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Engineering Applications of Computational Methods 15
Shun Weng
Hongping Zhu
Yong Xia
Substructuring
Method for Civil
Structural Health
Monitoring
Engineering Applications of Computational
Methods
Volume 15
Series Editors
Liang Gao, State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and
Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei,
China
Akhil Garg, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University
of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
The book series Engineering Applications of Computational Methods addresses the
numerous applications of mathematical theory and latest computational or numerical
methods in various fields of engineering. It emphasizes the practical application
of these methods, with possible aspects in programming. New and developing
computational methods using big data, machine learning and AI are discussed in
this book series, and could be applied to engineering fields, such as manufacturing,
industrial engineering, control engineering, civil engineering, energy engineering
and material engineering.
The book series Engineering Applications of Computational Methods aims to
introduce important computational methods adopted in different engineering projects
to researchers and engineers. The individual book volumes in the series are thematic.
The goal of each volume is to give readers a comprehensive overview of how the
computational methods in a certain engineering area can be used. As a collection, the
series provides valuable resources to a wide audience in academia, the engineering
research community, industry and anyone else who are looking to expand their
knowledge of computational methods.
This book series is indexed in both the Scopus and Compendex databases.
Shun Weng · Hongping Zhu · Yong Xia
Substructuring Method
for Civil Structural Health
Monitoring
Shun Weng Hongping Zhu
School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering
Huazhong University of Science Huazhong University of Science
and Technology and Technology
Wuhan, Hubei, China Wuhan, Hubei, China
Yong Xia
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
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Singapore
Preface
v
vi Preface
The writing of this book has been a challenging and laborious task that could not
have been completed without the help of many individuals. We are grateful to many
people who helped in the preparation of this book.
First, it is greatly appreciated to Dr. Jiajing Li, Dr. Wei Tian, and Dr. Zhidan Chen
for their participation in research works presented in this book and for their essential
work on editing and language correction of the book. The present and former research
students at Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST) contributed to
some research works in this book as well. Special gratitude to Dr. Ling Mao, Dr.
Ling Ye, Dr. Hong Yu, Dr. Ke Gao, Mr. Yongyi Yan, Mr. Feng Liang, Ms. Yue Zuo,
Mr. Huixian Zhao, etc.
Our work presented in this book has been largely supported by the National
Key R&D Program of China (2021YFF0501001), National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (51922046, 51778258, 51108205, 51838006, 51629801), Natural
Science Foundation of Hubei Province (2020CFA047), and the foundation from
HUST (2023JCYJ014). The China Railway Eryuan Engineering Group Co. Ltd.
and China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group Co. Ltd. provided a large
number of opportunities for the practical application of the research. All the supports
are gratefully acknowledged.
We are grateful to the School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering of HUST for
the substantial support and prolific resource. We are very grateful to all colleagues
and staffs at HUST, who have helped us both in our research and daily work. It is
difficult to list all of them on this single page.
A vote of thanks must go to Mr. Mengchu Huang, senior editor at Springer
Nature Press, for his patience and encouragement from the beginning and during
the preparation of this book, and to all editors at Springer Nature Press for their
patience and scrutiny in the editing of this book.
Finally, we are grateful to our families for their love, encouragement, and
endurance.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Objective of Substructuring Method in Structural
Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Category of Substructuring Model Updating Methods . . . . . 3
1.3 Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
ix
x Contents
{} Vector
{}T , []T Transpose of the vector or matrix
{}−1 , []+ Inverse, pseudo-inverse matrix
I Unity matrix
Diag( ) Diagonal-block assembly of the substructures, primitive matrices
K Stiffness matrix
M Mass matrix
F Residual flexibility matrix
R Rigid body modes
E Kron’s receptance matrix
u Equivalent stiffness matrix of reduced eigenequation
ωi , f i ith modal frequency (rad/s, Hz)
λi , /\ ith eigenvalue, matrix of eigenvalues
φi, o ith eigenvector (mode shape), matrix of eigenvectors
φ̄, ō ith expanded mode shape, matrix of expanded mode shapes
J Objective function
S Sensitivity matrix
r Elemental physical parameter
α Elemental stiffness parameter
β Elemental mass parameter
χ Dynamic response
f Force
x, ẋ, ẍ Displacement, velocity, acceleration
ẍ g Earthquake excitation
N Degrees of freedom of the global structure
NP Size of the primitive matrix
NS Number of the substructures
NT Number of interface DOFs
τ Interface force along the boundaries of the substructures
g Connection force from the adjacent substructures
C Damping matrix
xv
xvi Symbols
D Connection matrix
T Modal transformation matrix
µ Transformation matrix for master and slave DOFs
V Physical transformation matrix
Z Modal modes participation factor
| Connection matrix of the substructural eigenmodes
f˜ Reduced force
K̃ Reduced stiffness matrix
M̃ Reduced mass matrix
C̃ Reduced damping matrix
o Modal derivative tensor
|| Reduction basis of geometrically nonlinear system
Ts Transformation mode
γ Regularization parameter
KC Equivalent stiffness matrix of the reduced eigenequation
MD Equivalent mass matrix of the reduced eigenequation
Superscripts
A Analytical results
E Experimentally measured results
p Assembled matrices or vectors
U Updated results
O Initial results
L Linear substructure
N Nonlinear substructure
Subscripts
m Master DOFs
s Slave DOFs
m Master modes
s Slave modes
d Deformational modes
r Rigid body modes
g Variables associated with the global structure
B Boundary of a substructure
I Inner part of a substructure
Symbols xvii
R Reduced model
S Static condensation
D Dynamic condensation
Abbreviations
Civil structures, including buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, pipelines, and so on,
provide fundamental essentials for a country and/or society. The safety and service-
ability of these civil structures are basically crucial to a civilized society and a produc-
tive economy, and also the ultimate goals of engineering, academic, and management
communities. Structural health monitoring (SHM) technologies have been developed
for monitoring, evaluation, and maintenance of these civil structures during the past
half-century.
A high-fidelity finite element model (FEM) is frequently required by response
prediction, optimization design, vibration control, and damage identification. The
FEM is simplified and parameterized from a real structure, which introduced uncer-
tainties in the material properties, geometry size, and boundary conditions. And the
linear or nonlinear models of a civil structure are usually idealized hypothesis. The
dynamic responses of a highly idealized numerical model are usually deviated from
the measured counterparts. Brownjohn et al. (2001) reported that the maximum rela-
tive differences of the numerical and experimental modal frequencies of a curved
cable-stayed bridge reached 40%, and relative differences of most modes are larger
than 10%. Jaishi and Ren (2005) show that the differences of the natural frequencies
measured from a steel arch bridge and those computed by an FEM counterpart reach
20%, and the modal assurance criteria (MAC) values of mode shapes between prac-
tical measurement and numerical model are as low as 62%. Zivanovic et al. (2007)
found that the average difference of natural frequencies of a footbridge predicted by
an FEM and their experimental counterparts is 29.8%. Therefore, the parameters of
the FEMs need to be adjusted effectively to obtain a more truthful model that can be
used for various disciplines.
Model updating is a technique that updates the FE model of a structure so that
it can predict dynamic properties of the structure more accurately. Parameters of
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 1
S. Weng et al., Substructuring Method for Civil Structural Health Monitoring,
Engineering Applications of Computational Methods 15,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1369-5_1
2 1 Introduction
the FEM are adjusted to reduce a penalty function of residuals between the analyt-
ical prediction and measurement data in an optimal way. Model updating methods
(Friswell and Mottshead 1995) are usually categorized into one-step methods and
iterative methods according to whether the system matrix is updated directly or
indirectly. The former directly reconstructs the system matrices of the analytical
model, which is precise and computationally cheap but may have poor physical
meanings. The latter modifies the physical parameters of the FEM repeatedly to
minimize the discrepancy between analytical predictions and their measured coun-
terparts. Iterative methods preserve positive-definiteness, symmetry, and sparseness
in the updated system matrices, and more importantly, the predicted parameters are
physically meaningful to be understood. In the iterative model updating methods, the
prespecified physical parameters of the FE model are updated repeatedly to mini-
mize the residuals between the measurements and model predictions in an optimal
manner. The dynamic properties and associated sensitivity matrices of the analytical
model are calculated in each iteration repeatedly.
The FEM of a large-scale structure usually consists of a large number of degrees
of freedom (DOFs) and many uncertain parameters. Repeatedly calculating the solu-
tions from such a large-scale FEM is very expensive or even prohibited in terms of
computational time and memory. First, the large system matrices, including stiffness
and mass matrices, occupy a large amount of storage space. Second, dynamic analysis
based on the large system matrices is a time-consuming process. Calculation of sensi-
tivity with respect to a large number of parameters wastes even more computational
resources and time. Nowadays, the model updating process is usually incorporated
with the statistical analysis or nonlinear analysis, and thus the process is heavier
or even prohibited. Third, there are a lot of uncertain parameters to be adjusted in a
large-scale FEM. It takes a long time to calculate the sensitivity matrices with respect
to a large number of updating parameters of the model contains. The large number of
parameters hinders the convergence of the large-scale optimization problem as well.
The iterative model updating of a civil structure usually involves a heavy work.
For example, Xia et al. (2008) performed the model updating of the Balla Balla
Bridge in Western Australia. It was modeled with 907 elements, 949 nodes, and
5400 DOFs. Within each iteration, calculating the eigensolutions cost about 10 s, and
calculating the eigensensitivities with respect to the 1130 uncertain parameters took
more than two hours. Calculation of the eigensensitivity costs dominant computation
time during the model updating. The optimization converged within 155 iterations,
which cost about 420 h in total. The computation time for the model updating of this
middle-scale bridge is tremendous. It is impossible to perform model updating on a
large-scale civil structure. For example, a fine FEM was established for the Tsing Ma
Suspension Bridge. The FEM consists of about 300,000 nodes, 450,000 elements,
and 1.2 million DOFs. It took about five hours to extract the first 100 eigensolutions
using a 64-bit Itanium server with eight CPUs of 1.5 GHz each (Duan et al. 2011).
One has to simplify the model to achieve a more efficient model updating on the
sacrifice of accuracy. It is challenging to update the model for such a large-scale
structure using a conventional approach.
1.2 The Category of Substructuring Model Updating Methods 3
Substructuring methods are effective to deal with large-size civil structures. The
substructuring methods partition the global structure into several substructures,
which are analyzed independently. A reduced model is constructed from the substruc-
tural solutions to recover the global dynamic properties. The substructuring method
merits some distinct advantages over the global methods that analyze the global
structure as a whole:
(1) It is much easier and quicker to store and analyze the small substructural system
matrices independently than analyze the global structure as a whole
(2) Substructuring methods allow for the specific substructures to be analyzed solely
to recognize local dynamic behaviors more easily, avoiding the analysis of other
substructures or the global structure
(3) Substructuring methods reduce the number of uncertain parameters to be
updated and thus alleviate the ill-condition problems and accelerate the
convergence of the model updating
(4) In practical testing, the experimental instruments can be saved if it is necessary
to measure the whole structure only for one or more substructures
(5) Substructuring methods allow sharing and combining substructures from
different project groups, or from modeled parts and experimental parts.
The civil structure is usually large-sized, whereas the damage is usually located
in a local area. The substructuring method analyzes the large-scale structure in a
piece-wise manner rather than as a whole. The time-consuming optimization calcu-
lation, uncertainty analysis, and nonlinear calculation are constrained to the local
substructure, which can effectively improve the accuracy and efficiency of model
updating and damage identification.
local area is changed, only one or several substructures are analyzed independently
without repeatedly analyzing the large-size matrices of the global structure.
On the other hand, the substructuring approach can be used in an inverse manner
performed on the experimental data (Fig. 1.2). First, substructural properties of one
substructure, for example, flexibility, frequencies, and mode shapes, are extracted
from the experimental data on the global structure by imposing the constraints of
displacement compatibility and force compatibility. After the substructural exper-
imental properties are obtained, the focused substructure can be updated indepen-
dently using a conventional model updating method. This model updating process
involves solely one substructure and thus improving the efficiency of the optimiza-
tion process. The main work of this inverse substructuring method depends on an
effective decoupling algorithm to extracting the effective substructural properties
which validly represent the real local area.
In substructuring methods, the global model is reduced into a modal space spanned
by a few substructural master modes, based on which the dynamic analysis, sensitivity
analysis, and model updating are implemented accurately and efficiently. In this book,
1.3 Organization of the Book 5
a few master modes of substructures are used to recover the eigensolutions or dynamic
response of the global structure, and modal truncation is adopted to speed up the
analysis of independent substructures. This strategy can also be used in the physical
space, where the global model is reduced to a few DOFs. By using a transformation
matrix, the global model is reduced into a low-dimensional physical space spanned
by the master DOFs. The latter strategy is usually named as the model reduction
technique and is frequently employed as a companion of substructuring method.
Both the master modes in the modal space and the master DOFs in the physical
space are much fewer than that of the global model. Consequently, computational
resources and time are saved.
This book will introduce the substructuring method and its applications in FE model
updating. The book comprises 16 chapters as Fig. 1.3.
Chapter 1 provides the objective and background of the substructuring methods
in SHM, and the other 15 chapters are grouped into three topics.
Chapters 2–8 present the linear substructuring methods. Chapter 2 introduces the
substructuring method for the eigensolutions, and the first-order and second-order
residual flexibility compensation will be adopted to improve the accuracy. Chapter 3
presents the substructuring method for the eigensensitivity, and Chap. 4 describes the
substructuring method for the high-order eigensensitivity. The improvement on the
iterative substructuring method is presented in Chaps. 5 and 6 to achieve higher accu-
racy. In particular, Chap. 5 proposes an iterative bisection scanning substructuring
method to calculate the eigensolutions and eigensensitivity modes by modes, and
6 1 Introduction
1 Introduction
Part A: Linear substructuring methods Part B: Dynamic condensation Part C: Nonlinear substructuring
methods methods
2 Substructirng method for 7 Substructuring method for
eigensolutions response and sensitivity 10 Dynamic condensation for 13 Substructuring method for
considering elastic effect
eigensolutions and eigensensitivity material nonlinear system
3 Substructirng method for
eigensensitivity
6 Iterative substructuring
method with all modes
simultaneously 12 Dynamic condensation for 15 nonlinear substructuring
model updating method for model updating
9 Substructuring method for model updating
16 Epilogue
References
Brownjohn, J.M.W., Xia, P.Q., Hao, H., Xia, Y.: Civil structure condition assessment by FE model
updating: methodology and case studies. Finite Elem. Anal. Des. 37(10), 761–775 (2001)
Duan, Y.F., Xu, Y.L., Fei, Q.G., et al.: Advanced finite element model of Tsing Ma bridge for
structural health monitoring. Int. J. Struct. Stab. Dy. 11(2), 313–344 (2011)
Friswell, M.I., Mottershead, J.E.: Finite Element Model Updating in Structural Dynamics. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA (1995)
Jaishi, B., Ren, W.X.: Structural finite element model updating using ambient vibration test results.
J. Struct. Eng. 131(4), 617–628 (2005)
Weng, S., Zhu, H., Xia, Y., et al.: A review on dynamic substructuring methods for model updating
and damage detection of large-scale structures. Adv. Struct. Eng. 23(3), 584–600 (2020)
Xia, Y., Hao, H., Deeks, A., et al.: Condition assessment of shear connectors in slab-girder bridges
via vibration measurements. J. Bridg. Eng. 13(1), 43–54 (2008)
Zivanovic, S., Pavic, A., Reynolds, P.: Finite element modelling and updating of a lively footbridge:
the complete process. J. Sound Vib. 301(1–2), 126–145 (2007)
Part I
Linear Substructuring Methods
Chapter 2
Substructuring Method
for Eigensolutions
2.1 Preview
In dynamic analysis, the frequencies and mode shapes are the eigensolutions of stiff-
ness and mass matrices, which serve to construct the objective function in frequency
domain model updating. The elemental parameters in the FEM are iteratively modi-
fied to minimize the residuals of frequencies and mode shapes between the analytical
predictions and the measured counterparts in an optimal way. In the iterative model
updating, the eigensolutions are computed repeatedly from the stiffness and mass
matrices of the analytical FEM. To simulate the real structure accurately, the FEM of
a large-scale structure includes a large number of elements, nodes, and parameters.
The stiffness and mass matrices of the analytical FEM are large in size. It is a big
challenge to efficiently obtaining the eigensolutions from large-size system matrices.
Sparse matrix techniques, order reduction methods, and substructuring methods
are effective mathematical scheme developed for the fast analysis of large-scale
matrices. Sparse matrix techniques, such as the subspace iteration method and the
Lanczos algorithm or (Bath 1982), are widely used in commercial software such
as ABAQUS and ANSYS. It is an efficient way to alleviate the computation load
of large-size system matrices. Sparse matrix technique exploits the sparsity of the
assembled mass and stiffness matrices, which perform numerical operations directly
on the nonzero components of the large-size system matrices. Order reduction
methods reduce the size of the system matrices by removing some DOFs of the
original FEM and retaining a much smaller set. It transforms the dynamic behavior
of the discarded DOFs to those of the retained DOFs. The reduced eigenequation is
then solved to approximate the eigensolutions of the original structure.
The substructuring technology can be a promising solution to accelerate the calcu-
lation of eigensolutions of a large-scale structure. Substructuring methods divide a
structure into smaller independent substructures. The stiffness and mass matrices
of substructures are constructed independently, from which the eigensolutions of
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 11
S. Weng et al., Substructuring Method for Civil Structural Health Monitoring,
Engineering Applications of Computational Methods 15,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1369-5_2
12 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
By using the basic FE method, the stiffness and mass matrices of a structure with N
DOFs are constructed. The classical eigenequation for the structure has the form of
where K and M are the N × N symmetric stiffness and mass matrices, respectively,
λi represents the ith eigenvalue, and {φi } is the corresponding eigenvector. λi and {φi }
form a pair of eigensolutions of the system. In structural dynamics, the eigenvalue
is the square of the circular frequency, and the eigenvector is the mode shape of the
structure. The subspace iteration method and Lanczos method are commonly used
to solve the large-size eigenequation. These two methods are introduced in Sect. 2.1
and Sect. 2.2.
K and M are assembled by the contribution of all n elements in the discrete FEM.
In particular,
E
n E
n E
n E
n
K= Kj = α j Kej , M = Mj = β j Mej (2.2)
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
2.2 Basic Methods for Eigensolutions 13
where Kj and Mj are the jth elemental stiffness matrix and elemental mass matrix,
respectively, and α j and β j are respectively the ‘elemental stiffness parameter’ and
‘elemental mass parameter’.
The subspace iteration method extracts the eigensolutions of the large-size system
matrices by projecting them onto an orthogonal subspace to reduce the computa-
tional cost. As solving the complete eigensolutions is expensive and usually not
necessary for the large-scale structures, the approximated solution spanned by the
lowest eigenpairs is favorable. Figure 2.1 demonstrates the general procedure of the
subspace iteration method. The eigenproblem in Eq. (2.1) spans an N-dimensional
space. The subspace iteration method solves this eigenproblem in an iterative way
with a set of l linearly independent vectors (l is much less than N). The subspace
is spanned by these l vectors. By iterating with l vectors, the subspace is gradually
improved so that it will ultimately span the l-dimensional subspace of the original
N-dimensional space. The subspace iteration method is time-consuming in searching
the optimized l-dimensional space, especially for a large-scale structure.
The Lanczos algorithm has been developed as a powerful tool to extract eigen-
values of a real symmetric matrix. The Lanczos algorithm transforms a general-
ized N-dimensional eigenproblem into a standard tridiagonal matrix with a smaller
dimension m, as described in Fig. 2.2.
The Lanczos algorithm constructs an orthogonal basis for the Krylov subspace as
( ( ) ( )m−1 )
Qm = span {q1 } K−1 M {q1 } · · · K−1 M {q1 }
= span({q1 } {q2 } · · · {qm }) (2.3)
⎡ ⎤
α1 β2
⎢ β2 α2 β3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢
Tm = ⎢ β3 . . ⎥ (2.4)
⎥
⎢ .. .. ⎥
⎣ . . βm ⎦
βm αm
This block version of Lanczos method is more powerful, which naturally produces
a block tridiagonal matrix Tm . As compared with the subspace iteration method, the
Lanczos method is preferable to compute a large number of eigenpairs for very large
sparse matrices.
E E
T NS
N
N =N+
P
(tn − 1) = N ( j) (2.5)
n=1 j=1
After division, each independent substructure, for example, the jth substructure,
has a stiffness matrix K( j) and mass matrix M( j) . The generalized eigenequation of
the jth substructure can be written as
{ } { }
( j) ( j) ( j)
K( j) φi = λi M( j) φi (2.6)
Both K( j ) and M( j ) are of order N (j) × N (j) . The eigenequation Eq. (2.6) can be
solved by the subspace iteration method or Lanczos method introduced } 2.2,
{ in Sect.
( j) ( j)
by treating the jth substructure as an independent structure. λi and φi are the
16 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
ith eigenvalue and eigenvector of the jth substructure, respectively. Equation (2.6)
can be decoupled into N (j) pairs of eigenvalues and eigenvectors as
| | | |
( j) ( j) ( j) ( j) ( j) ( j)
/\( j) = Diag λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λ N ( j ) , φ( j ) = φ1 , φ2 , . . . , φ N ( j ) (2.7)
Those eigenpairs satisfy the orthogonal properties, which are normalized with
respect to the mass matrix as
{| |T
φ( j ) M( j) φ( j) = I N ( j )
| ( j ) |T ( j) ( j) (2.8)
φ K φ = /\( j )
The substructural matrices are diagonally assembled to the primitive form like
| | | |
Mp = Diag M(1) , M(2) , . . . , M(Ns ) , Kp = Diag K(1) , K(2) , . . . , K(Ns )
| | | | (2.9)
φp = Diag φ(1) , φ(2) , . . . , φ(Ns ) , /\p = Diag /\(1) , /\(2) , . . . , /\(Ns )
where superscript ‘p’ denotes the variables of the primitive form. The primitive
matrices include the substructural matrices stacked directly without constraining
them. The size of the primitive matrices is N p × N p . Since the substructural eigenpairs
satisfy the mass-normalized orthogonality in Eq. (2.8), the primitive matrices satisfy
the orthogonality conditions that
{| |
T
φp M p φp = I N p
| p |T p p (2.10)
φ K φ = /\p
The CMS method combines the component-wise analysis and model reduction tech-
niques. Instead of describing the substructure at all DOFs, this method represents
the dynamic displacement of a substructure in terms of the reduced orthogonal basis
expressed by the most dominant component modes. Thus, the reduced substructure
is obtained. Afterward, the reduced substructures are assembled to obtain a reduced
model of the global structure, from which the global eigensolutions are efficiently
calculated.
2.3 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions 17
In the CMS method, the component modes of the independent substructures can
be classified into four groups according to the boundary conditions, namely the rigid
body modes, the normal modes, the constraint modes, and the attachment modes.
(1) The rigid body modes (RBMs) describe the rigid body movement of a free-
free substructure, which can be calculated either by extracting the null basis
of the free-free stiffness K, or by constructing the self-equilibrium equation.
The former method requires the rank-deficient free-free stiffness K rearranged
according to the inner and interface DOFs as
| |
KII KIB
K= (2.11)
KBI KBB
where the subscript ‘I’ indicates the inner DOFs and the subscript ‘B’ represents the
interface DOFs. After separating the interface DOFs, KII is a square matrix with a
full rank. The generalized inverse of the free-free stiffness and the rigid body modes
are computed from the inverse of KII as
| | | |
KII−1 0 −KII−1 KIB
(K)+ = ,R= (2.12)
0 0 I
where R is the RBMs. For a free-free structure with a large number of DOFs,
the inverse of KII is not only expensive but also inaccurate. Alternatively, the self-
equilibrium method can be used. For a two-dimensional structure having N nodes,
the three independent RBMs are the x translation (Rx = 1, Ry = 0, Rz = 0), the y
translation (Rx = 0, Ry = 1, Rz = 0) and the z rotation (Rx = − y, Ry = x, Rz = 1),
i.e.,
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 1 ··· 0 0
RT = ⎣ 0 1 0 0 · · · 1 0 ⎦ (2.13)
−y1 x1 1 −y2 · · · x N 1
The columns |of R are naturally orthogonal and can be normalized by dividing
E( 2 )1/2 |
1/21/2
N , N , and xi + yi + 1
2
, respectively.
(2) The normal modes are calculated by the general eigenequation for both the fixed
boundary condition and free boundary condition. The fixed interface normal
modes are obtained by restraining all boundary DOFs, which is equivalent to
solve an eigenequation formed by the stiffness and mass matrices of the inner
DOFs, i.e.,
where N i is the number of the normal modes, equal to the number of the inner DOFs.
Only the inner DOFs are used to construct the normal modes for the fixed interface
condition. The fixed interface modes are normalized with respect to the mass matrix
MII of inner DOFs as
The free interface normal modes are computed from the system matrices by
releasing all boundary DOFs and solving the eigenequation of
( )
K − λ j M φ j = 0( j = 1, 2 . . . , , . . . , Nd = N − Nr ) (2.17)
where N d is the quantity of the deformational modes and N r is the quantity of the
rigid body modes, respectively.
(3) A constraint mode represents the force that generate a unit displacement at
one coordinate of a specified ‘constraint’ coordinate D, while the remaining
coordinates of that set D are restrained, and the remaining DOFs of the structure
are free. The force equilibrium satisfies
| || | | |
KII KIB φIB 0
= (2.18)
KBI KBB IBB f BB
where N b is the number of the constraint modes, which is equal to the number of
the inner DOFs. The constraint modes are stiffness orthogonal to all fixed interface
normal modes, that is
(4) An attachment mode is regarded as the displacement vector due to a single unit
force applied at one of the given coordinates A, which is therefore computed by
| || | | |
KII KIB φI 0
= (2.21)
KBI KBB IB IB
2.3 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions 19
CMS methods are mainly classified into the fixed interface method and the free
interface CMS method. According to the boundary condition, mode components are
selected from the above four groups to represent the displacement of an independent
substructure and to recover the global eigensolutions.
The fixed interface CMS method was first proposed by Hurty (1965). The global
eigensolutions are projected onto the space spanned by the substructural constraint
modes and fixed normal modes. Craig and Bampton (1968) simplified the fixed
interface CMS method by partitioning the interface forces into statically determinate
and indeterminate ones. Since this simplification is efficient and easy-understand, it
is widely used for eigensolutions calculation.
Since it is difficult or even unable to acquire constraint modes from experi-
ments conveniently, the fixed interface CMS method is sometimes limited to be
used. To overcome this limitation, the free interface CMS method was first proposed
by MacNeal (1971) for structures with flexible boundary conditions. The substruc-
tural displacements are represented by the free interface normal modes, attachment
modes and rigid body modes, from which the global eigensolutions are recovered.
Conducting a modal test on a free-free structure is considerably more convenient than
on one with fixed constraints. Rubin (1975) retained partial free interface normal
modes, and included the inertial effect of truncated modes with a second-order
Maclaurin-series expansion. The free interface CMS method is less accurate than
the fixed interface CMS method, since the free interface constraint is weaker than
the fixed interface. However, the free interface method is considerably more efficient
in handling complicated substructural interfaces. The complete eigenmodes of the
substructures with changed interface have to be recomputed in the fixed interface
method. Synthesizing the features of both methods, researchers have developed the
hybrid interface (mixed interface) CMS method to make full use of the advantages
of the fixed and free interface CMS methods.
Kron first proposed a dynamic substructuring method in the book Diakoptics (Kron
1963) to compute the eigensolutions of the large matrices in a piece-wise manner. The
independent substructures are analyzed independently and constrained by imposing
displacement constraints at the interface coordinates of the adjacent substructures
via the Lagrange multiplier technique. Kron’s substructuring method has distinct
advantages in handling large-scale systems since it is highly accurate under compli-
cated interface conditions. The complete substructural modes are calculated from
the stiffness and mass matrices of substructures directly without considering the
substructural boundary, and thus avoid computing the constrained modes, normal
modes, attachment modes, and rigid body modes.
20 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
where
| |T
ẍ p = ẍ (1) , · · · , ẍ (i ) , · · · , ẍ (Ns ) (2.24)
| |T
x p = x (1) , · · · , x (i ) , · · · , x (Ns ) (2.25)
| |T
f p = f (1) , · · · , f (i ) , · · · , f (Ns ) (2.26)
| |T
g p = g (1) , · · · , g (i ) , · · · , g (Ns ) (2.27)
where ẍ p and x p are the acceleration and displacement vectors of the independent
substructures, g p is the connection force from the adjacent substructures, and f p is
the external force. For a free vibration system, f p = 0. The virtual work conducted
by the connection force along x p is
{ }T
δW = g p δx p (2.28)
The virtual work theorem assumes the connection to be incompleted, and the
geometric compatibility in Eq. (2.22) is violated at the interface coordinates by an
amount of {η} like
{ }
D x p = {η} (2.29)
2.3 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions 21
and thus
g p = DT τ (2.32)
where φ is the expanded mode shape of the global structure containing the identical
values in the interface DOFs. Due to the orthogonality relations in Eqs. (2.8) and
(2.33) can be simplified into the eigenequation of the global structure
| |{ } { }
/\p − λI −| z 0
= (2.35)
−| T 0 τ 0
where | = (Dφp )T is the normal connection matrix that constrains the nodes to
move jointly at the interface points of the adjacent substructures. Therefore, the
eigenvalue λ obtained from Eq. (2.35) is equivalent to the eigenvalue λ of the original
global structure. The eigenvectors of the global structure φ can be obtained after
combining the identical DOFs in the expanded eigenvectors φ. | takes the size of
N p × (N p − N ), and (N p − N ) is the number of the constraint relations.
The first line of Eq. (2.35) gives
( )−1
z = /\p − λI |τ (2.36)
22 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
Substituting Eq. (2.36) into the second line of Eq. (2.35) to eliminate the modal
coordinates z, one has
( )−1
| T /\p − λI |τ = 0 or Eτ = 0 (2.37)
( )−1
where E = | T D| and D = /\p − λI .
Matrix E with a size of (N p − N ) × (N p − N ) is known as the Kron matrix or
receptance matrix. Since the above analysis has no approximation in the derivation
of E, the eigenvalues obtained from the receptance matrix are exactly those of the
original global structure.
In the original Kron’s method, λ is obtained by scanning the determinant of recep-
tance matrix E. This scanning process is very time-consuming since E is dependent
on the unknown item λ. It is onerous to calculate the whole eigensolutions of each
substructure to assemble /\p and φp . Moreover, the final eigenequation in searching
the eigensolutions has a size of N p × N p , which is very large for a large-scale
structure.
From the viewpoint of energy conservation, the complete modes of all substructures
contribute to the eigenmodes of the global structure, i.e., the complete eigensolutions
of all substructures are required to assemble the primitive form of /\p and φp . This
is inefficient and not worthwhile as only a few eigenmodes are generally of interest
for a large-scale structure. Considering the lower modes usually contain most energy
in the vibration problem, the complete eigenmodes of each substructure are divided
into the ‘master’ eigensolutions (lower modes) and the ‘slave’ eigensolutions (higher
modes). Only the master modes are calculated to assemble the eigenequation of the
global structure, while the slave modes are discarded and compensated by an energy
index in the later calculations.
In this connection, the eigenequation (Eq. 2.35) is rewritten according to the
master modes and slave modes as
⎡ p ⎤⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
/\m − λI 0 −| m ⎨ zm ⎬ ⎨ 0 ⎬
⎣ 0 /\ps − λI −| s ⎦ zs = 0 (2.38)
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
−| mT
−| s T
0 τ 0
where
| | | |
( j) ( j) ( j)
/\pm = Diag /\(1) (2) (Ns )
m , /\m , . . . , /\m , /\(mj ) = Diag λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λ ( j ) (2.39)
Nm
2.3 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions 23
| | | |
( j) ( j) ( j)
φpm = Diag φ(1) (2) (Ns )
m , φm , . . . , φm , φ(mj ) = φ1 , φ2 , . . . , φ ( j ) (2.40)
Nm
| | | |
( j) ( j) ( j)
/\ps = Diag /\(1)
s , /\ (2)
s , . . . , /\ (Ns )
s , /\ ( j)
s = Diag λ ( j ) , λ ( j) ,...,λ ( j) ( j)
Nm +1 Nm +2 Nm +Ns
(2.41)
| | ( j) | |
( j) ( j) ( j)
φps = Diag φ(1) (2) (Ns )
s , φs , . . . , φs , φs = φ ( j) , φ ( j) ,...,φ ( j) ( j)
Nm +1 Nm +2 Nm +Ns
(2.42)
E
Ns E
Ns
Nmp = Nm( j) , Nsp = Ns( j) , Nm( j) + Ns( j) = N ( j) ( j = 1, 2, . . . , Ns ) (2.43)
j=1 j=1
| |T | |T
| m = Dφpm , | s = Dφps (2.44)
Hereinafter subscript ‘m’ indicates the items belonging to the ‘master’ modes, and
the subscript ‘s’ for the ‘slave’ modes.
According to the second line of Eq. (2.38), the slave coordinate zs can be expressed
by
( )−1
{zs } = /\ps − λI | s {τ } (2.45)
The required eigenvalues λ usually correspond to the lowest modes of the global
structure, and far less than the items in /\ps when a proper size of the master modes is
( )−1 ( )−1
chosen. In that case, | Ts /\ps − λI | s ≈ | Ts /\ps | s . Representing τ with zm from
the second line of Eq. (2.46) and substituting it into the first line, the eigenequation
is reduced to
( ( ) )−1
−1
u{zm } = λ{zm }, u = /\pm + | m | Ts /\ps | s | Tm (2.47)
The eigenvalue of the global structure is λ. The eigenvector of the global structure
is recovered by φ = φpm Zm . The size of the reduced eigenequation is equal to the
number of the retained master modes, which is much smaller than the original one
( )−1
(Eq. 2.38). It is noted that | Ts /\ps | s can be calculated from the first-order residual
flexibility.
24 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
( )−1
| Ts /\ps | s = DFp DT
( )−1 | p |T
Fp = φps /\ps φs
⎡( )−1 ( (1) )−1 | (1) |T ⎤
K(1) − φ(1) /\s φs
⎢ s
.. ⎥
=⎢ ⎣ . ⎥
⎦
( (N ) )−1 ( (Ns ) )−1 | (N ) |T
K s − φ(N
s
s)
/\s φs s
(2.48)
Therefore, the largest relative error depends on min λ/\p . Usually, the large-size
( s)
global structure has much smaller frequencies than the small-size substructure. Given
2.3 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions 25
a suitable selection of master modes, the required eigenvalues λ are much smaller
than the minimum value of /\ps , and thus the error introduced will be insignificant. In
other words, the minimum eigenvalue of slave modes in the substructures controls
the accuracy of the proposed substructuring method. In practice, the substructures
inherently have larger natural frequencies than the global structure, as the former is
of much smaller size than the latter. This property can guarantee the precision of the
proposed substructuring method.
In addition, the accuracy of the proposed method can be improved in two manners.
On the first hand, we can improve the accuracy
( ) by including more modes as master
modes, which increases the values of min /\ps . It is suggested
( ) to select the lowest
modes as master modes to increase the magnitude of min /\ps . The number of the
master modes in the substructures is usually suggested to be 2–3 times ( the
) modes
required of a large-scale structure to ensure λ much smaller than min /\ps . On the
second hand, more items of the Taylor expansion can be retained, which results in
the second-order residual flexibility substructuring method, as described in the next
section.
After arranging Eq. (2.51), the eigenequation can be expressed as the standard
form like
| |{ } | |{ }
/\pm −| m zm I 0 zm
( p )−1 =λ ( p )−2 (2.52)
−| m −| s /\s | s
T T τ 0 | s /\s | s
T τ
where
{ ( )−1 ( )−1 | p |T T
| Ts /\ps | s = Dφps /\ps φ D
( )−2 ( )−2 | sp |T T (2.53)
| Ts /\ps | s = Dφps /\ps φs D
( )−2 | p |T
φps /\ps φs is the second-order residual flexibility. Similar to the first-order
residual flexibility, the primitive form of the second-order residual flexibility can
26 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
also be obtained by the diagonal assembly of the system matrices and master modes
of the substructures as
( )−2 | p |T |(( )−1 ( )−1 ( (1) )−2 | (1) |T )
φps /\ps φs =Diag K(1) M(1) K(1) − φ(1)
m /\m φm ,
(( )−1 ( )−1 ( (Ns ) )−2 | (Ns ) |T )|
. . . , K(Ns ) M(Ns ) K(Ns ) − φ(N
m
s)
/\m φm
(2.54)
The error in the SRFS method is introduced by the truncation of Taylor expansion
as well, which is evaluated as
⎛ ⎞
( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−2 λ̄
p p p ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
/\s − λ̄I − /\s − λ̄ /\s = Diag⎝ ( ) −( ) −( ) ⎠
p
/\s − λ̄
p
/\s p 2
i i
/\s
i
⎛( ) (( ) )( ) (( ) )⎞
p 2 p p p
/\ − /\s − λ̄ /\s − λ̄ /\s − λ̄
⎜ s i i i i ⎟
= Diag⎝ (( ) )( )2 ⎠ (2.55)
p p
/\s − λ̄ /\s
i i
⎛ ⎞
2
⎜ λ̄ ⎟
= Diag⎝ (( ) )( ) ⎠
p p 2
/\s − λ̄I /\s
i i
( )2
λ
Therefore, the relative error of the SRFS method is dependent on min(/\ps ) ,
which is the square of the errors by the FRFS method. The minimum value of /\ps
controls the accuracy of the SRFS method, similar to the FRFS method. Since the
eigenvalue λ required by the global structure is far less than the minimum value of
slave modes in substructures in /\ps , the error of the FRFS method is much smaller
than that of the SRFS method, i.e., the SRFS method is more accurate than the FRFS
method.
In substructuring method, the global structure is divided into the free substructures
and/or fixed substructures. The stiffness matrix of a free substructure is rank-deficient,
from which the inverse of stiffness is inaccurate to be computed directly. In this
section, the residual flexibility matrix is derived for the free structures based on the
orthogonal property of the stiffness and modal flexibility matrices. The first-order
residual flexibility matrix will be derived first, followed by the general formulae of
the high-order residual flexibility matrices.
The complete eigenmodes of a free substructure are divided into N m master modes
φm and N s slave modes φs . It is noted that the master modes φm consist of the N r
rigid body modes R and the (N m -N r ) deformational master modes φm−r . The defor-
mational modes include the deformational master modes φm−r and deformational
slave modes φs . The relation between master modes, slave modes, rigid body modes,
and deformational modes is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
The generalized stiffness matrix can be expressed by the rigid body modes, master
modes, and slave modes as
m −Ns
NE E
Ns
( )−1 1 1
K + RRT = φi φiT + φi φiT + RRT
λi λi
i =1 i =1
φ ∈ φm φ ∈ φs
= φm−r /\−1 T −1 T
m−r φm−r + φs /\s φs + RR
T
(2.57)
Therefore, the first-order residual flexibility matrix for the free structure can be
expressed by the master modes as
( )
T −1
φs /\−1
s φs = K + RR
T
− φm−r /\−1
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(2.58)
Accordingly, the second-order residual flexibility matrix for the free structure is
( )( )
φs /\−2 −1 T −1 T
s φs = φs /\s φs φs /\s φs
T
(( )−1 )
= K + RRT − φm−r /\−1
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(( )−1 )
K + RRT − φm−r /\−1
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
( )−2
= K + RRT − φm−r /\−2m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(2.59)
which leads to
( )
T −2
φs /\−2
s φs = K + RR
T
− φm−r /\−2
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(2.60)
(( )−(k−1) )
K + RRT − φm−r /\−(k−1)
m−r φT
m−r − RR T
( )
T −k −k
= K + RR − φm−r /\m−r φm−r − RRT
T
(2.61)
i.e.,
( )
T −k
φs /\−k
s φs = K + RR
T
− φm−r /\−k
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(2.62)
( )
T −1
φs /\−1
s φs = K + (MR)(MR)
T
− φm−r /\−1
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(2.63)
The second-order residual flexibility matrix can be obtained with the master modes
as
( ) ( )
φs /\−2 −1 T −1 T
s φs = φs /\s φs M φs /\s φs
T
( )−1 ( )−1
= K + (MR)(MR)T M K + (MR)(MR)T
− φm−r /\−2
m−r φm−r − RR
T T
(2.64)
2.4 Examples
the eigenequation is 150 × 150. Fourth, the frame is analyzed by the proposed FRFS
method. The first 50 modes in each substructure are chosen as master modes, and
the higher modes are compensated by the first-order residual flexibility. The FRFS
method is performed following the procedure of:
(1) The global structure is divided into three substructures. The nodes and elements
of each substructure are labeled individually by regarding it as an independent
structure.
(2) The first 50 eigensolutions of the three substructures are computed as the master
modes, from which the first-order residual flexibility of each substructure is
obtained.
(3) The primitive form of the master eigensolutions /\pm and φpm is assembled from
the master modes of the three substructures. The master eigensolutions /\pm and
φpm have the size of 150 × 150 and 150 × 432, respectively.
(4) The connection matrix D is established. There are eight interface points (each
has 3 DOFs) and 24 connections to assemble the global structure. The values in
D are 1 and − 1 at the connections, and zeros at other coordinates. Consequently,
the connection matrix has a size of 24 × 432.
(5) The matrix u is of order 150 × 150 according to Eq. (2.47), and the reduced
eigenequation is solved with the standard Lanczos method to calculate the first
20 eigenpairs (λ and zm ).
(6) The expanded eigenvectors are constructed by the superposition of substructural
p
master modes like φ = φm zm , and the eigenvectors of the global structure are
recovered by merging the identical values at the interface coordinates of the
expanded eigenvectors φ.
Finally, the frame is analyzed with the SRFS method. As before, the first 50
modes in each substructure are computed as the master modes. The SRFS method
calculates both the first-order residual flexibility and second-order residual flexibility
to construct the eigenequation (Eq. 2.52), and the eigenequation has a size of 174 ×
174 including the ‘misfit’ displacement.
The first 20 frequencies of the global structure are compared in Table 2.1.
‘Lanczos’, ‘Original’, ‘Original-Partial’, ‘FRFS’, and ‘SRFS’ denote the aforemen-
tioned five methods. The second line of the table presents the computation time (in
seconds) consumed by the central processing unit on a personal computer with 2 GB
memory and 1.86 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo processor.
Table 2.1 adopts the similarity indices and relative errors to evaluate the accuracy
of the eigenvectors from different approaches. The SV value estimates the similarity
of two sets of mode shapes
| { }|2
| |
( { }) |{φi }T φ̃i |
SV {φi }, φ̃i = ({ } { }) (2.66)
( ) T
{φi }T {φi } φ̃i φ̃i
Table 2.1 Frequencies and mode shapes of the frame structure by different methods
32
error (%) error (%) (1–SV) Difference error (%) (1–SV) Difference
(%) norm (%) (%) norm (%)
19 34.4871 34.4871 33.0881 0.760 34.4924 0.015 0.037 0.085 34.4873 0.001 0.034 0.084
20 34.5654 34.5654 33.1796 1.036 34.5690 0.025 0.051 0.048 34.5657 0.001 0.048 0.041
33
34 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
In Eq. (2.66), {φi } is the ith eigenvector accurately obtained on the global structure
by the Lanczos method and is taken for the reference. {φ̃i } represents the ith eigen-
vector by the other four types of substructuring methods. An SV value of identity
means that the two vectors are identical, and the eigenvector from substructuring
method is accurate. A value of 0 indicates that the two vectors are perpendicular. A
higher SV value indicates a more accurate eigenvector.
The second index estimates the relative difference of the eigenvectors in terms of
( { })
norm {φi } − φ̃i
Difference Norm = (2.67)
norm({φi })
The Balla Balla River Bridge (Fig. 2.6) is a three-span continuous reinforced concrete
bridge located on Coastal Highway on the Balla Balla River in the Shire of Roebourne,
Western Australia. The FEM is constructed according to the design drawings, which
is comprised of 907 elements, 947 nodes, and 5420 DOFs in total, as shown in
Fig. 2.7. The beam elements and shell elements used in the model are listed in
Table 2.3.
The analytical model of the Balla Balla River Bridge is analyzed to study the
computational efficiency of the substructuring method in the calculation of eigen-
solutions. The different master modes and division formation of the substructures
are used to investigate their influence on the computation accuracy and efficiency.
The global model is firstly divided into five substructures at around 10, 20, 30, and
40 m along the longitudinal direction, as shown in Fig. 2.7. The information on the
location, elements, and nodes of the five substructures is listed in Table 2.4.
In this example, the FRFS method is utilized to calculate the first 20 eigensolutions
of the global structure, where the first 40 modes in each substructure chosen as the
36 2 Substructuring Method for Eigensolutions
Fig. 2.7 FEM of the Balla Balla River Bridge with five substructures
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