 Queer does not refer only to gays and lesbians, but to anything that departs from what
society considers normal, such as gender non-conformity, bisexuality, polyamory, etc.

 Queer does not refer only to gays and lesbians

Refers to anything that departs from what society considers normal

64th

Queer theory emerged from the field of gay and lesbian studies, which focused on the history
and experiences of sexual minorities.
One of the initial goals of queer theory was to expose and critique heteronormativity, the
assumption that heterosexuality is the default and superior sexual orientation.
Queer theory also has implications for how we understand sexuality, as it rejects the idea that
sexuality is fixed or innate, and instead proposes that sexuality is fluid and socially
constructed.
Queer theory aims to enlarge our appreciation of the range and diversity of human identities,
and to challenge the oppression and discrimination that queer people face.

 Arose from of gay and lesbian studies

 Initial focus – heteronormality
 Implications for understandings of sexuality
 Aims to enlarge appreciation of range of identities

65th

Queer Theory argues that terms like women, men, gay, and straight are not useful because
they essentialize people by focusing on only one aspect of their identity. It also claims that
these terms erase the variation and diversity among those who belong to these categories.
Queer Theory aims to expose and disrupt the binary oppositions that limit and exclude people
based on their gender and sexual expression.

 Not useful to terms like women, men, gay, straight

 Essentialize by focusing on only one aspect of person
 Erase variation among those in categories

66th

Queer Theory is a field of study that challenges the conventional understanding of gender and
sexuality. It assumes that identities are not fixed, but rather fluid and dynamic. This means
that people can change their gender and sexual expression over time, depending on their
personal experiences, social contexts, and cultural influences.

 Assumes identities are not fixed—relatively fluid