Categories of Compressible Flow

REPORT ON COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

Categories of Fluid Flow
TOPIC
I. Overview
A. Ideal Gas Law
B. Compressibility of Fluid
C. Speed of Sound
II. Categories of Compressible Flows
A. Compressibility Effects
B. Introduction to Compressible Flow
C. Categories of Compressible Flow
I. Overview
A. Ideal Gas Law
Before proceeding to compressible flow equations, familiarization of the fluid we will
work with, the ideal gas. The equation of state for an ideal gas is
P
ρ=
RT (1)

Symbols indicated include pressure, p, density, and temperature, T and the gas constant,
R, which represents a constant for each distinct ideal gas or mixture of ideal gases,
where
λ (2)
R=
M gas

λ is the universal gas constant and M gas is the molecular weight of the ideal gas or gas
mixture.

Relationship between Cp and Cv

For an ideal gas, internal energy,ǔ , is part of the stored energy of the gas and is
considered to be a function of temperature only Thus, the ideal gas specific heat at
constant volume, C v can be expressed as
C v =¿ (3)
 Categories of Compressible Flow

where the subscript C v on the partial derivative refers to differentiation at constant

specific volume, From Eq. 3 we conclude that for a particular ideal gas, is a function of
temperature only. Equation 3 can be rearranged to yield
d ǔ=C v dT (4)
Thus,
T2

ǔ2−ǔ 1=∫ C v dT
T1
(5)

Simplifying,
ǔ2−ǔ 1=C v (T 2−T 1 ) (6)

Actually, for C v a particular gas varies with temperature. However, for moderate
changes in temperature, the constant C v assumption is reasonable.

The fluid property enthalpy, ȟ , is defined as

P
ȟ=ǔ+ (7)
ρ

It combines internal energy, and pressure energy, and is useful when dealing with the
energy equation.

for an ideal gas, enthalpy is a function of temperature only, the ideal gas specific heat at
constant pressure, can be expressed as
C p=¿
(8)

where the subscript p on the partial derivative refers to differentiation at constant

pressure, and is a function of temperature only. The rearrangement of Eq. 8 leads to

d ȟ=C p dT (9)
And,
T2

ȟ2 −ȟ1=∫ C p dT
T1
(10)

Simplifying to,

ȟ2 −ȟ1=C p (T 2−T 1 ) (11)

 Categories of Compressible Flow

From the equation of state,

P (12)
=RT
ρ
We turn our attention now to developing useful relationships for determining C pand C v
.
(13)
ȟ=ǔ+ RT
Differentiating leads to

d ȟ=d ǔ+ R dT (14)

or

d ȟ d ǔ (15)
= +R
dT dT
Substituting Eq. 4 and 9 to Eq. 15 (Relationship between Cp and Cv)
C p−C V =R (16)

the specific heat ratio, k, is defined as

Cp (17)
k ∨γ =
Cv

Rk (18.1)C v = R (18.2)
C p=
k−1 k−1

B. Compressibility of Fluid
Compressibility refers to a condition where the volume or density of a fluid varies with
the pressure. In fluid flow applications, it is a consideration only when vapors/gases are
involved; liquids can safely be considered incompressible in these calculations. For
larger pressure drops, compressibility effects can become important. The compressible
flow of a fluid is further complicated by the fact that the fluid density is dependent on
temperature as well as on pressure. In such systems, temperature may vary in accordance
with thermodynamic principles
An important question to answer when considering the behavior of a particular fluid is
how easily can the volume and thus the density of a given mass of the fluid be changed
when there is a change in pressure. It can be observed that a fluid can be categorized as
compressible. A property that is commonly used to characterize compressibility is the
Bulk Modulus E v, defined as
 Categories of Compressible Flow

−dP
E v=
dV
V
where dp is the differential change in pressure needed to create a differential change in
volume, dV, of a volume V. This is illustrated by the figure in the margin. The negative
sign is included since an increase in pressure will cause a decrease in volume. Since a
decrease in volume of a given mass, m=ρV will result in an increase in density, Eq. 1.12
can also be expressed as
−dP
E v=
dρ
ρ
The bulk modulus (also referred to as the bulk modulus of elasticity) has dimensions of
lb
pressure, F L−2 In BG units, values for E v are usually given as 2 (psi) and in SI units as
¿
N
2 (Pa). Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively
m
incompressible—that is, it takes a large pressure change to create a small change in
volume. For example, at atmospheric pressure and a temperature 60 ℉ it would require a
pressure of 3120 psi to compress a unit volume of water 1%. This result is representative
of the compressibility of liquids. Since such large pressures are required to effect a
change in volume, we conclude that liquids can be considered as incompressible for
most practical engineering applications. As liquids are compressed the bulk modulus
increases, but the bulk modulus near atmospheric pressure is usually the one of interest.
The use of bulk modulus as a property describing compressibility is most prevalent when
dealing with liquids, although the bulk modulus can also be determined for gases.

C. Speed of Sound
Another important consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that disturbances
introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity. For example, if a fluid
is flowing in a pipe and a valve at the outlet is suddenly closed 1thereby creating a
localized disturbance2, the effect of the valve closure is not felt instantaneously
upstream. It takes a finite time for the increased pressure created by the valve closure to
propagate to an upstream location. Similarly, a loudspeaker diaphragm causes a
localized disturbance as it vibrates, and the small change in pressure created by the
motion of the diaphragm is propagated through the air with a finite velocity. The
velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called the acoustic velocity or the
speed of sound, c.

c=
√ dP
dρ
or in terms of the bulk modulus defined by
 Categories of Compressible Flow

c=
√ Ev
ρ
Since the disturbance is small, there is negligible heat transfer and the process is
assumed to be isentropic. Thus, the pressure–density relationship used in Eq. 1.18 is that
for an isentropic process. For gases undergoing an isentropic process, E v =kp so that

c=
√ kp
ρ
and making use of the ideal gas law, it follows that

c=
√ kp
ρ
Thus, for ideal gases the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the absolute
temperature.
II. Categories of Compressible Flows
A. Compressibility Effects
Mach Number
The Mach number is the dominant parameter in compressible flow analysis, with
different effects depending on its magnitude. Aerodynamicists especially make a
distinction between the various ranges of Mach number, and the following rough
classifications are commonly used:
 Ma < 0.3: Incompressible flow, where density effects are negligible.
 0.3 < Ma < 0.8: Subsonic flow, where density effects are important but no
shock waves appear.
 0.8 < Ma < 1.2: Transonic flow, where shock waves first appear, dividing
subsonic and supersonic regions of the flow. Powered
flight in the transonic region is difficult because of the
mixed character of the flow field.
 1.2 < Ma < 3.0: Supersonic flow, where shock waves are present but
there are no subsonic regions.
 3.0 < Ma: Hypersonic flow, where shock waves and other flow
changes are especially strong.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

The effects of compressibility become more

significant as the Mach number increases. For
2
ρV
example, the error associated with using in
2
calculating the stagnation pressure of an ideal gas
increases at larger Mach numbers. Incompressible
flows can only occur at low Mach numbers.
Experience has also demonstrated that
compressibility can have a large influence on
other important flow variables. For example, in
Fig. 11.2 the variation of drag coefficient with
Reynolds number and Mach number is shown for
air flow over a sphere. Compressibility effects can
be of considerable importance.

To further illustrate some curious features of compressible flow, a simplified example is

considered. Imagine the emission of weak pressure pulses from a point source. These
pressure waves are spherical and expand radially outward from the point source at the
speed of sound, c. If a pressure wave is emitted at different times, t waves, we can
determine where several waves will be at a common instant of time, t, by using the
relationship.
r =( t−t waves ) c

where r is the radius of the sphere-shaped wave emitted at time = t waves. For a stationary
point source, the symmetrical wave pattern shown in Fig. 11.3a is involved.
When the point source moves to the left with a constant velocity, V, the wave pattern is
no longer symmetrical. In Figs. 11.3b, 11.3c, and 11.3d are illustrated the wave patterns
at t = 3s for different values of V. Also shown with a “+” are the positions of the moving
point source at values of time, t, equal to 0 s, 1 s, 2 s, and 3 s. Knowing where the point
source has been at different instances is important because it indicates to us where the
different waves originated.
From the pressure wave patterns of Fig. 11.3, we can draw some useful conclusions.
Before doing this, we should recognize that if instead of moving the point source to the
left, we held the point source stationary and moved the fluid to the right with velocity V,
the resulting pressure wave patterns would be identical to those indicated in Fig. 11.3.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

When the point source moves in fluid at rest (or when fluid moves past a stationary point
source), the pressure wave patterns vary in asymmetry, with the extent of asymmetry
depending on the ratio of the point source (or fluid) velocity and the speed of sound.
V
When <1 , the wave pattern is similar to the one shown in Fig. 11.3b. This flow is
c
considered subsonic and compressible. A stationary observer will hear a different sound
frequency coming from the point source depending on where the observer is relative to
the source because the wave pattern is asymmetrical. We call this phenomenon the
Doppler effect. Pressure information can still travel unrestricted throughout the flow
field, but not symmetrically or instantaneously.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

V
When =1 pressure waves are not present ahead of the moving point source. The flow
c
is sonic. If you were positioned to the left of the moving point source, you would not
hear the point source until it was coincident with your location. For flow moving past a
stationary point source at the speed of sound (V
c )
=1 , the pressure waves are all tangent

to a plane that is perpendicular to the flow and that passes through the point source. The
concentration of pressure waves in this tangent plane suggests the formation of a
significant pressure variation across the plane. This plane is often called a Mach wave.
Note that communication of pressure information is restricted to the region of flow
downstream of the Mach wave. The region of flow upstream of the Mach wave is called
the zone of silence and the region of flow downstream of the tangent plane is called the
zone of action.
When V > c, the flow is supersonic and the pressure wave pattern resembles the one
depicted in Fig. 11.3d. A cone (Mach cone) that is tangent to the pressure waves can be
constructed to represent the Mach wave that separates the zone of silence from the zone
of action in this case. The communication of pressure information is restricted to the
zone of action. From the sketch of Fig. 11.3d, we can see that the angle of this cone, α ,
is given by

c 1
α= =
V Ma

This relationship between Mach number, Ma, and Mach cone angle, α , shown by the
V
figure in the margin, is valid for >1 only. The concentration of pressure waves at the
c
surface of the Mach cone suggests a significant pressure, and thus density, variation
across the cone surface
B. Introduction of Compressible Flows
 Flows typically considered compressible when the density varies by more than 5 to
10 percent.
 In practice compressible flows are normally limited to gases, supercritical fluids.
And multiphase flows containing gases.
 In chemical process applications, one-dimensional gas flows through nozzles or
orifices and in pipelines are most important applications of compressible flow.
Multidimensional external flows are of interest mainly in aerodynamic applications.

Compressible Flow
- When a fluid moves at speeds comparable to its speed of sound, density changes become
significant and the flow is termed compressible. Such flows are difficult to obtain in
liquids, since high pressures of order 1000 atm are needed to generate sonic velocities. In
gases, however, a pressure ratio of only 2:1 will likely cause sonic flow. Thus,
compressible gas flow is quite common.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Probably the two most important and distinctive effects of compressibility on flow are
(1) choking, wherein the duct flow rate is sharply limited by the sonic condition, and
(2) shock waves, which are nearly discontinuous property changes in a supersonic flow.

Governing Equations for Compressible Flow:

1. Continuity Equation
ṁ = ƿAu= constant

2. Momentum Equation (Euler’s Equation)

dp
- =vdv
ƿ
2
v p
= (for compressible)
2 ƿ

3. Energy Balance Equation

2 2
v v
h2 + =h1 + +q−w
2 2

Thermodynamic Relationships for Gases

Ideal Gas Law:

P
PV =nRT ⇒ ƿ=
RT
Enthalpy, Internal Energy:
Cp
 h=C p T , u=C v T , γ=k=
Cv

Stagnation Properties
In control volume analysis, it's useful to combine internal and flow energy into enthalpy,
defined as:
h = u + P/ρ (per unit mass). (1)
When kinetic and potential energy are negligible, h represents the fluid's total energy.
In high-speed flows (e.g., jet engines), potential energy is still negligible, but kinetic
energy matters.
So, we define stagnation enthalpy as:
 Categories of Compressible Flow

2
V
h o=h+ (kj/ Kg) (2)
2

The isentropic stagnation state refers to a stagnation process that is both reversible and
adiabatic. In this case, the fluid’s entropy remains constant throughout the process. The
stagnation temperature T o is the temperature an ideal gas reaches when brought to rest
2
V
adiabatically. The term represents the temperature increase due to the flow’s kinetic
2C p
energy and is known as the dynamic temperature.
2
V
T o=T + (3)
2Cp

The stagnation pressure Po is the pressure a fluid reaches when it is brought to rest
isentropically. For ideal gases with constant specific heats, it relates to the static pressure
P by:
k /(k−1 )
Po T o
=( ) (4)
P T

C. Categories of Compressible Flow

 Isentropic Flow
 Non-isentropic Flow
 Fanno Flow
 Rayleigh Flow
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves

 Isentropic Flow
Isentropic flow is characterized by being both adiabatic (no heat transfer) and reversible
(no friction or dissipative effects).
 One Dimensional
An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the speed of sound c.
c=(∂ P/∂ ƿ)s or c= √ k (∂ P/∂ ƿ )T (5)

For an Ideal Gas

c= √ kRT (6)
where:
k= specific heat ratio of the gas
 Categories of Compressible Flow

R= is the specific gas constant.

The Mach number (Ma) is a dimensionless ratio of flow speed (V) to the speed of sound
(c):
V
Ma=
c
In devices like nozzles, diffusers, and turbine blade passages, flow properties mainly
change along the flow direction, allowing accurate approximation as one-dimensional
isentropic flow.
Where Isentropic Flow Applies:
- Regions of high-speed gas flow where heat transfer and friction are minimal.
- In the design and analysis of jet engines, rockets, and supersonic wind tunnels.
Limitations:
- Real flows always have some heat transfer and friction, so isentropic flow is an
idealization.
- Across shock waves and in boundary layers, the flow is not isentropic due to
entropy increase.

Sample Problem:

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional

area duct such as a nozzle shown in Fig. 12–6 at a mass flow rate
of 3.00 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of
1400 kPa and 200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in the
nozzle to an exit pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is designed so that
the flow can be approximated as isentropic. Determine the density,
velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each loca tion along the
duct that corresponds to an overall pressure drop of 200 kPa.
Solution:

Assumptions:
1. Carbon dioxide is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature.
2. Flow through the duct is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Properties: For simplicity we use cp=5 0.846 kJ/kg·K and k=5 1.289 throughout the
calculations, which are the constant-pressure specific heat and specific heat ratio values
of carbon dioxide at room temperature. The gas constant of carbon dioxide is
R=0.1889 kJ/kg·K.

Analysis:
T o=T 1=200 °C=473 K

and
Po =P 1=1400 kPa

To illustrate the solution procedure, we calculate the desired properties at the location
where the pressure is 1200 kPa, the first location that corresponds to a pressure drop of
200 kPa.
From Eq. 4
T =T o ¿

From Eq. 3
V = √ 2 C p (T o−T )

√
V = 2(0.846 kJ /kg · K )(473 K−457 K )(
1000 m2 /s 3
1 kJ /kg
)

¿ 164.5 m/s

From the ideal-gas relation,

P 1200 kPa 3
ρ= = =13.9 kg /m
RT (0.1889 kPa ∙m /kg ∙ K )(457 K )
3

From the mass flow relation,

ṁ 3.00 kg /s −4 2 2
A= = =13.1 x 10 m =13.1cm
ƿV (13.9 kg/m )(164.5 m/s)
3

From Eq. 5 and 6

 Categories of Compressible Flow

√
c= √ kRT = (1.289)(0.889 kJ /kg ∙ K )(457 K)(
1000 m2 /s 2
1 kJ /kg
)=333.9 m/s

V 164.5 m/ s
Ma= = =0.493
c 333.6 m . s
 Fanno Flow
In high-speed flow through short devices with large cross-sectional areas (like large
nozzles), wall friction is often negligible, allowing the flow to be approximated as
frictionless. However, in long ducts with small cross-sectional areas, wall friction
becomes significant and must be accounted for. This type of flow, where friction is
important but heat transfer is negligible, is called Fanno flow. It involves steady, one-
dimensional, adiabatic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats through a
constant-area duct.

Characteristics of Fanno Flow

1. Flow states lie on a Fanno line in T–s diagrams.
2. Entropy increases due to friction; flow proceeds to the right on the T–s
diagram.
3. Mach number always trends toward Ma = 1 (choking point).
4. Stagnation temperature remains constant, but static temperature may
change.
5. Density and velocity are inversely related due to continuity.

Governing Equations

1. Continuity Equation
ρ1 V 1=ρ2 V 2 (7)
2. Momentum equation
2 2 F friction
P1 + ρ1 V 1=P1+ ρ1 V 2 + (8)
A
3. Energy Equation

2 2
v v
h2 + =h1 + +q−w (9)
2 2
4. Equation of State (Ideal Gas)
P1 P2
= (10)
ρ1 T 1 ρ 2 T 2
 Categories of Compressible Flow

5. Mach Number Relation

V
Ma= (11)
√ kRT

Entropy Change in Fanno Flow

In adiabatic flow (no heat transfer), entropy increases due to irreversibility like friction.
In Fanno flow, this results in entropy generation. For an ideal gas with constant specific
heats, the entropy change is given by:
T2 P2
s2−s 1=c p ln −Rln > 0 (12)
T1 P1

Fanno Line and Fanno Flow Relationships

2
fL ¿ 1−Ma2 k +1 (k +1) Ma
= 2
+ ln
Dh kMa 2k 2+(k−1)Ma 2
(13)

Behavior of Properties Along the Fanno Line

Sample Problem:
Air enters a 27-m-long 5-cm-diameter adiabatic duct at V1 = 85
m/s, T1= 450 K, and P1= 220 kPa (Fig. 12–63). The average
friction factor for the duct is estimated to be 0.023. Determine
the Mach number at the duct exit and the mass flow rate of air.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Solution: Air enters a constant-area adiabatic duct of given length at a specified state.
The exit Mach number and the mass flow rate are to be determined.

Assumptions:
1. The assumptions associated with Fanno flow (i.e., steady, frictional flow of an ideal
gas with constant properties through a constant cross-sectional area adiabatic duct) are
valid. 2. The friction factor is constant along the duct.

Properties: We take properties of air to be k= 1.4, c P=1.005 kJ /kg ∙ K , and R= 0.287

kJ/kg∙K.
Analysis: The first thing we need to know is whether the flow is choked at the exit or
not. Therefore, we first determine the inlet Mach number and the corresponding value of
the function fL*/Dh,

√
c 1=√ kR T 1= (1.4 )(0.287 kj/kg ∙ K )(450 K )(
1000 m2 / s2
1 kj/kg
)=425 m/s

V 1 85 m/s
Ma 1= = =0.200
c1 425 m/s

fL (0.023)(27 m)
= =12.42<14.5333
Dh 0.05

Therefore, flow is not choked and the exit Mach number is less than 1.
¿ ¿
fL fL fL
( ) =( ) − =14.5333−12.42=2.1133
Dh 2 Dh 1 Dh
Ma 2=0.420

The mass flow rate of air is determined from the inlet conditions to be
P1 220 kPa 1 kJ 3
ρ= = ( )=1.703 kg/m
RT 1 (0.287 kj/kg ∙ K )(450 K ) 1 kPa ∙m 3

3
ṁair =ρ1 A 1 V 1=(1.703 kg /m )¿
 Categories of Compressible Flow

 Rayleigh Flow
Rayleigh Flow describes one-dimensional, steady, compressible flow of an ideal gas in a
constant-area duct with heat transfer but no friction.

Characteristics of Rayleigh Flow

1. Rayleigh Line: All physically possible downstream states for a given
inlet state lie on the Rayleigh line in the T–s diagram.
2. Entropy Behavior: Entropy increases with heat addition (moves right
on T–s); Ma = 1 corresponds to maximum entropy.
3. Mach Number Trend: Heating increases Ma for subsonic flow but
decreases it for supersonic flow; flow chokes at Ma = 1.
4. Stagnation Temperature: Increases with heating, decreases with
cooling; maximum T o occurs at Ma = 1.
5. Static Temperature: In subsonic flow, temperature may decrease with
heat due to velocity rise; always increases with heat in supersonic flow.
6. Static Pressure: Decreases with heat in subsonic flow, increases with
heat in supersonic flow.
7. Density Behavior: Decreases with heat in subsonic flow, increases in
supersonic flow.
8. Entropy Change Magnitude: For the same heat input, entropy change
is larger in supersonic flow.

Governing Equations

1. Continuity Equation
ρ1 V 1=ρ2 V 2 (12)
2. Momentum equation
2 2
P1 + ρ1 V 1=P1+ ρ1 V 2 (13)

3. Energy Equation with Heat Transfer

2 2
V 2−V 1
q=c p (T 2−T 1)+ ∨q=h02−h01=(T 02−T 01) (14)
2
4. Equation of State (Ideal Gas)
P1 P2
= (15)
ρ1 T 1 ρ 2 T 2

5. Mach Number Relation

V
Ma= (16)
√ kRT
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Entropy Change in Rayleigh Flow

In Rayleigh flow, entropy changes due to heat transfer alone, increasing with heat
addition and decreasing with heat loss. For an ideal gas with constant specific heats, the
change is given by
T2 P2
s2−s 1=c p ln −Rln (17)
T1 P1

Sample Problem: Rayleigh Flow in a Tubular Combustor

A combustion chamber consists of tubular combustors of 15-
cm diameter. Compressed air enters the tubes at 550 K, 480
kPa, and 80 m/s (Fig. 12–54). Fuel with a heating value of
42,000 kJ/kg is injected into the air and is burned with an
air–fuel mass ratio of 40. Approximating combustion as a
heat transfer process to air, determine the temperature, pressure, velocity, and Mach
number at the exit of the combustion chamber

Solution: Fuel is burned in a tubular combustion chamber with com pressed air. The exit
temperature, pressure, velocity, and Mach number are to be determined.

Assumptions:
1. The assumptions associated with Rayleigh flow (i.e., steady one-dimensional flow of
an ideal gas with constant properties through a constant cross-sectional area duct with
negligible frictional effects) are valid.
2. Combustion is complete, and it is treated as a heat addition process, with no change in
the chemical composition of the flow.
3. The increase in mass flow rate due to fuel injection is disregarded.

Analysis: The inlet density and mass flow rate of air are
P1 480 kPa 3
ρ 1= = =3.041kg /m
RT 1 (0.287 kJ /kg ∙ K )(550 K )
3 2
ṁair =ρ1 A 1 V 1=(3.041 kg /m )[ π (0.15 m) / 4](80 m/s)=4.299 kg /s

The mass flow rate of fuel and the rate of heat transfer are
 Categories of Compressible Flow

ṁ air 4.299 kg/ s

ṁ fuel = = =0.1075 kg/ s
AF 40

Q=ṁfuel HV =(0.1075 kg /s)(42,000 kJ /kg)=4514 kW

Q 4514 kJ /s
q= = =1050 kJ /kg
ṁ air 4.299 kg/ s

The stagnation temperature and Mach number at the inlet are

2
V1 (80 m/ s)2 1 kJ /kg
T 01=T 1 + =550 K + ( )−553.2 K
2 cp 2(1.005 kJ /kg ∙ K ) 1000 m2 /s 2

√
c 1=√ kR T 1= (1.4 )(0.287 kJ /kg ∙ K )(550 K )(
1000 m2 /s 2
1 kJ /kg
)=470.1 m/s

V1 80 m/s
Ma 1= = =0.1702
c1 470.1 m/s

The exit stagnation temperature is, from the energy equation

q 1050 kJ /kg
T 02=T 01 + =553.2 K + =1598 K
cp 1.005 kJ /kg ∙ K

¿
The maximum value of stagnation temperature T 0 occurs at Ma = 1, and its value can be
¿
determined from Table A–15 or from Eq. 12–65. At Ma 1 = 0.1702 we read T 0 /T 0 =
0.1291. Therefore,

¿ T 01 553.2 K
T 0= = =4284 K
0.1291 0.1291

T 02 1598 K
¿ = =0.3730 ⟶ Ma2 =0.3142=0.314
T 0 4284 K
 Categories of Compressible Flow

T1 P1 V1
Ma 1=0.1702: ¿ =0.1541 ¿ =2.3065 ¿ =0.0668
T P V
T1 P1 V1
Ma 2=0.3142: ¿ =0.4389 ¿ =2.1086 ¿ =0.2082
T P V
Then the exit temperature, pressure, and velocity are determined to be
¿
T 2 T 2 /T 0.4389
= = =2.848 ⟶T 2=2.848 T 1=2.848(550 K )=1570 K
T 1 T 1 /T ¿ 0.1541
¿
P 2 P2 / P 2.1086
= = =0.9142 ⟶ P2=0.9142 P1=0.9142(480 kPa)=439 kPa
P 1 P1 / P¿ 2.3065
¿
V 2 V 2 /T 0.2082
= = =3.117⟶ V 2=3.117 V 1=3.117(80 m/s )=249 m/s
V 1 V 1 /T ¿ 0.0668

 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves

In high-speed aerodynamics, shock waves and expansion waves are fundamental
phenomena that occur when a supersonic flow experiences abrupt changes in pressure,
temperature, and velocity. These changes are governed by the principles of conservation
of mass, momentum, and energy, along with the second law of thermodynamics.

Normal Shocks
First, we consider shock waves that occur in a plane normal
to the direction of flow, called normal shock waves. The
flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible
and cannot be approximated as being isentropic. It results in:
 Sudden increase in pressure, temperature, and density.
 Decrease in velocity and Mach number.
 Entropy increases; the process is irreversible.
 Total pressure decreases across the shock.
Note:
Ma 1 > 1 (supersonic) (You cannot have a shock with Ma 1 < 1)

Ma 2 < 1 (subsonic)

Equations:
1. Temperature Ratio:
2
T 2 1+ Ma1 (k −1)/2
=
T 1 1+ Ma22 (k −1)/2
 Categories of Compressible Flow

2. Pressure Ratio
P 2 Ma 1 √ 1+ Ma21 (k−1)/2
=
P 1 Ma 2 √ 1+ Ma22 (k−1)/2

3. Mach number upstream of the shock to that downstream of the shock.

2
2 Ma 1+ 2/(k−1)
Ma 2= 2
2 Ma1 k /(k −1)−1

Sample Problem:
If the air flowing through the converging–diverging nozzle of Example 12–6 experiences
a normal shock wave at the nozzle exit plane (Fig. 12–30), determine the following after
the shock: (a) the stagnation pressure, static pressure, static temperature, and static
density; (b) the entropy change across the shock; (c) the exit velocity; and (d ) the mass
flow rate through the nozzle. Approximate the flow as steady, one-dimensional, and
isentropic with k = 1.4 from the nozzle inlet to the shock location.
Assumptions:
1. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature.
2. Flow through the nozzle is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic before the shock
occurs.
3. The shock wave occurs at the exit plane.
Properties: The constant-pressure specific heat and the specific heat ratio of air are cp =
1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4. The gas constant of air is 0.287 kJ/kg·K.

P 02 P2 T2 ρ2
Ma 2=0.5774 =0.7209 =4.5000 =1.6875 =2.6667
P 01 P1 T1 ρ1

P01=1.0 MPa P01=0.1278 MPa T 1=444.5 K ƿ 1=1.002 kg/m

3

(a) Then the stagnation pressure P02, static pressure P2, static temperature T 2, and static
density ρ2 after the shock are
P02=0.7209 P01=(0.7209)(1.0 MPa)=0.721 MPa

P2=4.5000 P 1=(4.5000)(0.1278 MPa)=0.575 MPa

T 2=1.6875 T 1=(1.6875)(444.5 K )=750 MPa

3 3
ρ2=2.6667 ρ1=(2.6667)(1.002 kg/m )=2.67 kg /m

(b) The entropy change across the shock

 Categories of Compressible Flow

T2 P2
s2−s 1=c p ln −Rln
T1 P1

¿(1.005 kJ /kg ∙ K ) ln(1.6875)−(0.287 kJ /kg ∙ K )ln (4.5000)

¿ 0.0942 kJ /kg ∙ K
Thus, the entropy of the air increase as it passes through a normal shock, which is highly
irreversible.
(c) The air velocity after the shock is determined from V 2=Ma 2 c2, where c 2 is the speed of
sound at the exit conditions after the shock:
V 2=Ma 2 c2=Ma 2 √ kR T 2

√
¿(0.5774) (1.4)(0.287 kJ /kg ∙ K )(750.1 K)(
1000 m2 /s 2
1 kJ /kg
)

¿ 317 m/s
(d) The mass flow rate through a converging–diverging nozzle with sonic conditions at
the throat is not affected by the presence of shock waves in the nozzle.
ṁ=2.86 kg/ s
Oblique Shocks
Not all shock waves are normal shocks (perpendicular to the flow
direction). For example, when the space shuttle travels at
supersonic speeds through the atmosphere, it produces a
complicated shock pattern consisting of inclined shock waves
called oblique shocks.
Characteristics:
 Occurs in supersonic Flow = Oblique shocks form only when
the upstream Mach number (Ma₁) > 1.
 Flow deflects through an angle θ.
 Shock wave forms at an angle β to the flow direction.
 Downstream Mach number decreases but may remain
supersonic.

The θ−β−Ma relationship:

2 2
2cot β ( Ma 1 sin β−1)
tanθ= 2 (Eq. 12–46)
Ma 1(k +cos 2 β)+2

Equation to make the oblique shock appears to be vertical.

Ma 1, n=Ma 1 sin β∧Ma 2 ,n=Ma 2 sin (β−θ) (Eq. 12–44)
Sample Problem:
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Supersonic air at Ma 1=2.0and 75.0 kPa impinges on a

two-dimensional wedge of half-angle δ=10° (Fig. 12–44).
Calculate the two possible oblique shock angles, β weak and
β strong , that could be formed by this wedge. For each case,
calculate the pressure and Mach number downstream of
the oblique shock, compare, and discuss.

Solution: We are to calculate the shock angle, Mach

number, and pressure downstream of the weak and strong
oblique shock formed by a two-dimensional wedge.
Assumptions:
1. The flow is steady.
2. The boundary layer on the wedge is very thin.
Properties: The fluid is air with k = 1.4.

Analysis: Because of assumption (2), we approximate the oblique shock deflection angle
as equal to the wedge half-angle, i.e., θ=δ=¿ 10°. With Ma 1= 2.0 and θ=10° , we solve
Eq. 12–46 for the two possible values of oblique shock angle β : β weak = 39.3° and β strong
= 83.7°. From these values, we use the first part of Eq. 12–44 to calculate upstream
normal Mach number Ma 1, n.

Weak shock: Ma 1=Ma1 sin β → Ma1 ,n =2.0 sin 39.3° =1.267

and

Strong shock: Ma 1=Ma1 sin β → Ma1 ,n =2.0 sin 83.7 °=1. 988
 Categories of Compressible Flow

We substitute these
values of Ma 1, n into the
second equation of Fig.
12–36 to calculate the
downstream normal
Mach number Ma 2, n.
For the weak shock,
Ma 2, n = 0.8032, and for
the strong shock, Ma 2, n
= 0.5794. We also
calculate the
downstream pressure
for each case, using the
third equation of Fig.
12–36, which gives:

Weak Shock:
2
P 2 2 k Ma1 , n−k +1 2(1.4)(1.267)2−1.4+1
= → P2=(75.0 kPa) =128 kPa
P1 k +1 1.4 +1

And

Strong Shock:
2
P 2 2 k Ma1 , n−k +1 2(1.4)(1.988)2−1.4 +1
= → P2=(75.0 kPa) =333 kPa
P1 k +1 1.4 +1

Finally, we use the second part of Eq. 12–44 to calculate the downstream Mach number,
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Weak Shock:
Ma2 , n 0.8032
Ma 2= = =1.64
sin (β−θ) sin(83.7 °−10 ° )
and

Strong Shock:
Ma2 , n 0.5794
Ma 2= = =0.604
sin (β−θ) sin(83.7 °−10 ° )

Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves

In supersonic flow, when the flow is turned in the opposite
direction (such as the upper portion of a two-dimensional
wedge at an angle of attack greater than its half-angle), the
flow undergoes expansion, rather than compression. This
type of flow is referred to as an expanding flow, and the
result is the formation of an expansion fan rather than a
shock wave. The expansion fan consists of an infinite
number of Mach waves, which are known as Prandtl–Meyer
expansion waves.
Unlike a shock, where the flow turns abruptly, an expansion fan causes the flow to
gradually change direction. Each Mach wave results in a tiny change in the direction of
the flow, and since each wave is nearly isentropic, the flow through the expansion fan
remains nearly isentropic.

Characteristic:
1. Gradual Flow Turning:
The flow does not change direction suddenly (as it does in a shock). Instead, it turns
gradually through an expansion fan made up of Mach waves.
2. Increase in Mach Number
3. Decrease in Pressure, Temperature, and Density
4. Isentropic Process:
The expansion waves are nearly isentropic, meaning there is little change in
entropy across the expansion, unlike the irreversible change seen across a shock wave.
5. No Shock Formation:
Unlike compressing flows, there is no formation of a shock wave during
expansion. The flow gradually turns and accelerates.
 Categories of Compressible Flow

Equation:
Turning angle across an expansion fan:
θ=v (Ma 2)−v (Ma 1)

Where, v(Ma) is an angle called the Prandtl-Meyer Function (not to be fused with the
kinematic viscosity)

v (Ma)=
√ k +1
k−1 √
tan−1 (
k −1
k +1
(Ma 2−1))−tan−1( √ Ma 2−1)

Sample Problem:
Supersonic air at Ma 1=2.0 and 230 kPa flows parallel to a
flat wall that suddenly expands by δ=10° (Fig. 12–45).
Ignoring any effects caused by the boundary layer along the
wall, calculate downstream Mach number Ma 2 and pressure
P 2.

Solution: We are to calculate the Mach number and pressure downstream of a sudden
expansion along a wall.
Assumptions: 1 The flow is steady. 2 The boundary layer on the wall is very thin.
Properties: The fluid is air with k=1.4.
Analysis: Because of assumption (2), we approximate the oblique shock deflection
angle as equal to the wall expansion angle, i.e., θ=δ=¿10°. With Ma 1= 2.0 and θ =
10°, we solve for the upstream Prandtl-Meyer function,

v (Ma)=
√ k +1
k−1 √
tan−1 (
k −1
k +1
(Ma 2−1))−tan−1( √ Ma 2−1)

v (Ma)=
√ 1.4+1
1.4−1
tan−1(
√
1.4−1
1.4+ 1
(2.02−1))−tan−1( √ 2.0 2−1)=26.38°

Next, calculate the downstream Prandtl–Meyer function,

θ=v (Ma 2)−v (Ma 1)⟶ v (Ma 2)=θ+ v (Ma 1)=10 ° +26.38 °=36.38 °

We use the isentropic relations to calculate the downstream pressure,

 Categories of Compressible Flow

−k/(k−1)
k−1 2
[1+( ) Ma2 ]
P2 / Po 2
P 2= P= (230 kPa)=125 kPa
P1 / Po 1 k−1 1
−k/(k−1)
[1+( ) Ma2 ]
2
Since this is an expansion, Mach number increases and pressure decreases, as expected.

References:
1. Munson, Bruce R., Donald F. Young, et. al. (2009). Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics (6th Edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala, J.M. (2014) Fluid Mechanics. Fundamentals and
Applications. 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.
3. White, F. M. (2011). Fluid mechanics (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
4. Bahl, B. S., Tuli, G. D., & Bahl, A. (2022). Essentials of Physical Chemistry (28th
ed.). S. Chand Publishing.
5. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook’ McGraw-Hill.