N6

Industrial Electronics
Student’s Book

R Gobind & C Thobejane

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 Industrial Electronics N6
Student’s Book
© in text: C Thobejane, 2025
© in published edition: Troupant Publishers, 2025

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Contents
Module 1: Transients............................................................................................. 1
Unit 1.1: Transient behaviour in DC circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Transient behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Causes of transients in electronic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Elements exhibiting transient behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Unit 1.2: Resistive-capacitive (RC) circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Capacitor during the charging and discharging cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Calculations for an RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Unit 1.3: Resistive-inductive (RL) circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Inductor during the charging and discharging cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2 Calculations for an RL circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Unit 1.4: RLC circuit (ringing circuit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.1 Defining an RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2 Resonance in an RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.3 Damping in an RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.4 Ringing in an RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4.5 Transient behaviour in an RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.6 Calculations for an RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Summary of Module 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Summative assessment for Module 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Module 2: Transducers.......................................................................................... 39
Unit 2.1: Basic transducer theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.1 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.2 Active and passive transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.3 Components or elements of a transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.4 Sensors and transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.5 Sensors and actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.6 Classification of transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.7 Selecting a transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.1.8 Basic measuring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Unit 2.2: Data acquisition systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.1 Measuring and recording signals using data and acquisition systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.2 Terms used in data acquisition systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.3 Elements of an analogue data acquisition system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.4 Elements of a digital data acquisition system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Unit 2.3: Amplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.1 Amplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.2 Amplifier multiplier circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.3 Amplifier calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.4 Bridge network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.5 Bridge network calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Unit 2.4: Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4.1 Attenuation network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4.2 Attenuation calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Unit 2.5: Linearisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Unit 2.6: Offsetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6.1 Applications of offsetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.6.2 Linear voltage divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Unit 2.7: Signal conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7.1 Phases of signal conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.7.2 Electronic components used to perform signal conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Unit 2.8: Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.8.1 Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.8.2 Voltage-to-current interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.8.3 Current-to-voltage interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Unit 2.9: Analogue combination circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.9.1 Properties of an ideal operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.9.2 Characteristics and applications of operational amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.9.3 Summing amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.9.4 Integrator circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.9.5 Differentiator circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.9.6 Inverting amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.9.7 Non-inverting amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.9.8 Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.9.9 Differences between the operational amplifier circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Summary of Module 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Summative assessment for Module 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Module 3: Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity.................................................... 79

Unit 3.1: Ultrasonic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.1 Properties of ultrasonic energy through various forms of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.2 How sound waves are generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1.3 Properties of ultrasonic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1.4 Piezoelectricity and the piezoelectric crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.5 Two main types of piezoelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.6 Magnetostriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.7 Function of a DC bias applied to the magnetostrictive core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Unit 3.2: Ultrasonic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.1 Industrial applications of ultrasonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.2 Operating principles of ultrasonic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Unit 3.3: Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.1 Radiation terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.2 Range of electromagnetic spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.3 Properties of electromagnetic radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.4 Three ways in which energy can be transmitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.5 X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3.6 Characteristics of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3.7 Generation of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.8 Diagram of generation of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.9 Two atomic processes that produce X-ray photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.10 Practical applications of X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3.11 Construction and operating principle of an X-ray tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3.12 Functions of the power supply for an X-ray tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.13 Operation of the X-ray power supply unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.14 Factors determining the efficiency of X-ray production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.15 Calculations for X-ray tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.16 Purpose of the spectrometer as applied to the X-ray tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Unit 3.4: Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4.1 Radioactivity terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4.2 Categories of radiation detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.3 Functions of gas-filled detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.4 Operating principles of gas-filled detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.4.5 Inert gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.4.6 Operating principle of the scintillation detector (photomultiplier tube) and the semiconductor
detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Summary of Module 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Summative assessment for Module 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Module 4: Automatic inspection, testing and NDT............................................... 124

Unit 4.1: Inspection methods or techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1.1 Purpose of an automatic inspection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1.2 Non-destructive testing or inspection (NDT or NDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1.3 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1.4 Minimum requirements for an automatic inspection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1.5 Components of an automatic inspection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.1.6 Two-way and three-way inspection systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.1.7 Resistive and capacitive testing circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Unit 4.2: Automatic production testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.1 Production testing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.2 Preventing electrical shock hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2.3 Production line safety tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.2.4 Circuit diagram of hipot test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.2.5 Three locations to be tested in hipot test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.2.6 Differences between insulation resistance testing and voltage withstand testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.2.7 How a megohmmeter is connected in a circuit during testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2.8 Three terminals of megohmmeter and how each is connected in a circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2.9 Purposes of insulation resistance testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Unit 4.3: Metal detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.1 Metal detectors in industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.2 Operating principle of a metal detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Summary of Module 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Summative assessment for Module 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Module 5: Electronic safety devices...................................................................... 142

Unit 5.1: Industrial safety devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.1.1 Comparing electromechanical and electronic safety devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.1.2 Advantages of electronic safety devices in industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.1.3 Types of electronic safety devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.4 Optoelectronics and optical relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.5 Purpose of electronic safety devices, guards and safeguarding devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.6 Functions of a safety device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.1.7 Factors to consider when installing a safety device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.1.8 Safety devices that are difficult for operators to bypass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.1.9 Proximity switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.1.10 Objectives of guards and safeguarding devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.1.11 Types of machine safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.1.12 Safety light curtains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.1.13 Applications of safety light curtains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.1.14 Photoelectric safety devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1.15 Comparing two types of smoke detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1.16 Ionisation smoke detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1.17 Photoelectric smoke detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.18 Types and characteristics of flame detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.20 Positive and negative protection in electrical industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.1.21 Intrinsic safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.1.22 Intrinsic safety terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.1.23 Comparing hazardous area and zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Unit 5.2: Intrinsic safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.1 Intrinsic safety applied to the workplace safety environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.2 Steps for determining intrinsic safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.2.3 Energy levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.4 Series and shunt protective elements and Zener barrier protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Summary of Module 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Summative assessment for Module 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Module 6: Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits................................ 185

Unit 6.1: Open- and closed-loop systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.1.1 Categories of control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.1.2 Open-loop and closed-loop control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.1.3 Differences between open-loop and closed-loop systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.1.4 Characteristics of a closed-loop system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.1.5 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.1.6 Types of damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.1.7 Types of closed-loop systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.1.8 Types of follow-up systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.1.9 Function of a feedback control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.1.10 Operation of a servo control circuit in a servo mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.1.11 Components of a servomechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.1.12 Purpose of a servomechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.1.13 Applications of servomechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.1.14 Circuit diagram of a servomechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.15 Sequential control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.16 Characteristics of numerical control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.1.17 Operation of a CNC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.1.18 Basic components of numerical control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.1.19 Terminology for closed-loop control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.1.20 Stable system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Unit 6.2: CAD/CAM systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.2.1 CAD and CAM as applied to the CAD/CAM industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.2.2 CAD system terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.2.3 Stages in the design procedure stage of a CAD system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.2.4 Block diagram of the developmental phase of a CAD system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.2.5 Prerequisites for a CAM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2.6 Primary functions of a communication interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.7 Methods of communication organisation of a CAM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.8 Block diagram of a typical CAD/CAM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of CAD/CAM systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.2.10 Practical applications of a CAD system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Unit 6.3: Uninterruptable power supplies (UPSs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.1 Defining an uninterruptable power supply (UPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.2 Categories of uninterruptable power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.3 Main types of UPSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.4 Industrial UPS systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.3.5 Operating principles of industrial UPSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.3.6 Advantages and disadvantages of transfer and continuous industrial UPSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.3.7 UPS suited for domestic and office use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.3.8 Choosing a suitable UPS for your applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.3.9 Blackouts and brownouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Summary of Module 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Summative assessment for Module 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Module 7: Thyristor devices and SCR speed control............................................... 226

Unit 7.1: SCR trigger devices and characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.1.1 Technique used to trigger a thyristor positively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.1.2 Firing and conduction angles for SCR devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.1.3 Operating principle of SCR triggering circuit using a PNP transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.1.4 Sources of power losses in SCRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.1.5 Characteristics of an SCR used as a switch in power electronic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.1.6 Calculations for thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Unit 7.2: DC line commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.1 Defining commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.2 Methods of switching an SCR off in a DC-supplied circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.3 Commutation methods applied to SCR circuits in industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.2.4 Operating principles of thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2.5 Resonant commutation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.2.6 Disadvantage of parallel-capacitance commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Unit 7.3: Rectifier circuits and devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.3.1 Defining a rectifier circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.3.2 Main groups of rectifiers, their functions and control characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.3.3 Advantages of AC and DC motor speed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.3.4 Free-wheeling diode in a rectifier circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.3.5 Rectifier circuit using a commutating diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.3.6 Triggering an SCR without the application of a gate pulse or signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.3.7 Precautions taken to trigger an SCR safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.3.8 Causes of loss at mains and lower frequency operation in SCRs and semiconductor devices . . . 247
7.3.9 Switching loss in SCRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7.3.10 Fitting a thyristor to an electronic circuit without a heat sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.3.11 Circuit diagrams of thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.3.12 Calculations on parallel capacitance chopper circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.3.13 Further thyristor calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Unit 7.4: Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.4.1 Power converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.4.2 Categories of power electronic converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.4.3 Single-phase input single-phase output cycloconverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.4.4 Cycloconverter driving a single-phase load from a three-phase star-connected supply . . . . . . . . 260
7.4.5 Single-phase bridge inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.4.6 Three-phase delta-connected bridge inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.4.7 Applications of thyristors and power semiconductor devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.4.8 Advantages of AC motor speed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.4.9 Applications of AC drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.4.10 Types of AC drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.4.11 Methods to achieve electrical braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Summary of Module 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Summative assessment for Module 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Module 8: Programmable logic controllers............................................................. 272

Unit 8.1: Basics of PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
8.1.1 Defining a programmable logic controller (PLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
8.1.2 Advantages of using PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.1.3 Terminology used with PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.1.4 Features of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.1.5 Block diagram of a PLC and the function of each block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.1.6 Hard wiring and relay logic versus soft wiring and ladder logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.1.7 Basic components of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.1.8 Computer memories in use today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.1.9 Causes of transients in electronic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.1.10 Elements in transient circuits that undergo changes because of disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Unit 8.2: Fail-safe design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.2.1 Defining a fail-safe design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.2.2 Essential features of a fail-safe PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.2.3 Fail-safe design circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.2.4 Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.2.5 Problem-solving process in industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Unit 8.3: Programming the PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.3.1 Industries using PLCs and the function of the PLC in each case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.3.2 Ladder logic symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.3.3 Ladder diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.3.4 Interpreting results of simple ladder logic diagrams using truth tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.3.5 Interpretation of simple ladder logic diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.3.6 Using ladder logic diagrams to design solutions for problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Summary of Module 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Summative assessment for Module 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Module 9: Robotics.................................................................................................. 303

Unit 9.1: Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.1.1 Subcategories of electronics in a robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.1.2 Dual H-bridge motor driver L293D IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.1.3 Advantages of the L293D IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.1.4 Pin connections of the L293D IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.1.5 Functions of L293D IC pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.1.6 Truth table for an L293D IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
9.1.7 Purpose of a sensor in robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
9.1.8 Purpose of motion controllers in robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
9.1.9 Block diagram of a motion control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.1.10 Components of a motion control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.1.11 Functions of the components of a motion control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Summary of Module 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Summative assessment for Module 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Practice exam.......................................................................................................... 313

Formula sheet.......................................................................................................... 318
Glossary................................................................................................................... 319
 Module

1
Transients

Overview of Module 1
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 1.1: Transient behaviour in DC circuits

• Explain the following terms used in transient circuits: transient, time constant, initial period,
transient period and steady-state condition.
• Explain the causes of transients in electronic circuits.
• Name elements in a transient circuit that can undergo changes as a result of disturbances.
Unit 1.2: Resistive-capacitive (RC) circuit

• Draw a neatly labelled current/time graph for a capacitor during the charging and discharging
cycles.
• Utilise the information given in an RC circuit to calculate:
◦ The constant.
◦ Time taken for capacitor voltage to rise x% of the final value.
◦ Energy stored in the capacitor when fully charged.
◦ Rate of change of current.
◦ Maximum current.
◦ Instantaneous current.
◦ Voltage across the capacitor and resistor.
Unit 1.3: Resistive-inductive (RL) circuit

• Draw a neatly labelled current/time graph for an inductor during the charging and discharging
cycles.
• Utilise the information given in an RL circuit to calculate:
◦ The constant.
◦ Time taken for inductor voltage to rise x% of the final value.
◦ Energy stored in the inductor when fully charged.
◦ Maximum current.
◦ Instantaneous current.
◦ Rate of change of current.
◦ Voltage across the inductor and resistor.
Unit 1.4: RLC circuit

• Explain with the aid of a neatly labelled diagram what is meant by underdamping,
overdamping and critical damping of an RLC circuit.
• Explain the operating principle of an RLC circuit as used in transients.
• Explain the concept ringing as applicable to an RLC circuit.
• List advantages and disadvantages of the effects of resonance as used in a ringing circuit.

TVET FIRST Transients 1

 • Give the difference between overdamping and underdamping in terms of each of the following:
◦ Relationship between the terms under the square root sign.
◦ Circuit response speed.
• Explain the term damping and name three damping techniques.
• Explain the difference between critical damping, overdamping and underdamping.
• Use the information given in an RLC circuit to calculate the following values:
◦ The logarithmic decrement.
◦ The number of oscillations of the wave train.
◦ The time taken for the wave train amplitude to decrease to 1% of the initial value.
◦ The highest value of resistance which will allow oscillations to take place.
• Draw a neatly labelled damping curve (illustrate three damping techniques).

When the voltage or current applied to an electric circuit containing capacitors or inductors changes,
the circuit adjusts to the new situation over time until it finally reaches a steady-state condition.
The time taken to adjust depends on the time taken for energy to be transferred into or out of the
capacitors and inductors. This transient response may be a simple exponential function or it may
show signs of oscillation or ringing. The duration of the ringing, if it occurs at all, depends on how
much damping the circuit has. We will only discuss direct current (DC) circuits in this module.

Figure 1.1: Capacitors, resistors and inductors mounted on a printed circuit board

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. If you connect the terminals of a charged capacitor to a voltmeter, you ignition coil: a device
consisting of two
can see that the voltage slowly drops as the capacitor discharges. Why do magnetically coupled
some capacitors discharge quickly and others more slowly? induction coils in a
car’s ignition system;
2. In petrol engines, the ignition system uses an ignition coil to produce the the input coil has low
thousands of volts required to cause a spark in the spark plug of each voltage pulses applied to
it and this causes high
cylinder. How is this possible given that the coil’s input voltage is only voltages to be generated
12 V DC? by the output coil

3. If you connect a charged capacitor across an inductor, its voltage drops as it discharges into the
inductor. What happens to the energy that was originally stored in the capacitor?

2 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 Unit 1.1: Transient behaviour in DC circuits

Module 1
1.1.1 Transient behaviour
a) Defining transient behaviour

transient: a brief
A transient is a brief interval in which a circuit’s behaviour shifts from one
interval in which a steady-state condition to another. When changes occur in an electronic
circuit’s behaviour shifts
from one steady-state
circuit, such as adjustments to the applied voltage or alterations to the
condition to another components, there is a brief period during which the currents and voltages
transient response: in the circuit transition from their old values to new values. This temporary
the response of a circuit
to sudden changes in an
response phase is known as a transient response. After this transition phase,
input condition the circuit stabilises into a steady-state or final value condition where the
steady-state electrical parameters stay relatively constant (see Figure 1.2).
condition: also known
as final value state; In many applications, resistor-capacitor (RC) and resistor-inductor (RL)
the condition where
parameters remain circuits respond to sudden changes in an input condition, for example a
relatively constant switch opening or closing, or a digital input switching from low to high.
transient period: the
time taken / period for
After this change occurs, the capacitor or inductor takes some time to
a signal to change from charge or discharge, depending on whether it was initially ON or OFF. The
one state to another;
the time taken to reach
transient period is the period of change in the circuit when the system is
a steady state after a moving from a disturbed state to a steady state.
disturbance
final steady-state

1,2

0,8

0,6 transient
0,4

0,2

0
0 400 800 t (s)
initial
steady-
state
transient period

Figure 1.2: Transient response curve

time constant (τ): the

b) Time constant (τ) and steady-state condition
time it takes for voltages
and currents to change
A time constant (τ) represents how quickly a circuit responds to a change in
by about 63,2% of the voltage or current, reaching 63,2% of the total change in one time constant
total change
(1τ). A larger time constant (τ) indicates a slower response to changes.

TVET FIRST Transients 3

 In an RC circuit, the capacitor is considered fully charged after five time
constants (5τ), reaching about 99,3% of its maximum value. After this
period, the circuit reaches its steady-state condition although it never fully
reaches 100% (see Figure 1.3(a)).
The time constant of an RL circuit measures how quickly the circuit’s current
approaches 63,2% of its final steady-state value after a sudden change in
voltage or current (see Figure 1.3(b)).

transient period steady state period

Vs
0,99 Vs
VC
capacitor voltage

0,63 Vs capacitor charging

0,5 Vs voltage

0 1T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
0,7T time (t)
time constant (T)
(a) Capacitor

I
steady state value
Imax

V –
Rt
I= 1– e L
63% Imax R

37% VL Rt
–
VL=V 1 – e L

t
τ= L 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ
R
transient time
(b) Inductor
Figure 1.3: Charging curves

RC circuit time constant RL circuit time constant

L
τ​ = RC​ τ = ​ _
R
​​
​
where: where:
τ = time constant (s) τ = time constant (s)
R = resistance (Ω) L = inductance (H)
C = capacitance (F) R = resistance (Ω)

4 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 c) Initial period and final period

Module 1
initial period: the
Consider the circuit in Figure 1.4(a). The switch is in the OFF position
period when the switch (open). This means that no current is flowing in the circuit and therefore the
is off, current and
voltage across the
voltage across the capacitor VC and the resistor VR is zero. The time period is
capacitor and resistor also zero. This is referred to as the initial period.
are zero and the time
period is zero
switch (off ) R switch closed R
final period: the period +
when the capacitor
voltage VC becomes
V + V +
– C VC
almost the same as – C
the source voltage and –
current stops flowing
(a) Open switch (b) Closed switch

Figure 1.4: RC circuit

In the circuit in Figure 1.4(b), the switch is now closed and current will
start flowing around the circuit. Initially, the full supply voltage will be
present across the resistor and current will continue to flow as long as there
is a voltage difference across the resistor. After a certain time period, the
capacitor voltage VC will become almost the same as the source voltage (VS)
and current will cease to flow. This is called the final period.

1.1.2 Causes of transients in electronic circuits

Transients are generated in electronic circuits by abrupt changes that take
place in the operating conditions of energy storage components such as
capacitors and inductors. Table 1.shows that the changes may occur either in
the internal structure of the circuit or as a result of external conditions.
Table 1.1: Causes of transients

Internal sources External sources

• Capacitor switching. • Lightning.

• Operation of power semiconductor • External load removal or connection.
switch.
• Opening or closing of switchgears in
• Internal fault. energised system.
• Electrostatic discharge. • Switching of capacitor banks.
• Relay operation. • Tap changing transformer.
• Operation of circuit breaker or • Loose connections at the utility end.
switchgear.
• External faults.
• Load removal or addition. • Human errors.
• Arcing. • Short circuits caused by animals, bad
weather conditions and neighbouring
circuits.

TVET FIRST Transients 5

 1.1.3 Elements exhibiting transient behaviour
In a transient circuit, the following elements can undergo changes due to
disturbances:
• Resistors: Voltage and current across them can change.
• Capacitors: Voltage can change significantly; current can spike.
• Inductors: Current can change significantly; voltage can spike.
• Diodes: Can switch states, affecting current flow.
• Transistors: Operating points can shift, altering current.
• Transformers: Voltages and currents on windings can change.
• Operational amplifiers (op-amps): Output voltage can change rapidly.
• Power supply elements: Voltage levels can fluctuate.
• Wires and traces: Can experience changes in voltage and current.
• Relays and switches: Can change states, affecting circuit paths.
• Loads (eg motors, lamps): Operating conditions can vary.

Activity 1.1
1. Define:
1.1 Transient. (2)
1.2 Steady-state condition. (2)
1.3 Transient period. (2)
2. Are the following statements true or false? Write only true or false next to the question
number (2.1–2.3) in your answer book:
2.1 Transient analysis in electronics deals with the behaviour of a circuit when it transitions
from one steady state to another. (2)
2.2 Transients occur only in AC circuits and not in DC circuits. (2)
2.3 The presence of inductors and capacitors in a circuit can cause transient responses
when a sudden change in voltage or current occurs. (2)
3. Choose the correct answer from those given in the table below. Write only the answer
next to the question number (3.1–3.3).
voltage or slower capacitance and faster
63,2% 99,3%
current response inductance response

The time constant (τ) of an RL circuit measures how quickly the circuit’s current
approaches 3.1_____ of its final steady-state value after a sudden change in 3.2____.
A larger τ indicates a 3.3___ to changes. (6)
4. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of the transient response curve. (4)
5. List any four internal causes of transients and any four external causes.  (8)
TOTAL: [30]

6 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 Unit 1.2: Resistive-capacitive (RC) circuit

Module 1
1.2.1 C
 apacitor during the charging and
discharging cycles
The circuit in Figure 1.5 shows how a capacitor can be charged and
discharged through a resistor. When a capacitor is charged or discharged
through a resistor, the amount of energy stored in the capacitor changes
because the stored energy is a function of the voltage. Let’s take a closer look
at the charging and discharging process.

charging discharging

VC

VC or IC
capacitor capacitor
charging discharging
VC
S1 R
I IC
+
S2 IC/VR
VS +
VC C
– –

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Voltage/current versus time graph

Figure 1.5: RC circuit

a) Charging cycle
The capacitor (C) can be charged by moving the switch to position (S1).
• In this position, the switch connects the capacitor directly across the
supply voltage (VS).
• When connected, the supply voltage (VS) causes a current to flow into
the capacitor, gradually increasing its voltage until it matches the supply
voltage (VS).
• During this charging process, the capacitor stores electrical energy in its
electric field while dropping the current flow towards it and the voltage
across the resistance (R).

b) Discharging cycle
The capacitor (C) can be discharged by moving the switch to position (S2).
• This action disconnects it from the voltage supply (VS) and connects it to
the resistor (R).

TVET FIRST Transients 7

 • In this position, the capacitor becomes the source of supply. The stored
energy in the capacitor is released through the resistor, causing the
capacitor to discharge.
Transients are not instantaneous but take a finite time before the steady-state finite: greater than
condition of a circuit has been reached. This is because energy takes time to zero, but limited in size

flow into or out of the energy-storing component, in this case a capacitor. end point: a definite
point in time when a
From the charge and discharge curves shown in Figure 1.5(b), we can see process is complete

that the voltages and currents change continuously until they reach their
final value, but not at a definite end point. To describe how quickly or slowly
a circuit responds to a change in applied voltage or current without drawing
the whole curve, we use the time constant.

1.2.2 Calculations for an RC circuit

RC circuit
Charging cycle Discharging cycle
−​ _τt ​ _t
​VR​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​e​​  ​ ​VR​  ​​  = − ​VS​  ​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
_t _t
V
​ C​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  (1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​  ) V
​ C​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
​i = ​I​  ​​  × ​e​​  −​ _τt ​​​ i​ = − ​I​  ​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​​
_t
S S

where:
VR = resistor voltage (V)
VS = supply or maximum voltage (V)
t = instantaneous time after switching (s)
τ = RC; time constant
VC = capacitor voltage (V)
i = instantaneous current in circuit (A)
IS = supply or maximum value of current (A)

Power dissipation
​​V​  ​​​​  2​
P = ​ _
R
R
​​
​
where:
P = power dissipation (W)
Steady-state conditions
VC = Vmax
VR = 0
I=0

8 Module 1 TVET FIRST

Note Initial rate of change of current

Module 1
● The equations _ di _​IS​  ​​
for VC and VR can ​​ dt​  = ​ τ ​​
be manipulated
to calculate the
periodic time
Initial rate of change of voltage
(t) for charging ​VS​  ​​
_
the capacitor ​ d ​VC​  ​  ​​ = ​ RC​​
_
to a certain ​ dt
percentage.
● The rate of
change of current
is derived from
Energy stored in a charged capacitor
the original
instantaneous
E = ​ _12 ​ ​V​​  2​  C​
current equations ​
(i). where:
E = stored energy (J)
Note
Sometimes U, W or ω is used instead of E.

Examples 1.1 to 1.4 are for a charging cycle.

Example 1.1
RC circuit calculations
A capacitor of 470 µF is connected in series with a 56 kΩ resistor across a
120 VDC supply. Determine the:
a) Time constant of the circuit.
b) Initial power dissipated in the resistor.
c) Time taken for the capacitor voltage to rise to 10% of its initial voltage.
d) Energy stored in the capacitor when fully charged.
e) Initial rate of change of current.
Solution
a) Time constant of the circuit.
​τ = RC
= 56  000 × 470 × ​10​​ −6​
= 26, 32 s​

b) Initial power dissipated in the resistor.

Initially, the full voltage is across the resistor.
​V​​  ​ 2
P = ​ _
​ R
​
​120​​  ​ 2
= ​ _
56  000
 ​
= 0, 257 W​

TVET FIRST Transients 9

 c) Time taken for the capacitor voltage to rise to 10% of its initial voltage.
_t
​​V​ C​​  = ​V​ S​​  (1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​  )
​V​  ​​
​ _
_t
C
​V​  ​​
 ​ − 1 = − ​e​​  −​ τ​​

ln ​(1 − ​ _
​V​  ​​ )
S
​V​  ​​ _t
C
 ​ ​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  −​ τ​​
S

ln ​(1 − ​ _
​VS​  ​​ )
V
​ C​  ​​
 ​ ​  = − ​ _τt ​  ln​(e)​

t = − τ ln ( ​VS​  ​​ )
​V​  ​​
​ 1 − ​ _ C
 ​ ​

= − ​(26, 32)​ ln​(1 − ​ _ 120 )

120 × 10%
 ​ ​
= 2, 773 s​

d) Energy stored in the capacitor when fully charged.

E = ​ _12 ​ ​V​​  2​  C
​
= ​ _12 ​ ​(120)​​  2​  (470 × ​10​​  −6​  )
= 3, 384  J​

e) Initial rate of change of current.

_t
i = ​IS​  ​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
but
​V​  ​​
IS​  ​​  = ​ _
​ R
S
​
120
= ​ _  ​
56 × ​10​​  3​
= 2, 143  mA
di ​I​  ​​
​ ​ _ ​  = ​ _τS ​
dt
2, 143 × ​10​​  −3​
= ​ _
26, 32
 ​
= 81, 416  μA/s

Example 1.2
RC circuit calculations
A capacitor of 470 µF is charged to a voltage of 15 V. It is then switched
through a resistor of 10 kΩ to a voltage source of 25 V. What is the
capacitor voltage 4 s after the switch has closed?

Solution
Method 1
​​ C​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​​)​​it is assumed that at t = 0, VC = 0 and
−t
_
In the formula V​ 
Vmax is measured relative to 0 V. However, in this case, the capacitor has an
initial voltage of 15 V and is connected at time t = 0 via a resistor to 25 V.

10 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 The formula then becomes:

Module 1
​​VC​  ​​  = ​V​ 0​​  + ​(​VS​  ​​  − ​V​ 0​​)​​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​​)​
−t
_

= 15 + ​(25 − 15)​ × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC)​​ ​​

−t
_

To find VC after 4 s:
​​VC​  ​​  = 15 + ​(25 − 15)​ × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​​)​
−t
_

= 15 + 10 × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ 10  ×  ​

10​​  ​  ×  470  ×  ​10​​  ​​)​
−4
________________
   3  ​ −6

= 15 + 5, 73
= 20, 73  V​

Method 2
Assume the capacitor is charged from 0 V and calculate how long it takes
to reach 15 V. Then add 4 s to that time and calculate the voltage.
​​VC​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​​)​
−t
_

15 = 25 × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC)​​ ​

−t
_

0, 6 = ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ 10  ×  ​

10​​  ​  ×  470  ×  ​10​​  ​)
−t
________________
   3
​​
 ​−6

= ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ 4,7 ​​)​

−t
_

−t
_
0, 4 = ​e​​  ​ 4,7 ​​
−t
ln​(0, 4)​  = ​ _
4, 7
 ​ = − 0, 916
t = 4, 307 s​

Now find the capacitor voltage 4 s later ( t = 4 + 4,307 = 8,307 s):

​​VC​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​​)​
−t
_

= 25 × ​(1 − e ​ _
4, 7 )
− 8, 307
 ​​
= 20, 73  V​

Example 1.3
RC circuit calculations
A capacitor of 220 µF is charged to a voltage of 25 V. It is connected
through a resistor of 68 kΩ. Determine the:
a) Time constant.
b) Initial charging rate of the capacitor.
c) Time taken for the voltage to rise to 12,5 V.
d) Charging current after 15 seconds.

TVET FIRST Transients 11

 Solution
a) Time constant.
​τ = RC
= 68  000 × 220 × ​10​​ −6​
= 14, 96 s​

b) Initial charging rate of the capacitor.

V​ C​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​​)​
−t
_
​
d ​VS​  ​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ RC​)​ ​
_−t
d ​VC​  ​​
_ ___________
​  ​  = ​  ​
dt dt
−t
_
d ​V​  ​​  − d ​V​  ​​ ​e​​  ​ RC​​
= ​ _
S S
​
dt
−t
_
= ​VS​  ​​ ​e​​  ​ RC​​

d ​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​
​ _C ​  = ​ _S
RC
​
dt
25
= ​ _
14, 96
 ​
= 1, 671  V/s

c) Time taken for the voltage to rise to 12,5 V.

_t
​​V​ C​​  = ​V​ S​​  (1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​  )
​V​  ​​
​ _
_t
C
​V​  ​​
 ​ − 1 = − ​e​​  −​ τ​​

(1 − ​ ​V​   ​​​ )​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  ​

S
_C ​V​  ​​ _t
ln​ −​  τ ​
S

( ​VS​   ​​​ )​  = − ​  τ ​  ln​(e)​

_V
​ C​  ​​ _t
ln​1 − ​ 

t = − τ ln​(1 − ​ _
​V​  ​​ )
​V​  ​​
C
 ​ ​
S

= − ​(14, 96)​ln​(1 − ​ _

25 )
12, 5
 ​ ​
= 10, 369 s​

d) Charging current after 15 seconds.

_t
i = ​IS​  ​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
but
​V​  ​​
IS​  ​​  = ​ _
​ R
S
​
25
= ​ _  ​
68 × ​10​​  3​
= 367, 647  μA

i = ​(367, 647)(​​ ​e​​  −​ 14,96 ​)​ ​

15
_

= 134, 889  μA

12 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 Example 1.4

Module 1
RC circuit calculations
A 50 Hz square wave signal whose voltages are 10 V (high) and –5 V (low)
is connected to a series RC circuit whose values are R = 820 Ω and C = 12
µF. Given that VC = 0 V initially, sketch one cycle of the current transient.

Solution
The period (t) of the input signal Vin is given as ​​ _1 ​ = ​ _
1
50
 ​  = 0, 02 s​. Since
f
it is a square wave, there will be two half cycles of 0,0s in one period.
Step 1: Calculate the value of i1.
This will be calculated at t = 0 just after VS goes high: VS = 10 V and
VC = 0 V.
​​VS​  ​​​  (+ve)​​
​​i1​  ​​  = ​ _
R
​
10
= ​ _
820
 ​
= 12, 2  mA​

Step 2: Calculate the value of i2.

This can be calculated at t = 0,0s.
−t
_
​i = ​IS​  ​​  × ​e​​  ​  τ ​​​

where:
​​IS​  ​​  = ​i​ 1​​  = 12, 2   mA
​Vin​  ​​  = 10   V
τ = RC = 820 × 12 × ​10​​ −6​  = 9, 84  ms​

At t = 0,0s just before Vin goes low:

− 0,01
_
​​i2​  ​​  = 12, 2 × ​10​​  −3​ × ​e​​  ​ 9,84  ×  ​10​​   ​​​
−3

= 4, 41  mA​

Step 3: Calculate the value i3.

This can be calculated at the discharge point. First, we need to calculate VC
at t = 0,0s.
​​VC​  ​​  = 10 × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​ 9,84  ×  ​10​​   ​​​)​
−0,01
_
−3

= 6, 38  V​
Consider the low voltage (–5 V). Just after VS goes low, VS = –5 V and VC
= 6,38 V.

TVET FIRST Transients 13

 ​​VS​  ​​​  (−ve)​​  − ​V​ C​​
​i3​  ​​  = ​ _
R
​
− 5 − 6, 38
= ​ _
820
 ​
= − 13, 9  mA

Step 4: Calculate i4.

This can be achieved at t = 0,02 s where:
​​IS​  ​​  = ​i​ 3​​  = − 13, 9   mA​
​t = 0, 02 s​
Just before VS goes high, t = 0,0s:
−t
_
​​i4​  ​​  = ​I​ S​​  × ​e​​  ​  τ ​​
−0,01
_
= − 13, 9 × ​10​​  −3​ × ​e​​  ​ 9,84  ×  ​10​​  ​ ​​ −3

= − 5, 02  mA​

Step 5: Draw the graph for one cycle of the current transient.

I1
+10 mA
I2

0 t
10 ms 20 ms
I4
–10 mA

I3

Figure 1.6: Graph for current transient

Exam tip
This type of problem occurs frequently in exams. If you can master this problem,
you should be able to handle any exam question involving charging and
discharging a capacitor through a resistor.

Examples 1.5 and 1.6 are for a discharging cycle.

14 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 Example 1.5

Module 1
RC circuit calculations
A series RC circuit consists of the following values: C = 100 µF; R = 22 kΩ;
VS = 100 V. The capacitor is initially fully charged and then discharged
through the resistor at time t = 0. Determine the:
a) Time constant.
b) Initial value of the discharging current.
c) Stored energy dissipated during the discharge.
Solution
a) Time constant.
τ = RC
​
  = 22 × ​10​​  3​  × 100 × ​10​​  −6​
 = 2, 2 s​

b) Initial value of the discharging current.

​V​  ​​
​​i​ 1​​  = ​ _
R
R
​
100
= ​ _
22  000
 ​
= 4,55  mA​

c) Stored energy dissipated during the discharge.

​ ω = ​ _12 ​ ​V​​  2​  C
 = ​ _12 ​ ​(100)​​  2​  (100 × ​10​​  −6​  )
  = 0, 5  J​

Example 1.6
RC circuit calculations
A capacitor with a value of 50 µF is charged up to 220 V. The capacitor
is then discharged by connecting a 2 MΩ resistor across the terminals.
Determine the:
a) Time constant.
b) Time taken for the capacitor voltage to fall to 10% of the final value.
c) Initial discharge rate of the capacitor.

TVET FIRST Transients 15

 Solution
a) Time constant.
τ = RC
​
= 2 × ​10​​  6​  × 50 × ​10​​  −6​
= 100 s​

b) Time taken for the capacitor voltage to fall to 10% of the final value.
VC​  ​​  = 10 % of 220  V = 22  V
​
_t
VC​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
​
​V​  ​​
​ _
_t
C
​V​  ​​
 ​ = ​e​​  −​ τ​​
S

(​  ​V​   ​​​ )​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  ​

_C ​V​  ​​ _t
ln​ −​  τ ​
S

( ​VS​   ​​​ )​  = − ​  τ ​  ln​(e)​

_ V
​ C​  ​​ _t
ln​​ 

t = − τ ln​(_ ​  ​VC​   ​​​ )​

​V​  ​​
S

= − 100 ln​(_ 22
​  220  ​)​
= 230, 259 s

c) Initial discharge rate of the capacitor.

_t
​​V​ C​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
d ​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​
​ _C ​  = ​ _
τ​
S
dt
220
= ​ _
100
 ​
= 2, 2  V/s​

Activity 1.2
1. Define:
1.1 Time constant of an RC circuit. (2)
1.2 Initial period and final period. (4)
2. A 68 µF capacitor is connected in series with a 39 kΩ resistor. A step
voltage of 120 V is applied to the circuit. Determine the:
2.1 Time constant of the circuit. (3)
2.2 Initial current in the circuit. (3)
2.3 Time taken for the capacitor to reach 80% of its steady-state
value.(4)
2.4 Energy stored in the capacitor when fully charged. (2)

16 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 3. A 47 µF capacitor is charged up to 75 V and then discharged through

Module 1
a 27 kΩ resistor. Determine the:
3.1 Initial discharge rate of the capacitor in V/s. (3)
3.2 Time taken for 50% of the stored energy to be dissipated. (4)
3.3 Discharge current after s. (4)
4. A tantalum capacitor of 100 µF has a worst-case leakage
specification of 0,3 µA at 15 V DC. Assume that the leakage
current is proportional to the voltage and determine the:
4.1 Equivalent leakage resistance. (4)
4.2 Time taken in seconds for the voltage to drop to 80% of its
maximum value after being disconnected from a 15 V battery. (5)
5. A 100 Hz square wave signal whose voltages are 20 V (high) and
–10 V (low) is connected to a series RC circuit whose values are
R = 820 Ω and C = 4,7 µF. Given that VC = 0 V initially, sketch
one cycle of the current transient. (7)
TOTAL: [45]

Unit 1.3: Resistive-inductive (RL) circuit

1.3.1 I nductor during the charging and

discharging cycles
Figure 1.7 shows an RL circuit consisting of a resistor (R) and an inductor
(L) connected in series. When an electric current flows through the circuit,
it creates a magnetic field around the inductor. This magnetic field induces a
voltage across the inductor that opposes the current flow. When the inductor
is charged through a resistor, the current increases and energy is stored in
the magnetic field surrounding the inductor.
I
steady state value
Imax

V –
Rt
I= 1
R –e
L
63% Imax
1 switch
com 37% VL
2 VL=V 1 – e
–
Rt
L
R
V +– t
L τ= L 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ
R
transient time

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Inductor charging diagram

Figure 1.7: RL circuit

TVET FIRST Transients 17

 a) Charging cycle
The inductor (L) can be charged or energised by moving the switch to
position (S1):
• In this position, the switch connects the inductor directly across the
voltage supply (VS).
• The voltage (VS) causes a current to gradually increase and flow into the
inductor, instantly increasing its voltage, which matches and opposes the
supply voltage (VS).
• During this charging or energising process, the inductor stores electrical
energy in the form of a magnetic field.

b) Discharging cycle
The inductor (L) can be discharged by moving the switch to position (S2):
• This action disconnects it from the voltage supply (VS) and connects it to
the resistor (R).
• In this position, the inductor becomes the source of supply.
• The energy stored in the inductor is discharged through the resistor,
causing the inductor to discharge or de-energise.
Q +I0
Q0
charging
Icharging
0,632 Q0 charging
0
0,368 Q0 Idischarging discharging t
discharging
τ t –I0

Figure 1.8: RL circuit charging and discharging diagram

We know that transients are not instantaneous, but take a finite time before
the steady-state condition of a circuit has been reached. This is because
energy takes time to flow into or out of the energy-storing component, in
this case an inductor.

1.3.2 Calculations for an RL circuit

As with the RC circuit, the RL circuit also has a time constant. If an RL
series circuit is connected to a DC voltage, the current rises exponentially
until it reaches its steady-state current Imax (IS). Once again, the time
constant is the time taken for the current to reach 62,3% of its final current
or 0,637 Imax (IS).

18 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 RL circuit

Module 1
Charging cycle Discharging cycle
_t _t
​VL​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​ ​VL​  ​​  = − ​VS​  ​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
_t _t
​VR​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  (1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​  ) ​VR​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​
​VS​  ​​ ​VS​  ​​
i​ = ​IS​  ​​  (1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​ ) where  ​IS​  ​​  =  ​ _ i​ = − ​I​ S​​  × ​e​​  −​ τ​​  where  ​IS​  ​​  =  ​ _
_t _t
R
​​ R
​​

where:
VL = inductor voltage (V)
VS = supply or maximum voltage (V)
t = instantaneous time after switching (s)
L
τ = ​ _
R
​​; time constant
​
VR = voltage through resistor (V)
i = instantaneous current in circuit (A)
IS = supply or maximum value of current (A)

Power dissipation
​​V​  ​​​​  2​
P = ​ _
R
R
​​
​
where:
P = power dissipation (W)

Steady-state conditions:
VL = VR
I=0
Initial rate of increase of the current
Vmax defines the initial rate of increase of the current:
dI
​​VL​  ​​  = ​V​ max​​  = L × ​ _ ​
dt
dI V
​ max
​  ​​
​ _ ​  = ​ _ L
​​
dt

Initial rate of current charging

​I​  ​​
​  di ​ = ​ _τS ​​
__
dt
​
Energy stored in a current-carrying inductor
W = ​ _12 ​ ​I​​  2​  L​
​

TVET FIRST Transients 19

 where:
W = stored energy (J)
Note
Sometimes ω, U or E is used to denote the energy stored in the magnetic
field.

Example 1.7
RL circuit calculations Note
When the switch
A series RL circuit consists of a 1,5 Ω resistor and an inductor of 470 mH. toggles, connecting
A voltage of 30 V DC is applied to the circuit. Determine the: R to ground,
the voltage VL
a) Time constant. immediately jumps
from zero to –Vmax.
b) Time it will take for the current to rise to 90% of the maximum value. Why does it go
exactly to –Vmax and
c) Time it will take for the voltage developed across the resistor to be not to some other
exactly 5 V. voltage?
Here is the answer:
Solution Just before the
switch toggles,
a) Time constant. L is carrying a ​V​  ​​
L
τ = ​ _ ​  ​​ = _
max
​ ​ current I​​ max ​  R ​​
R in a steady-state
0, 47 condition. Inductors
= ​ _
1, 5
 ​ store energy in the
magnetic fields set
= 0, 313 s​ up by their current
so the current
b) Time it will take for the current to rise to 90% of the maximum value. cannot change
​V​  ​​ instantaneously
​​I​ S​​  = ​ _
R
S
​ because energy
takes a certain
30
= ​ _
1, 5
 ​ time to dissipate.
Immediately the
= 20  A​ switch toggles, the
inductor voltage
changes to –Vmax
i = ​IS​  ​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​  τ ​​)​
−t
_
i = ​IS​  ​​  × 90%
​ ​ so that the current
flowing through
= 20 × 90% 1 − ​ _i −t
_
 ​ = ​e​​  ​  τ ​​ R to ground stays
​I​  ​​ exactly the same.
= 18  V​ S

( ​IS​  ​​ )
i Thereafter, the
1 − ​ _
_ −t
ln​  ​ ​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  ​  τ ​​ current decays
exponentially until

( ​IS​  ​​ )
i
ln​1 − ​ _  ​ ​  = − ​ _τt ​  ln​(e)​ it reaches zero.

( ​IS​  ​​ )
i
t = − τ ln​ 1 − ​ _  ​ ​

= − 0, 313 ln​(1 − ​ _

20 )
18
 ​ ​
= 0, 721 s​

20 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 c) Time it will take for the voltage developed across the resistor to be

Module 1
exactly 5 V.
​​V​ R​​  = ​V​ S​​  × ​(1 − ​e​​  ​  τ ​​)​
−t
_

​V​  ​​
1 − ​ _
−t
_
R
​V​  ​​
 ​ = ​e​​  ​  τ ​​
S

(1 − ​ ​V​   ​​​ )​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  ​

_R ​V​  ​​ −t
_
ln​ ​  τ ​
S

( ​VS​   ​​​ )​  = − ​  τ ​  ln​(e)​

_V
​ R​  ​​ _t
ln​1 − ​ 

t = − τ ln​(1 − ​ _
​V​  ​​ )
​V​  ​​
R
 ​ ​
S

= − 0, 313 ln​(1 − ​ _

30 )
5
 ​ ​
= 57, 067  ms​

Example 1.8
RL circuit calculations
A series RL circuit consist of a 3 Ω resistor in series with a 1,5 inductance.
If a step voltage of 25 V is applied, determine the:
a) Instantaneous current after 0,25 seconds.
b) Voltage developed across the resistor after 2,5 seconds.
c) Energy stored in the magnetic field.
d) Initial rate of current charging.
Solution
L ​V​  ​​
​τ = ​ _
R
​ ​​IS​  ​​  = ​ _ S
​
R
1, 5
= ​ _
3
 ​ 25
= ​ _  ​
3
= 0, 5 s​ = 8, 333  A​
a) Instantaneous current after 0,25 seconds.
i = ​IS​  ​​​(1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​)​
_t
​
 = 8, 333​(1 − ​e​​  −​  0,5 ​​)​
0,25
_

= 3, 279  A​

b) Voltage developed across the resistor after 2,5 seconds.

​​V​ R​​  = ​V​ S​​​(1 − ​e​​  ​  τ ​​)​
−t
_

 = 25​(1 − ​e​​  ​  0,5 ​​)​

−2,5
_

= 24, 832  V​

TVET FIRST Transients 21

 c) Energy stored in the magnetic field.
ω = ​ _12 ​ ​I​​  2​  L
​

 = ​ _12 ​ ​(8, 333)​​  2​ (1, 5)

= 52, 079  J​

d) Initial rate of current charging.

​i = ​IS​  ​​​(1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​)​
_t

di ​I​  ​​
​ _ ​  = ​ _τS ​
dt
8, 333
= ​ _
0, 5
 ​
= 16, 666  A​

Example 1.9
RL circuit calculations
A 120 V DC supply is connected to a coil with a time constant of 2,4 ms.
After switch-on, the current reaches 245 mA after 1,6 ms. Calculate the:
a) Maximum value of the current.
b) Resistance and inductance of the coil.
c) Maximum amount of energy stored in the coil’s magnetic field.
Solution
a) Maximum value of the current.
i = ​IS​  ​​​(1 − ​e​​  ​  τ ​​)​
−t
_
​
0, 245 = ​IS​  (​​​ 1 − ​e​​  ​  2,4  ×  ​10​​   ​​ )​ ​
−1,6  ×  ​10​​ −3​
_
−3

0, 245 = ​IS​  ​​  × 0, 487

IS​  ​​  = 0, 504   A​
​

b) Resistance and inductance of the coil.

Calculate R: Calculate L:
​V​  ​​ L
​​IS​  ​​  = ​ _
R
S
​ ​τ = ​ _
R
​
​V​  ​​ L = τ×R
R = ​ _ S
​IS​  ​​
 ​
= 2, 4 × ​10​​  −3​ × 238
120
= ​ _
0, 504
 ​
= 0, 572  H​
= 238  Ω​
c) Maximum amount of energy stored in the coil’s magnetic field.
ω = ​ _12 ​  L ​I​​  2​
​
= 0, 5 × 0, 572 × 0, ​504​​ 2​
= 0, 725  J​

22 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 Example 1.10

Module 1
RL circuit calculations
The field windings of a DC machine have an inductance of 5 H. The
winding draws a steady current of 2 A when connected to a 120 VDC
supply. Calculate the:
a) Winding resistance.
b) Time constant.
c) Initial rate of current charging.
d) Current flow when the rate of change is 3 A per second.
Solution
a) Winding resistance.
​V​  ​​
R = ​ _
​ I
S
​
120
= ​ _2
 ​
= 60  Ω​

b) Time constant.
L
τ = ​ _
​ R
​
5
= ​ _
60
 ​
= 0, 083 s​

c) Initial rate of current charging.

​i = ​IS​  (​​​ 1 − ​e​​  −​ τ)​​ ​
_t

di ​I​  ​​
​ _ ​  = ​ _τS ​
dt
2
= ​ _
0, 083
 ​
= 24  A/s​

d) Current flow when the rate of change is 3 A per second.

i = ​IS​  ​​​(1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​)​ i = ​IS​  ​​​(1 − ​e​​  −​ τ​​)​
_t _t
​ ​
= 2​(1 − ​e​​  −​ 0,083 ​​)​
_t 0,173
di ​IS​  ​​ ​e​​  −​ τ​​ _

​ _ ​  = ​ _ τ ​
dt
_t = 1, 751  A​
2 ​e​​  −​ τ​​
3 = ​ _
_t
0, 083
 ​  = 24, 096 ​e​​  −​ τ​​

ln​(_
​  24,3096 ​)​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  −​ τ​​
_t

− 2, 083 = − ​ _τt ​  ln e
t = ( − 2, 083 ) ( − 0, 083)
= 0, 173 s​

TVET FIRST Transients 23

 Example 1.11
RL circuit calculations
The armature of a motor rotates when the current reached 85% of its
maximum value. The motor is supplied with 30 V and its coil has a
resistance of 3 kΩ and an inductance of 3 mH. Calculate the time taken
for the motor to operate.

Solution
L ​V​  ​​
​τ = ​ _
R
​ ​  ​​  = ​ _
​​Imax R
S
​
3 × ​10​​  ​ −3
30
= ​ _  ​
3 × ​10​​  3​
= ​ _  ​
3 × ​10​​  3​
= 1  μs​ = 10  mA​

​85 % of 10  mA = 8, 5  mA​

i = ​IS​  (​​​ 1 − ​e​​  −​ τ)​​ ​
_t
​
i
1 − ​ _
_t
​I​  ​​
 ​ = ​e​​  −​ τ​​
S

( ​IS​  ​​ )
i
ln​ 1 − ​ _
_t
 ​ ​  = ln ​​(e)​​​  −​ τ​​

( ​IS​  ​​ )
i
ln​ 1 − ​ _  ​ ​  = − ​ _τt ​  ln​(e)​

( ​IS​  ​​ )
i
t = − τ ln​ 1 − ​ _  ​ ​

= − 1 × ​10​​  −6​  ln​(1 − ​ _

10 )
8, 5
 ​ ​
= 1, 897  μs​

Activity 1.3
1. A motor winding has a resistance of 15 Ω and an inductance of 15
mH. The motor is powered by a DC voltage of 25 V. When the motor
is switched on, determine the:
1.1 Steady-state current. (2)
1.2 Time constant. (2)
1.3 Current after 1,5 ms. (6)
1.4 Energy stored in the inductor’s magnetic field when the circuit
reaches a steady-state condition. (4)
2. A coil has an inductance of 270 mand a resistance of 15 Ω. A DC
voltage of 120 V is connected to the terminals of the coil. Determine
the:
2.1 Time taken for the current to rise to 6,5 A. (5)

24 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 2.2 Initial rate of current growth. (4)

Module 1
2.3 Energy stored in the coil’s magnetic field when the current is
80% of its maximum. (3)
3. A coil has a time constant of 5 ms. After it is connected to a DC
voltage of 80 V, the current reaches 400 mA in 2,5 ms. Calculate the:
3.1 Maximum value of the current. (5)
3.2 Resistance and inductance of the coil. (4)
4. An unknown inductor is connected to a voltage source of 24 V DC.
Using an oscilloscope with a current probe so that it can display
current waveforms directly, it is determined that the current reaches
265 mA after 14 ms and finally settles at 960 mA. Calculate the:
4.1 Inductor resistance. (3)
4.2 Inductance. (7)
TOTAL: [45]

Unit 1.4: RLC circuit (ringing circuit)

1.4.1 Defining an RLC circuit

Figure 1.9 shows an RLC circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L)
and a capacitor (C) connected in series. It is used to generate high-frequency
sinusoidal signals. When transient conditions are present, it produces
resonance. When this circuit is excited by an external input, it produces
damped sinusoidal oscillations known as ringing.

1.4.2 Resonance in an RLC circuit

resonance: the
Resonance is the tendency of a system to I
tendency of a system oscillate or vibrate with greater amplitude
to oscillate or vibrate
with greater amplitude
at a particular frequency than at other
at a particular frequencies. It occurs when the system can R
frequency than at other
frequencies
transfer energy from one form to another
and back again.
+
The effect of resonance is useful in electronic V
–
signal processing, but it can be detrimental
in other applications. For instance, it can
cause unwanted voltage and current peaks C
in power supply circuits if their filters are
incorrectly designed.
Figure 1.9: RLC series circuit

TVET FIRST Transients 25

 e=
i=
time
–
+

capacitor discharging: voltage decreasing

inductor charging: current increasing

Figure 1.10: Parallel resonant circuit

Before we consider transients in RLC circuits we need to look at what

happens when resonance occurs. In the case of the LC circuit in
Figure 1.10:
• The capacitor’s stored energy discharges through the inductor, creating
a magnetic field. When the discharge ends, the magnetic field collapses,
causing a reverse voltage in the inductor. This reverse voltage leads to
maximum current flow in the opposite direction.
• When the discharge is complete, the current flow decreases to zero, the back emf: an emf or
magnetic field around the inductor collapses, and a back emf is induced voltage appearing in
an inductive circuit in
in the inductor, which charges the capacitor with the opposite polarity. such a direction that it
opposes any change of
The process repeats as the capacitor once again transfers its energy into the current
inductor. This is also known as a tank circuit or tuned circuit. resonant frequency
(fr): the frequency at
Provided that there are no losses in the circuit, these oscillations will which a lossless system
continue indefinitely. The build-up and collapse of the magnetic field around oscillates
natural frequency
the inductor takes place at a fixed rate, referred to as the resonant frequency (fn): the frequency at
(fr). At the resonance frequency, the capacitive and inductive reactances are which a system tends to
oscillate in the absence
equal: XC = XL. of any driving excitation

If, however, there are losses, then the frequency of oscillation will no longer
be the resonant frequency, but will be what we call the natural frequency
(fn). This frequency will always be lower than the resonant frequency.

Resonant frequency
To determine the resonant frequency by calculation, we must find the
frequency for which XL = XC:
1
​2π ​fr​  ​​  L = ​ _ ​ where:
2π ​fr​  ​​  C
fr = resonant frequency (Hz)
(2π ​f​  r​​)​​​  ​  = ​ _
2
1
LC
​
_ L = inductance (H)
1
√
2π ​fr​  ​​  = ​ _
​  LC ​ ​ C = capacitance (F)
1_
fr​  ​​  = ​ _
​  ​​
2π ​√LC ​

26 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 1.4.3 Damping in an RLC circuit

Module 1
damping: a loss of Damping is the process by which energy in a system or circuit is dissipated,
energy in an oscillating resulting in the prevention of or reduction in the amplitude of the
system or circuit which
brings about a reduction oscillations. Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. If the LC
in the amplitude of resonant circuit contains any resistance, the oscillations, once started, will
oscillations; occurs in
mechanical or electrical die away at a rate dependent on the component values.
systems due to frictional
or other resistive forces Frequency of damped oscillations
_

​
2π LC ( 2L )
f​n​  ​​  = ​ _1 _
​ ​ ​  1
​  √
− ​​ _
​  R 2
​ ​​​  ​ ​​

15.0
underdamped
12.5 critically damped
capacitor voltage (V)

overdamped
10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
time (ms)

Figure 1.11: Three types of damping curves

Figure 1.11 represents a series RLC circuit which will be used to explain the
effects of damping:
Underdamping: When ( ​)​​​  ​  < ​ _
2
• ​​​ _ R
​  2L 1
LC
​​, the energy in the circuit keeps
switching back and forth between the capacitor and inductor before it
is finally lost in the resistor. This makes the circuit respond quickly but
oscillate several times before settling down. This condition represents a
quicker return to the equilibrium state but will result in some overshoot
and oscillation, which can be a problem in mechanical or control
systems.
Critical damping: When ( ​)​​​  ​  = ​ _
2
• ​​​ _ R
​  2L 1
LC
​​, the circuit is critically damped.
In this case, the energy is quickly lost in the resistor before the current
can reverse direction. The circuit is almost oscillatory but does not quite
oscillate, and there is a voltage transient across the capacitor.
Overdamping: When ( ​)​​​  ​  > ​ _
2
• ​​​ _ R
​  2L 1
LC
​​, it means the resistance is high. In
this case, the current takes a long time to go from zero to its maximum
and then back to zero. The circuit’s response is slow and there are voltage
transients in this situation.

TVET FIRST Transients 27

 Table 1.2 summarises the conditions and characteristics of the three types of
damping.
Table 1.2: Conditions for and characteristics of the three types of damping

Type of damping Condition Characteristics

Underdamping R
_
2
1
_
​​(​  ​)​​​  ​ < ​  ​​
• Ringing.
​
2L
2
LC • Quick return to equilibrium
but overshooting and
R
_ 1
_
​​(​  ​)​​​  ​− ​  ​ < 0​ oscillation.
2L LC
​
Critically damped R
_
2
1
_
​​(​  ​)​​​  ​ = ​  ​​
• No ringing.
​
2L
2
LC • Quickest return to
equilibrium.
R
_ 1
_
​​(​  ​)​​​  ​− ​  ​ = 0​
2L LC
​
Overdamping R
_
2
1
_
​​(​  ​)​​​  ​ > ​  ​​
• No ringing.
​
2L
2
LC • Sluggish return to equilibrium.
R
_ 1
_
​​(​  ​)​​​  ​− ​  ​ > 0​
2L LC
​

1.4.4 Ringing in an RLC circuit

Ringing in an RLC circuit is the result of underdamped oscillations due to ringing: the oscillatory
the interplay between the inductive and capacitive elements. The extent and behaviour that occurs
when an RLC circuit is
duration of these oscillations are influenced by the resistance in the circuit. underdamped
Ringing occurs when the resistance (R) is low relative to the inductance (L)
and capacitance (C), leading to complex conjugate roots in the characteristic
equation of the circuit.

a) Key points about ringing

The key points to note about ringing are as follows:
• Underdamped response:
◦ Ringing occurs in an underdamped circuit where the resistance is not
high enough to prevent oscillations.
◦ The energy stored in the inductor and capacitor causes the circuit to
oscillate.
• Oscillations:
◦ The circuit oscillates at its natural resonant frequency.
◦ These oscillations gradually decrease in amplitude over time due to
the resistive losses.
• Damping factor:
◦ The rate at which the oscillations decay is determined by the damping
factor, which depends on the resistance, inductance and capacitance.
◦ A lower resistance results in slower decay and more pronounced
ringing.

28 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 b) Practical implications of ringing

Module 1
Ringing has the following practical implications:
• Ringing can affect the performance of electronic circuits by introducing
unwanted noise and signal distortion.
• In power circuits, it can cause voltage and current spikes, potentially
damaging components.

1.4.5 Transient behaviour in an RLC circuit

The RLC circuit’s behaviour during transients is described by a differential
equation. The transient response has two parts:
• Natural response: The homogeneous solution is the natural response of
the circuit without external sources. This response can be underdamped,
critically damped or overdamped:
◦ Underdamped oscillates while decaying.
◦ Critically damped decays quickly without oscillating.
◦ Overdamped decays without oscillating.
• External response: The particular solution is the response due to external
sources. For example, if a step voltage is applied, the circuit responds with
a transient and then settles to a steady-state current.
The complete response is the sum of the natural and external responses.
Initial conditions are important. These include the initial current through
the inductor and the initial voltage across the capacitor. Time constants
determine how quickly transients die out. In underdamped conditions, the
circuit will oscillate while settling.
Table 1.3 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of using resonance
in a ringing circuit.
Table 1.3: Advantages and disadvantages of the effects of resonance in a ringing circuit

Advantages Disadvantages

• Efficient energy transfer. • Unwanted oscillations.

• Signal amplification. • Potential component damage.
• Selective frequency filtering. • Stability issues.
• Oscillator circuits. • Narrow bandwidth.
• Tuning capabilities. • Sensitivity to component variations.

TVET FIRST Transients 29

 1.4.6 Calculations for an RLC circuit
a) Amplitude (peak current)
The damped oscillation decays exponentially and the amplitude (peak
current) can be written as:

Amplitude or peak current

I​ peak
​  ​​  = ​I​ max​​  × ​e​​  −ζ× t​​
​
where:
ζ = damping ratio

However, since we are only interested in the peak values of the waveform,
it is preferable to use the fact that successive peaks diminish by the same
ratio k:

Ratio k for successive peaks of wave train

__ ​x​  ​​ ​x3​  ​​ ​x5​  ​​
​​  ​x​  1​​ ​​  = ​ _ _
x​ 4​   ​ ​​ = ​  x​ 6​   ​ ​​ = k
2

where:
x1, x2 ... = amplitudes of successive cycles (0 to peak)
k = constant and is always > since the wave train is a decreasing series of
waves
k is derived as:
​k = ​e​​  −​(​ ωL​)​​
πR
_

= ​e​​  −δ​​
where:
ω
​ = 2πf​ (rad/s)
δ or  ​∑​​ ​​= logarithmic decrement
​

b) Logarithmic decrement
Figure 1.12 shows a graph of the transient current in an RLC circuit after a
charged capacitor is connected into the circuit.

30 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 X1

Module 1
X3
X5

X4
X2

Figure 1.12: Step response of an RLC circuit (logarithmic decrement)

logarithmic We can deduce from the graph that the logarithmic decrement is the natural
decrement: the natural log of the ratio of the amplitudes of any two successive peaks of the damped
log of the ratio of the
amplitudes of any two oscillatory signal.
successive peaks of the
damped oscillatory Logarithmic decrement
signal
πR
​​∑​​  or  δ = ​ _
ωL
​​​

where:
​ω = 2π ​fn​  ​​​ (rad/s)

Natural frequency (Fn) of oscillation

_
​​fn​  ​​  = ​ _1 _
√ ​R​​  2​
​ ​ ​  1 ​  − ​ _
2π LC 4 ​L​​  2​
 ​ ​  (always less than resonant frequency ( ​fr​  ​​  )​

Number of oscillations (n)

ln 100 4, 605
​n = 1 + ​ _ ​  = 1 + ​ _​​
δ δ

Amplitude time (t)

​t = ​ _1 ​  × n​
f

Value of resistor (R) using critical damping

​​  4 ​​RL​​  ​​  2​  ​ ​ = ​ _1
2
_ ​
LC
_
​  4L
R = ​ _ C
​ ​​ √

TVET FIRST Transients 31

 Example 1.12
RLC circuit calculations
A charged capacitor is switched into a series RLC circuit where C = 15 µF
and L = 18 mH. Calculate the:
a) Largest value of resistor that will result in ringing.
b) Logarithmic decrement given that R = 15 Ω.
c) Ratio of the peak currents of successive decreasing cycles of the wave
train.
d) Time taken for the wave train amplitude to decrease to 1% of the
initial value.
Solution
a) Largest value of resistor that will result in ringing.
​​​(_ ​)​​​  ​  − ​ _
2
R 1
​  2L LC
​ = 0
​R​​  ​ 1 2
​ _  ​  = ​ _
4 ​L​​  2​ LC
​
_
​ ​  4L
R​ critical​​  = ​ _ C
​ ​ √_
√
​  4 ×1518× ​10​​ 
× ​10​​  ​
−3
= ​ _ −6 ​ ​
​
= 69, 3  Ω​
b) Logarithmic decrement given that R = 15 Ω.
πR
Logarithmic decrement is given by​δ = ​ _ωL
​​but we first need to
calculate fn, the natural frequency of the damped oscillations, so we
can calculate ω:
_
​​f​ n​​  = ​ _1 _
√____________________________
​R​​  2​
​ ​ ​  1 ​  − ​ _
2π LC 4 ​L​​  2​
 ​ ​

√
1 _______________ 1 ​15​​  2​
= ​ _ ​ ​ ​    
    ​  − ​ ___________  ​ ​
2π 18 × ​10​​  −3​  × 15 × ​10​​  −6​ 4 × ​​(18 × ​10​​  −3​)​​​  2​
= 299  Hz​
Now calculate the logarithmic decrement:
πR
δ = ​ _
​ ωL
​
3, 1416 × 15
= ​ ____________________
  
   ​
2 × 3, 1416 × 299 × 18 × ​10​​ −3​
= 1, 39​
c) Ratio of the peak currents of successive decreasing cycles of the wave
train.
​k = ​e​​  δ​
= ​e​​  1,39​
= 4, 023​

32 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 d) Time taken for the wave train amplitude to decrease to 1% of the

Module 1
initial value.
ln 100
n = 1 + ​ _
​ ​
δ
4, 605
= 1 + ​ _​
δ
4, 605
= 1 + ​ _
1, 39
 ​
= 4, 313  oscillations​

Amplitude time (t):

t = ​ _1 ​  × n
​
f
_ 1
= ​  299  ​ × 4, 313
= 0, 0144 s​

Example 1.13
RLC calculations
An RLC circuit is set in oscillation and the current peaks at 58,2 mA and
40,5 mA in the first two cycles of the wave train. Calculate the expected
peak currents in the third and fourth cycles.

Solution
First calculate the ratio:
​I​  ​​
​k = ​ _1
​I2​  ​​
 ​
58, 2
= ​ _
40, 5
 ​
= 1, 44​
Then calculate I3 and I4:
I​ ​  ​​
​​I3​  ​​  = ​ _2 ​
k
40, 5
= ​ _
1, 44
 ​
= 28, 2  mA​
I​ ​  ​​
​​I4​  ​​  = ​ _3 ​
k
_ 28, 2
= ​  1, 44 ​
= 19, 6  mA​

TVET FIRST Transients 33

 Activity 1.4
1. A series RLC circuit consists of the following components: L = 10
mH; C = 12 µF; R = 15 Ω.
1.1 Calculate the resonant frequency. (3)
1.2 What value of resistor will result in critical damping? (3)
1.3 If the circuit is suddenly connected to a voltage source, will it
oscillate? Give a reason for your answer. (4)
1.4 If the circuit does oscillate, calculate the oscillation frequency. (3)
2. A 10 µF capacitor is charged to 10 V and then connected across a
15 minductor with a DC resistance of 6 Ω. The resulting oscillations
get progressively smaller as the stored energy is dissipated.
Calculate the:
2.1 Logarithmic decrement. (5)
2.2 Ratio of each voltage peak (eg on the capacitor) to the next one.(3)
2.3 Amplitudes and times of the second and third voltage peaks, given
that the first voltage peak is 10 V and occurs at time t = 0. (4)
2.4 Time taken for the wave train amplitude to decrease to 1% of the
initial value. (5)
TOTAL: [30]

Summary of Module 1

Unit
1.1 Transients behaviour in DC circuits

● Transient: A brief interval in which a circuit’s behaviour shifts from one steady-state condition to another.
● Transient response: The response of a circuit to sudden changes in an input condition.
● Steady-state condition: Also known as the final value state, this is the condition where parameters remain
relatively constant.
● Transient period: The time taken / period for a signal to change from one state to another and to reach a
steady state after a disturbance.
● Time constant (τ): The time it takes for voltages and currents to change by about 63,2% of the total change.
● RC circuit time constant: τ​ = RC​
L
● RL circuit time constant: τ​ = _
​ R ​​
● Initial period: The period when the switch is off, current and voltage across the capacitor and resistor are
zero and the time period is zero.
● Final period: The period when capacitor voltage VC becomes almost the same as the source voltage and
current stops flowing.
● Causes of transients: Include changes occurring in the internal structure of the circuit or as a result of
external conditions.
● Elements exhibiting transient behaviour: resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors,
transformers, op-amps, power supply elements, wires and traces, relays and switches, loads.

34 Module 1 TVET FIRST

 Module 1
Unit
1.2 Resistive-capacitive (RC) circuit

● When a capacitor is charged or discharged through a resistor, the amount of energy stored in the
capacitor changes because the stored energy is a function of the voltage.
● Charging cycle: V​ 
_t _t _t
​​ R​​ = V
​ S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​; ​VC​  ​​ = V
​ S​  ​​(1 − e​ ​​  −​ τ​​) ; i = I​S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​​
● Discharging cycle: ​VR​  ​​ = − V
_t _t _t
​ S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​; ​VC​  ​​ = V
​ S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​; i = − I​S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​​
● Steady-state conditions: VC = Vmax; VR = 0; I = 0
​​VR​  ​​​​  2​
​ = _
● Power dissipation: P ​  R ​​
di ​IS​  ​​
● Initial rate of change of current: _
​​ dt ​ = _
​ τ ​​
d ​VC​  ​​ ​VS​  ​​
● Initial rate of change of voltage: ​​ _
dt
​= _
​ RC ​​
1
​ = _
● Energy stored in a charged capacitor: E ​ 2 ​V
​ ​​  2​C​

Unit
1.3 Resistive-inductive (RL) circuit

● When an inductor is charged through a resistor, the current increases and energy is stored in the
magnetic field surrounding the inductor.
​VS​  ​​
_
● Charging cycle: V​ 
_t _t _t
​​ L​​ = V
​ S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​; ​VR​  ​​ = V
​ S​  ​​(1 − e​ ​​  −​ τ​​) ; i = I​S​  ​​(1 − e​ ​​  −​ τ​​) where I​S​  ​​ = ​ R ​​
​VS​  ​​
_
● Discharging cycle: V​ 
_t _t _t
​​ L​​ = − V
​ S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​; ​VR​  ​​ = V
​ S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​; i = − I​S​  ​​× e​ ​​  −​ τ​​ where I​S​  ​​ = ​ R ​​
​​VR​  ​​​​  2​
​ = _
● Power dissipation: P ​  R ​​
● Steady-state conditions: VL = VR ; I = 0
● Initial rate of increase of the current:
dI
​​VL​  ​​ = V ​  ​​ = L × _
​ max ​ dt ​
_ dI ​Vmax
​  ​​
​  dt ​ = _
​  L ​​
di ​IS​  ​​
● Initial rate of current charging: _
​​ dt ​ = _
​ τ ​​
1
​ = _
● Energy stored in a current-carrying inductor: W ​ 2 ​I​​​  2​L​

Unit
1.4 RLC circuit (ringing circuit)

● RLC circuit: Used to generate high-frequency sinusoidal signals.

● Resonance: The tendency of a system to oscillate or vibrate with greater amplitude at a particular
frequency than at other frequencies. The effect of resonance is useful in electronic signal processing, but
it can be detrimental in other applications.
● Back emf: An emf or voltage appearing in an inductive circuit in such a direction that it opposes any
change of current.
1
● Resonant frequency (fr): The frequency at which a lossless system oscillates: f​ ​​r​​ = _
​  _ ​​
2π ​√ LC ​
● Natural frequency (fn): The frequency at which a system tends to oscillate in the absence of any driving
excitation.
● Damping: A loss of energy in an oscillating system or circuit which brings about a reduction in the amplitude
of oscillations. Occurs in mechanical or electrical systems due to frictional or other resistive forces.
___________

​  LC ​− ( ​  2L ​)​​​  ​ ​​ √
2
1 1 R
● Frequency of damped oscillations: f​ ​​n​​ = _
​ 2π ​​ _ ​​ _
● Underdamping:
◦ Ringing.

TVET FIRST Transients 35

 Unit
1.4 RLC circuit (ringing circuit) (continued)

◦ Quick return to equilibrium but overshooting and oscillation.

​​​(_
​  2L ​)​​​  ​ < _
​ LC ;​​ ( ​  2L ​)​​​  ​− _
2 2
R 1 R 1
​​​ _ ​ LC ​ < 0​
● Critically damped:
◦ No ringing.
◦ Quickest return to equilibrium.
​​​(_
​  2L ​)​​​  ​ = _
​ LC ;​​ ( ​  2L ​)​​​  ​− _
2 2
R 1 R 1
​​​ _ ​ LC ​ = 0​
● Overdamping:
◦ No ringing.
◦ Sluggish return to equilibrium.
​​​(_
​  2L ​)​​​  ​ > _
​ LC ;​​ ( ​  2L ​)​​​  ​− _
2 2
R 1 R 1
​​​ _ ​ LC ​ > 0​
● Ringing: The oscillatory behaviour that occurs when an RLC circuit is underdamped.
● Transient behaviour in an RLC circuit
◦ Natural response: Response of the circuit without external sources:
Underdamped oscillates while decaying.
Critically damped decays quickly without oscillating.
Overdamped decays without oscillating.
◦ External response: Due to external sources.
◦ The complete response is the sum of the natural and external responses.
● Amplitude or peak current: I​ ​​peak​​ = I​max
​  ​​× e​ ​​  −ζ× t​​
● Ratio k for successive peaks of wave train: k​ = e​ ​​  −​(​ ωL​)​​ = e​ ​​  −δ​​
πR
_

● Logarithmic decrement: The natural log of the ratio of the amplitudes of any two successive peaks of the
πR
​​ or δ = _
damped oscillatory signal: ∑​​ ​ ωL ​​​ _
● Natural frequency (Fn) of oscillation: f​ ​​n​​ = _
1
​ 2π ​​ _
1
​  LC ​− _ √
​R​​  2​
​ 4 L​ ​​  2 ​ ​​ (always less than resonant frequency ( f​r​  ​​)​

ln 100 4, 605
​ = 1+_
● Number of oscillations (n): n ​  δ ​ = 1 + ​ _
δ
​​
1
● Amplitude time (t): t​ = _
​ f ​× n​
● Value of resistor (R) using critical damping:
_
_ ​R​​  2​
​​  4 L​ ​​  2 ​​ = _
1
√
​ = ​_
​ LC R
4L
​  C ​ ​​

Summative assessment for Module 1

1. Define the following terms:
1.1 Transient in a circuit. (1)
1.2 Steady-state condition. (1)
1.3 Ringing.(1)
1.4 Damping.(1)
1.5 Stored energy in a capacitor. (1)
1.6 Time constant of a circuit. (1)

36 Module 3 TVET FIRST

2. A capacitor is connected through a resistor to a DC potential of V. Draw a graph to
represent the capacitor voltage as a function of time given that RC = s. Indicate the
following on the graph:
• Time axis.
• Voltage axis.
• Vmax.
• Time constant.
• Voltage at t = time constant. (4)
3. A capacitor of 560 µF is discharged through a 39 kΩ resistor. If the initial voltage
on the capacitor is 200 V, determine the:
3.1 Time constant of the circuit. (2)
3.2 Initial power dissipated in the resistor. (2)
3.3 Discharge current and capacitor voltage after 13 s. (2)
3.4 Time taken for the capacitor to discharge to 15% of its initial voltage. (3)
4. A capacitor of 330 µF is charged to a voltage of 30 V. At time t = 0 it is connected
through a resistor of 810 Ω to a voltage source of –12 V. Find the:
4.1 Initial current. (2)
4.2 Rate of change of capacitor voltage at t = 0,25 s. (3)
4.3 Final capacitor voltage after the transient is over. (3)
4.4 Time at which the capacitor voltage reaches 0 V. (3)
5. A 100 Hz square wave signal whose voltages are 8 V (high) and –3 V (low) is
connected to a series RC circuit whose values are R = 560 Ω and C = 15 µF.
Given that VC = 0 V initially, sketch one cycle of the current transient. (10)
6. A DC voltage source of 60 V is connected to an RL circuit where R = 15 Ω and
L = 2 mH. Calculate the:
6.1 Voltage across the resistor. (2)
6.2 Voltage across the inductor. (2)
6.3 Current flowing in the circuit. (2)
6.4 Draw a simple RL graph starting from the instant of connection.  (5)
Note: Ensure that initial values, values at t = time constant, and steady-state values
are shown on the graph.
7. A motor winding has a resistance of 22 Ω and an inductance of 18 mH. The motor
is powered by a DC voltage of 35 V. When the motor is switched on, determine the:
7.1 Steady-state current. (2)
7.2 Time constant. (2)
7.3 Current after 0,8 ms. (2)
7.4 Energy stored in the inductor’s magnetic field when the circuit reaches a
steady-state condition. (2)

TVET FIRST Amplifiers 37

 8. A coil has an inductance of 200 mand a resistance of 10 Ω. A DC voltage of
150 V is connected to the terminals of the coil. Determine the:
8.1 Time taken for the current to rise to 7,5 A. (3)
8.2 Initial rate of current growth. (3)
8.3 Energy stored in the coil’s magnetic field when the current is 90% of its
maximum.  (2)
9. With reference to an RLC circuit, explain what resonance is, its applications and
what detrimental effects it can have. (3)
10. A charged capacitor is connected in series with a resistor and inductor to form
an RLC circuit.
10.1 Explain what happens when the circuit oscillates. (3)
10.2 Define the term ‘damping’ with respect to an RLC circuit. (2)
10.3 Draw, on one set of axes, graphs that show underdamping, overdamping
and critical damping. (6)
11. Table 1.4 indicates the component values for three series RLC circuits.
Table 1.4: Component values for three series RLC circuits

R (Ω) L (mH) C (µF)

12 12 12
77 22 15
28 25 18

11.1 Determine the amount of damping of each circuit (underdamping,

overdamping or critical damping). (9)
11.2 State whether each circuit will/will not oscillate if connected to a DC voltage
source.(3)
11.3 Calculate the natural, ie damped, frequency of each circuit. (6)
11.4 An RLC circuit is required to be critically damped. If L = 12 mand C = 12 µF,
what value of resistor will cause the circuit to be critically damped? (2)
12. Define the term ‘logarithmic decrement’. (2)
13. An RLC circuit is set in oscillation. The current peaks at 100 mA and then at
90 mA in the first two cycles of the wave train. Calculate the:
13.1 Expected peak current in the third cycle. (3)
13.2 Logarithmic decrement. (2)
14. An RLC circuit has the following values: R = 10 Ω; L = 15 mH; C = 22 µF. It is
then set into oscillation by connecting it to a battery. Calculate the:
14.1 Natural (damped) oscillation frequency. (2)
14.2 Logarithmic decrement. (3)
14.3 Ratio k of each current peak of the wave train to the next one. (2)
TOTAL: [115]

38 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 Module

2
Transducers

Overview of Module 2
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 2.1: Basic transducer theory

• Explain the term transducer.

• Explain what you understand by the terms active transducer and passive transducer.
• Draw a neatly labelled block diagram of a transducer.
• Name the two main components of a transducer.
• List classifications of a transducer and give examples of each.
• Explain the difference between a sensor and a transducer.
• List factors that need to be taken into consideration when selecting a transducer.
• Explain the difference between a sensor and an actuator.
• Explain the difference between active transducers and passive transducers.
• Name three major elements of a transducer.
• Draw a neatly labelled block diagram of a basic measuring system.
Unit 2.2: Data acquisition systems

• Name and briefly explain the elements of an analogue data acquisition system.
• List two ways in which data acquisition systems are used to measure and record signals.
• List two major classes into which instrumentation systems can be categorised.
• Draw a neatly labelled block diagram illustrating a digital data acquisition system.
• Explain the following terms with specific reference to a data acquisition system: amplification,
attenuation, linearisation, offsetting, signal conditioning, interfacing.
Unit 2.3: Amplification

• Explain the term amplification.

• Draw a neatly labelled amplifier multiplier circuit.
• Use the information given to calculate the following values:
◦ The value of the input signal to the system from the transducer.
◦ Feedback resistor value for an op-amp.
• Draw a neatly labelled bridge network diagram.
• Use the information given to calculate the following values:
◦ The detector voltage.
◦ A suitable feedback resistor value.
Unit 2.4: Attenuation

• Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a typical attenuation network as applied to op-amps
and give its output formula.
• Explain the purpose of the attenuator network.

TVET FIRST Transducers 39

 Unit 2.5: Linearisation

• Explain the term linearisation and support the answer by providing a sketch.
Unit 2.6: Offsetting

• List three typical applications of offsetting.

• Draw a neatly labelled sketch of an offsetting circuit diagram representing a linear voltage
divider.
Unit 2.7: Signal conditioning

• List phases of signal conditioning.

• List common electronic components used to perform signal conditioning.
Unit 2.8: Interfacing

• List and explain types of interface networks that needs to be employed in order to accommodate
different signals.
• Draw a neatly labelled diagram illustrating an evolution of a typical signal from the sensor to the
output or the load.
• Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage interfacing
network and also give output formula of each network.
• List different categories of interfacing requirements.
• Utilise the given information to calculate the following values:
◦ Dropping resistor.
◦ Input and output voltages.
◦ Input and output current.
◦ Input and feedback resistors.
Unit 2.9: Analogue combination circuits

• List the properties of an ideal operational amplifier.

• List characteristics of an operational amplifier.
• Explain the operating principles of amplifier circuits with the aid of neatly labelled circuit
diagrams:
◦ Summing amplifier.
◦ Integrator circuit.
◦ Differentiator circuit.
◦ Inverting amplifier.
◦ Non-inverting amplifier.
◦ Comparator.
• Explain the difference between the listed amplifier circuits.
• Use the information given for amplifier circuits to calculate the following values:
◦ Feedback resistor.
◦ Input and output voltages.
◦ Input resistor.

In this chapter, we will build on what we learned about transducers in previous Industrial Electronics
courses. Review how transducers were defined in N4 and N5.

40 Module 2 TVET FIRST

In manufacturing, variables such as temperature, angle and displacement are measured and
controlled. Instrumentation systems use sensors, transducers and signal processing devices for
this purpose. With many options available, choosing the right sensors and transducers can be
challenging for technicians and system designers. Although we will not cover their working principles
here, these were discussed in earlier courses so refer to your previous study materials.

Module 2
output
input
controller

microphone amplifier
transducer
transducer
loudspeaker

Figure 2.1: Communication devices that use transducers

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. An industrial thermometer uses a thermocouple which generates 1,5 mV at 10 °C. This is far
too small for the accurate monitoring of temperature from a location far away when there is
significant line resistance and interference. What can be done to allow reliable measurement?
2. You have seen lights that switch on and off at the sound of clapping. How does this happen?
3. The Internet of Things (IotT) is the latest innovation in so far as modern ICT systems are
concerned. Do you think that this would be possible without the use of transducers?

Unit 2.1: Basic transducer theory

2.1.1 Transducers
transducer: a device A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. It is
that converts one commonly used to sense and measure physical phenomena and transform
form of energy into
another; used to sense them into electrical signals or other usable forms of energy. Transducers are
and measure physical essential components in various applications, such as measuring pressure,
phenomena and
transform them into temperature, sound and light, and play a crucial role in modern technology
electrical signals or across numerous industries.
other usable forms of
energy
2.1.2 Active and passive transducers
Transducers can be classified based on their application, method of energy
conversion and nature of the output signal, among other criteria.

TVET FIRST Transducers 41

 The first category of transducers, called active transducers or self-generating active transducer:
transducers, produces an analogue voltage or current when stimulated by a an electronic device
that converts one form
physical form of energy and does not require external power. of energy into another
without using an
The second category of transducers, called passive transducers, requires external power source
external power. They produce variations in electrical parameters such as passive transducer:
an electronic device that
resistance or capacitance, which can be measured as voltage or current requires an external
changes. power source to convert
one form of energy into
another
Table 2.1 provides examples of active and passive transducers.
Table 2.1: Examples of active and passive transducers

Active transducers Passive transducers

• Thermocouple. • Potentiometer.
• Moving coil generator. • Strain gauge.
• Piezoelectric pick-up. • Thermistor.
• Photovoltaic cell. • Photoconductive cell.
• Variable capacitor
• Capacitor microphone.
• Magnetic transducer.
• Differential transformer.
• Ionisation chamber.
• Photo-emissive cell.
• Photomultiplier tube.
2.1.3 Components or elements of a transducer
Figure 2.2 illustrates a block diagram of a transducer. It consists of three
main elements:
• Sensing element: Detects the physical quantity or measurand and
responds to it.
• Transduction element: Receives the output from the sensing element
and converts the non-electrical signal into a proportional and measurable
electrical signal.
• Signal conditioning element: Amplifies, filters or otherwise processes
the electrical signal to make it suitable for measurement or further
processing.
quantity
of electrical
measurand measurand transduction signal signal
input sensing output
conditioning
element element
element

Figure 2.2: Block diagram of a transducer

42 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 2.1.4 Sensors and transducers
sensor: a device that A sensor is a device that detects a physical quantity and produces an
detects a physical
quantity and produces
electrical signal by converting the physical parameter of the quantity into a
an electrical signal; has corresponding output. A sensor has no other component except itself.

Module 2
no other component
except itself A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another, for
example the value of a physical quantity into a corresponding electrically
measurable quantity. It consists of a sensor and signal conditioning circuitry.

2.1.5 Sensors and actuators

Sensors and actuators are broad categories of transducers although they
cannot operate as both simultaneously. Figure 2.3 illustrates the difference
between a sensor and an actuator:
• A sensor detects a measurable physical quantity, such as sound, light or
magnetism, and converts it into an electrical signal.
actuator: a device that • An actuator receives the electrical signal produced by the sensor and
receives the electrical converts it into physical output such as sound, light or movement.
signal produced by a
sensor and converts it Actuators are required for feedback in instrumentation.
into physical output
A smartphone, for example, contains many transducers: the camera and
microphone are sensors while the speaker and screen are actuators.

electrical electrical
useful data data actuator useful
energy sensor energy
signal signal

(a) Sensor (b) Actuator

Figure 2.3: Difference between a sensor and an actuator

2.1.6 Classification of transducers

Transducers can be classified based on various criteria. Table 2.2 shows the
classification of transducers.
Table 2.2: Classification of transducers

Based on power
requirement
• Active transducers
Self-generating and do not require external power.
Examples: thermocouples and piezoelectric sensors.
• Passive transducers
Require external power.
Examples: strain gauges and capacitive sensors.
Based on
application
• Temperature transducers
Thermocouples, thermistors and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs).
• Pressure transducers
Strain gauges and piezoelectric sensors.
• Displacement transducers
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) and potentiometers

TVET FIRST Transducers 43

 Based on
conversion
• Electromechanical transducers
Microphones (convert sound to electrical signals) and speakers (convert electrical signals
to sound).
• Electro-optical transducers
Photodiodes and LEDs.
• Electrochemical transducers
pHsensors and fuel cells.
Based on output
signal
• Analogue transducers
Thermocouples (output continuous voltage).
• Digital transducers
Rotary encoders (output digital signals).
Based on physical
phenomenon
• Resistive transducers
Potentiometers and strain gauges.
• Capacitive transducers
Capacitive humidity sensors.
• Inductive transducers
LVDTs and inductive proximity sensors.
Based on working
principle
• Piezoelectric transducers
Piezoelectric crystals (pressure sensors).
• Photoelectric transducers
Photodiodes (light sensors).
• Magnetostrictive transducers
Magnetostrictive sensors (position sensors).

These classifications help when selecting the appropriate transducer for a

specific application or requirement.

2.1.7 Selecting a transducer

A transducer converts a physical quantity into a proportional electrical
signal. For accurate readings, choosing the right transducer is essential.
Consider the following when selecting a transducer:
• The physical quantity to measure.
• The required accuracy.
• The most suitable conversion principle.

2.1.8 Basic measuring system

A basic measuring instrument system consists of three elements as shown in
Figure 2.4:
• Sensor or input device.
• Signal processor.
• Receiver or output device.

input sensor processor receiver output

Figure 2.4: Basic measuring system

44 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 Activity 2.1
1. List the factors that should be considered when selecting a
transducer.  (3)
2. Transducers can be classified into two main groups.

Module 2
2.1 Name these groups.  (2)
2.2 Explain the differences between these two types of
transducers.  (4)
3. Name the three major elements that make up a transducer. (3)
4. Draw a neat, fully labelled block diagram of a transducer. (4)
5. With the aid of block diagrams, explain the difference between a
sensor and an actuator. (5)
6. Make a neat and fully labelled block diagram of a basic measuring
system used in transducers. (4)
TOTAL: [25]

Unit 2.2: Data acquisition systems

2.2.1 M
 easuring and recording signals using data
and acquisition systems
data acquisition A data acquisition system is an integrated set-up that obtains information
system: obtains from transducers that measure physical conditions. It then converts the
information from
transducers that information into digital signals for processing and analysis. The main
measure physical function of measuring and recording this data is to enable a detailed
conditions and converts
the data into digital engineering or scientific analysis.
signals for processing
and analysis Data acquisition systems measure and record signals in two main ways:
• Direct measurement: Involves measuring and recording electrical
quantities such as DC and AC voltages, frequency or resistance. This is
common in electronic component testing, environmental studies and
quality analysis.
• Transducer-based measurement: Involves measuring and recording
signals from transducers such as strain gauges and thermocouples.
There are two main classes of data acquisition systems:
• Analogue systems: Process measurement information in analogue form.
• Digital systems: Process information in digital form.

TVET FIRST Transducers 45

 2.2.2 Terms used in data acquisition systems
The following terms are used with reference to data acquisition systems:
• Amplification: Increasing the magnitude of a signal to improve its
strength or resolution for better detection and processing.
• Attenuation: Decreasing the magnitude of a signal to reduce its
amplitude, often to match the dynamic range or input requirements of
the data acquisition system.
• Linearisation: Adjusting or transforming non-linear signals into linear
relationships to simplify analysis and improve accuracy during data
processing.
• Offsetting: Adding or subtracting a constant value to shift the entire
signal vertically within a specified range, typically to align it with the
operating range of the data acquisition system.
• Signal conditioning: Modifying the signal’s characteristics, such
as amplifying, filtering or linearising, to ensure it meets the input
requirements of the data acquisition system and improves accuracy and
reliability.
• Interfacing: Connecting and ensuring compatibility between different
components or systems in the data acquisition set-up to enable
communication, signal transfer and control.

2.2.3 E
 lements of an analogue data acquisition
system
An analogue data acquisition system usually includes the following elements:
• Transducer: Converts physical parameters into electrical signals.
• Signal conditioner: Amplifies, linearises, attenuates, transforms
impedance, and modifies or selects parts of these signals.
• Visual display unit: Continuously monitors input signals using devices
such as cathode ray oscilloscopes (CROs), optical character readers
(ORCs), panel meters and numerical displays.
• Graphic recording instrument: Permanently records input data using
devices such as stylus-and-ink recorders on paper charts or optical
recording systems such as ultraviolet recorders.
• Computer system: Acquires input data, preserves it in its original
electrical form and reproduces it later for detailed analysis.

2.2.4 Elements of a digital data acquisition system

A digital data acquisition system obtains information from transducers
that measure physical conditions. Examples of physical conditions that are
measured include voltage, current, sound, fluid flow, gas pressure, force,

46 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 temperature, light intensity, strain and weather conditions. The data is then
converted to digital signals for processing and analysis.

sensor signal scanner or signal A/D digital

conditioner multiplexer converter converter recorder

Module 2
auxiliary equipment and
system programmer

Figure 2.5: Block diagram of data acquisition system

The block diagram in Figure 2.5 illustrates the elements of a digital data
acquisition system:
• Transducer: Converts physical parameters, such as temperature, pressure
and velocity, into electrical signals.
• Signal conditioner: Provides supporting circuitry for transducers,
including power, balancing and calibration.
• Scanner or multiplexer: Connects multiple analogue inputs sequentially
to one measuring instrument.
• Signal converter: Converts analogue signals to a form suitable for the
analogue-to-digital converter.
• Analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter: Converts analogue signals into
digital form for display and further processing.
• Auxiliary equipment: Supports system programming and digital data
processing. Handles tasks such as linearisation and limit comparison
using individual instruments or a computer.
• Digital recorder: Records digital information on various media, such as
computers, perforated tape, magnetic tape, typewritten pages and pen
recorders. May use a coupling unit to format the data correctly.

Activity 2.1
1. Define a data acquisition system. (2)
2. Name the two types of data acquisition systems. (2)
3. Identify and briefly explain the components of an analogue data
acquisition system.  (14)
4. Define the following terms specifically in the context of data
acquisition systems:
4.1 Amplification. 4.4 Offsetting.
4.2 Attenuation. 4.5 Signal conditioning.
4.3 Linearisation. 4.6 Interfacing.  (12)
TOTAL: [30]

TVET FIRST Transducers 47

 Unit 2.3: Amplification

2.3.1 Amplification
The output signal from a transducer, such as a thermocouple, bridge or
piezoelectric crystal, is usually at a low voltage level and needs amplification.
Amplification increases the voltage, current or power of a signal. An
amplifier multiplier circuit is used to amplify the signal to the desired
measuring range. For example, the output of an electronic temperature
sensor, which is in the millivolt range, is too low for signal processing
circuitry to process directly. It is necessary to increase the voltage to a
suitable level to process the signal.

2.3.2 Amplifier multiplier circuit

Figure 2.6 illustrates an amplifier multiplier circuit.

Vin
Vout
+
–

Rin RF

Figure 2.6: Amplifier multiplier circuit

2.3.3 Amplifier calculations

Input and output voltages for an amplifier
​Vout
_ ​  ​​
V
​​ in​  ​​  = ° ​C​ max​​  × ​  ° C ​​

​  ​​  = ​V​ in​​​(1 + ​ ​R​   ​​​)​​

​Rf​  ​​
_
V
​ out
m
​
_ ​Rf​  ​​
​Vout​  ​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ ​R​   ​​​​
m
​
where:
Vin = input voltage from transducer
°Cmax = temperature
Vout = output voltage
R
​ f​  ​​​= feedback resistance
​
​Rm​  ​​​= metering resistance
​

48 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 Example 2.1
Amplifier calculations
A thermocouple has an output of 10 mV per 10 °C and is required to
measure the temperature of a furnace in the range of 50 °C and 500 °C.

Module 2
The metering resistor has a value of 2 kΩ. Calculate the value of the
feedback resistor that will obtain the best results for this measurement
with a standard signal range of 3 V to 7 V.

Solution
​Vout
_ ​  ​​
​Vin​  ​​  = ° ​C​ max​​  × ​  ° C ​

= 500 × ​(_ 10 )
​  10 × ​10​​  ​ −3
 ​ ​
​
= 0, 5  V​

( )
​R​  ​​
​​V​ out​​  = ​V​ in​​​ 1 + ​ _ f
​R​  ​​
 ​ ​
in

_ V
​ ​  ​​ ​Rf​  ​​
​  ​Vout​   ​ ​​ − 1 = ​ _
R
​ in​  ​​
 ​
in

( )
​V​  ​​
Rf​  ​​  = ​R​ in​​​ _
​ ​  ​Vout​   ​ −
​​
1 ​
in

= 2  000​(_
​  0,75 ​ − 1)​
= 26  kΩ​

2.3.4 Bridge network

Figure 2.7 illustrates a bridge network.
In the bridge network in Figure 2.7:
R2
​R1​  ​​  , ​R2​  ​​  , ​R3​  ​​  =   standard resistors

–t R​R1TH
,​  R​​ = resistance of thermistor
2, R3 = standard resistor
​
R1 VD ​VS​  ​​  = R
supply voltage resistance
= thermometer
TH
RTH VS
​VD​  ​​  = detector voltage​
V = supply voltage
S

WhenVall the standard resistors in the bridge

D = detector voltage
R3
as well as the thermistor are equal, the bridge
is said to be balanced and the output, detector
voltage VD, will be zero. As the temperature
Figure 2.7: Bridge network
rises or falls, the bridge becomes imbalanced,
creating an output detector voltage VD which is
proportional to the change in temperature and which can now be measured
using the appropriate circuits.

TVET FIRST Transducers 49

 2.3.5 Bridge network calculations
The out-of-balance voltage of the detector bridge is obtained by using the
following formula:

Out-of-balance voltage of the detector bridge

​ D​  ​​  = ​V​ S​​​(​R​  ​  ​​  + ​R​   ​ ​​ − ​ ​R​  ​​  + ​R​   ​​​)​​
​R1​  ​​
_ ​R3​  ​​
_
V
1 2 3 TH
​
dR = dt ​RTH ​  ​​  α​
​
where:
VD = detector voltage (V)
VS = supply voltage (V)
R1, R2, R3 = resistance of standard resistors (Ω)
RT = resistance of thermistor (Ω)
dR = change in resistance
dt = change in temperature
α = temperature coefficient

Example 2.2
Bridge network calculations
A detector bridge consists of three standard resistors, each 2 kΩ, and a resistance thermometer
with a nominal resistance of 2 kΩ at 30 °C. The temperature coefficient of the resistance
thermometer is 0,00Ω/Ω/°C. The supply voltage of the bridge is 4 V. Determine:
a) The detector voltage when the thermometer temperature is 95 °C.
b) A suitable feedback resistor value for an operational amplifier if the above detector voltage
is used in a 3 V to 7 V amplification network. The metering resistor is 2 kΩ and the output
voltage must be 7 V at 95 °C.
Solution
a) The detector voltage when the thermometer temperature is 95 °C.
dR = dt ​RTH
​ ​  ​​  α ​​R​ TH​​  at 95°   = ΔR + nominal resistance
= ​(95 − 30)​ × 2  000 × 0, 001 = 130 + 2  000
= 130  Ω​ = 2  130  Ω​

(​  R​ 1​  ​​  + ​R​ 2 ​ ​​ − ​  ​R3​  ​​  + ​R​ TH ​​​ )​

​R​  ​​ ​R​  ​​
​​V​ D​​  = ​V​ S​​​ _ 1 _ 3

= 4​(_ + 2  000 2  000 + 2  130 )

​  2  0002  000 2  000
 ​  − ​ _  ​ ​

= 0, 063  V​

50 Module 2 TVET FIRST

b) A suitable feedback resistor value for an operational amplifier if the above detector voltage
is used in a 3 V to 7 V amplification network. The metering resistor is 2 kΩ and the output
voltage must be 7 V at 95 °C.

( )
​R​  ​​
​​V​ out​​  = ​V​ in​​​ 1 + ​ _ f
 ​ ​

Module 2
​R​  ​​ in
​V​  ​​ ​R​  ​​
​ _ out
​Vin​  ​​
 ​  − 1 = ​ _
R
f
​ in​  ​​
 ​

( )
​V​  ​​
Rf​  ​​  = ​R​ in​​​ _
​ ​  ​Vout​   ​ −
​​
1 ​
in

= 2  000​(_ 7
​  0, 063 ​ − 1)​
= 220, 222  kΩ​

Activity 2.3
1. Provide a detailed explanation of why low-voltage signals from transducers, such as
thermocouples or piezoelectric crystals, require amplification before being processed by
signal processing circuits. (4)
2. Discuss how an operational amplifier is used to amplify signals in a multiplier circuit,
including its role in increasing voltage, current or power of the input signal.
3. A thermocouple produces an output of 10 mV per 10 °C and is required to measure
temperatures ranging from 50 °C to 500 °C. Given a metering resistor of 2 kΩ and a
desired output voltage range of 3 V to 7 V, calculate the value of the feedback resistor. (5)
4. Given an input voltage of 15 mV from a transducer and a feedback resistor value of
10 kΩ with a metering resistor value of 2 kΩ, calculate the output voltage of the
amplifier circuit. (4)
5. A detector bridge has three standard resistors of 2 kΩ each and a resistance thermometer
of 2 kΩ at 30 °C with a temperature coefficient of 0,00Ω/Ω/°C. The supply voltage is 4 V.
Determine the detector voltage when the thermometer temperature is 95 °C. (5)
6. Using the detector voltage calculated in question 5, determine the appropriate feedback
resistor value for an operational amplifier if the output voltage must be 7 V at 95 °C.
Assume the metering resistor is 2 kΩ.  (4)
7. Draw the amplifier multiplier circuit and label all components, including the input voltage
(Vin), output voltage (Vout), feedback resistor and metering resistor.  (5)
8. Draw the bridge network diagram including labels for the standard resistors, thermistor,
supply voltage (VS) and detector voltage (VD).(6)
9. Explain how temperature changes affect the balance of a bridge network and calculate the
out-of-balance voltage when the temperature changes from 30 °C to 100 °C. The bridge
network has standard resistors of 2 kΩ each and a thermistor with a nominal resistance of
2 kΩ at 30 °C. The temperature coefficient of the thermistor is 0,00Ω/Ω/°C. (8)
TOTAL: [45]

TVET FIRST Transducers 51

 Unit 2.4: Attenuation

2.4.1 Attenuation network

When the output signal voltages from two selected transducers (or a attenuation:
transducer and a reference signal) are too high for an operational amplifier decreasing the voltage,
current, power or
input, they need to be attenuated before being mixed and applied to the amplitude level of
operational amplifier input stage. Attenuation decreases the voltage, a signal so that the
conditioned signal is
current, power or amplitude level of the signal so that the conditioned within the accepted
signal is within the accepted usable range. usable range

Figure 2.8 illustrates a typical attenuation network.

V2

R1 R4 R3

V1 Vout
R2

Figure 2.8: Attenuation network

2.4.2 Attenuation calculations

Output voltage for an attenuation network

​  ​​  = A​[​(​R​  ​  ​​  + ​R​   ​​​)​ + ​(​R​  ​  ​​  + ​R​   ​​​)​]​​

​V1​  ​​ ​R2​  ​​
_ ​V2​  ​​ ​R4​  ​​
_
V
​​ out
1 2 3 4

where:
A = gain
V= is attenuated by the resistor ratio: ​​ ​R​  2​​  _ ​R​  1​​  + ​R​  2​​ ​​
​R4​  ​​
_
V2 = is attenuated by the resistor ratio: ​R​​  ​  ​​  + ​R​   ​​​​
3 4

Unit 2.5: Linearisation

Linearisation is a way of improving signals that do not show a linear linearisation: a way of
relationship to the actual measurement to increase efficiency and maximise improving signals that
do not show a linear
output power. This type of conditioning is necessary when transducers relationship to the
produce voltage signals that are not linearly related to the physical actual measurement to
increase efficiency and
measurement. maximise output power

52 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 A linear system has a directly proportional
linear relationship between input (cause) and output
response (effect). Non-linearity measures the deviation
output deviation from this proportionality as shown in Figure 2.9.

Module 2
All devices exhibit some degree of non-linearity.
actual non-linear To achieve an overall linear response, the
response transducer’s output is adjusted with an inverse
non-linear correction. For example, modifying
the transducer circuitry can provide a feedback
0 input signal that balances the bridge circuit, ensuring
the output is proportional to the resistance
Figure 2.9: Linearisation curve change.

Unit 2.6: Offsetting

2.6.1 Applications of offsetting

offsetting: uses Offsetting uses analogue techniques to shift a signal’s reference level by a
analogue techniques to predictable amount. Typical applications include:
shift a signal’s reference
level by a predictable
amount
• Measuring small changes around a large initial value.
• Using devices with an absolute scale, for example Celsius versus kelvin.
• Introducing an offset for signals where the minimum value is above
zero, for example converting a 0 V to 10 V output to a 4 mA to 20 mA
range.

2.6.2 Linear voltage divider

An example of offsetting is a linear voltage divider that provides a fixed
reference voltage to the operational amplifier input in the offsetting network
(see Figure 2.10).
+
reference V1
–
R1

trimmer Vout
potentiometer

R2 Voffset

Figure 2.10: Offsetting to amplifier

TVET FIRST Transducers 53

 Unit 2.7: Signal conditioning

2.7.1 Phases of signal conditioning

After selecting a transducer for an application, you must provide suitable signal conditioning:
excitation and condition the output signal. Conditioning depends on a process that prepares
the analogue signal for
the transducer’s characteristics and the signal’s destination. Signal conversion to a digital
conditioning is a process that prepares the analogue signal for conversion form

to a digital form.
The following are the signal conditioning phases in the context of data
acquisition:
• Amplification: Increasing the magnitude of the signal to improve its
strength or resolution.
• Filtering: Removing unwanted noise or frequency components from
the signal using filters such as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass or notch
filters.
• Linearisation: Adjusting non-linear signals to achieve a linear
relationship for easier interpretation and analysis.
• Isolation: Providing electrical isolation between different parts of the
circuit to prevent ground loops and reduce noise interference.
• Attenuation: Decreasing the magnitude of the signal to match the input
range or dynamic range of the data acquisition system.
• Offsetting: Adding or subtracting a constant value to shift the entire
signal within a specified range, often used to remove DC offset or adjust
the signal baseline.
• Normalisation: Scaling the signal to a standard amplitude or range to
ensure consistency and compatibility across different measurements or
systems.
• Digitisation: Converting the analogue signal into digital format using
analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs) for further processing and
analysis.
These phases collectively ensure that the signals from sensors or sources are
conditioned appropriately to meet the requirements of the data acquisition
system, enabling accurate and reliable measurement and analysis.

2.7.2 E
 lectronic components used to perform
signal conditioning
Key considerations include attenuation, impedance transformation,
level transformation, linearisation and amplification. Common signal
conditioning involves adjusting the signal to standard ranges, such as +V

54 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 to +5 V or 4 mA to 20 mA, for remote transmission. This can be achieved
using electronic components such as operational amplifiers and bridge
networks. The conditioning circuitry and performance are determined by
the transducer’s characteristics.

Module 2
Activity 2.4
1. Describe why attenuator networks are necessary when dealing with
high output signal voltages from transducers and how they help to
condition the signal for operational amplifier input stages. (4)
2. Explain what linearisation is and why it is required for improving
the signals that do not show a linear relationship to the actual
measurement. Provide an example of how linearisation can be
implemented.(4)
3. List and explain the different phases of signal conditioning required
for data acquisition. (16)
4. Define offsetting in the context of signal processing and provide
three typical applications where offsetting is used.  (5)
5. Draw a typical attenuation network and label the components,
including (V1) and (V2).(6)
6. Draw the linearisation curve and label the axes and important points
on the curve. (4)
7. Draw the offsetting to amplifier circuit and label the components,
including the input voltage, offset voltage and output voltage. (6)
TOTAL: [45]

Unit 2.8: Interfacing

2.8.1 Interfacing
interface: a circuit
Connecting various circuits, analogue or digital units, and inputs or loads
which enables the to other electronic units requires interfacing. An interface is a circuit which
transfer of data from
one electrical system to
enables the transfer of data from one electrical system to another.
another Interface circuits can be categorised as either driver or receiver units:
receiver: accepts
inputs with high input • A receiver accepts inputs with high input impedance to minimise signal
impedance to minimise
signal loading
loading.
driver: provides output • A driver provides output signals at voltage or current levels suitable for
signals at voltage or
current levels suitable
operating multiple loads.
for operating multiple
loads Interfacing is also needed when connecting signals between terminals of a
digital system. Devices such as teletypes, video terminals, card readers and

TVET FIRST Transducers 55

 line printers use various signal forms. Circuits may use +5 V for mark and
+V for space while teletype units may use current-loop signals with 20 mA
for mark and 4 mA for space. Since these signals can be inputs or outputs,
different interface circuits are needed to convert between signal types.
To handle signals conditioned to V to 5 V or 4 mA to 20 mA ranges, but
requiring conversion from one type to the other, for example 1–5 V to
4–20 mA or vice versa, specific interfacing methods are necessary. These
interfacing methods are:
• Voltage-to-current interfacing: Converts a conditioned voltage signal
into a standard current range.
• Current-to-voltage interfacing: Converts a conditioned current signal
into a standard voltage range.

2.8.2 Voltage-to-current interfacing

Figure 2.1illustrates a voltage-to-current interface network. Connecting the
positive input to the common line inverts the output voltage, resulting in a
voltage drop across the dropping resistor (RD) equal to IL × RD.

R1 R2

– IL RL
Vin
+
Vout
RD

Figure 2.11: Voltage-to-current interface network

Output voltage and voltage drop for voltage-to-current interfacing

​R2​  ​​
_
V
​ out
​  ​​  = ​V​ in​​  × ​ ​R​   ​​ ​​
1
​
Voltage drop across dropping resistor = IL × RD

where:
Vout = output voltage (V)
Vin = input voltage (V)
IL = output or load current (A)
RD = dropping resistance (Ω)

56 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 Example 2.3
Dropping resistor calculations
To interface a V to 5 V signal source with a 4 mA to 20 mA control
system, a dropping resistor is required. If both the input and feedback

Module 2
resistors are 50 kΩ, calculate the value of the dropping resistor (RD).

Solution
​R​  ​​
​​V​ out​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ _ 2
​R​  ​​
 ​
1
R
​ 2​  ​​
​RD​  ​​ ​IL​  ​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ _
​R1​  ​​
 ​
​R​  ​​
RD​  ​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ _
​ 2
​I​  ​​ ​R​  ​​
 ​
L 1

50 × ​10​​  3​
= 5 × ​ _______________
    ​
(​ 20 × ​10​​  −3)​ (​​ 50 × ​10​​  3)​ ​
= 250  Ω (Resistor cannot be negative.)​

Example 2.4
Calculations for voltage-to-current interface
Calculate the value of the input resistor (R1) for a voltage-to-current
interface network. The dropping resistor (RD) is 2 kΩ and the feedback
resistor (R2) is 2 MΩ. This network needs to interface a 2 V to 6 V signal
with a 5 mA to 2mA control system. Also determine the output current
for an input voltage of 2 V.

Solution
​R​  ​​
​​V​ out​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ _ 2
​R​  ​​
 ​
1
R
​ 2​  ​​
​RD​  ​​ ​IL​  ​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ _
​R1​  ​​
 ​
​R​  ​​
R1​  ​​  = − ​Vin​  ​​  × ​ _
​ 2
​I​  ​​ ​R​  ​​
 ​
L D

R1​  ​​  = 6​[______________

​ 21 × ​10​​  −3)​ (​​ 2 × ​10​​  3)​ ​]
2 × ​10​​  ​ 6
​ ​  (    ​ ​

= 285, 714  Ω (Resistor cannot be negative)​

​R​  ​​
​​IL​  ​​  = ​V​ in​​  × ​ _ 2
​R​  ​​ ​R​  ​​
 ​
1 D

= 2​[_________________
​(285, 714 × ​10​​  3​)​​(2 × ​10​​  3​)​]
2 × ​10​​  ​ 6
​   
    ​ ​

= 7  mA​

TVET FIRST Transducers 57

 2.8.3 Current-to-voltage interfacing
Figure 2.12 shows how current-to- R2
voltage interfacing is done by converting
a conditioned current signal into a R1
–
corresponding voltage drop across a RD R1
suitable dropping resistor (RD). The +
resulting output voltage (Vout) is then current
source current RL
sent through a buffer amplifier to isolate
load R2
the output from the input, preventing
shunting of the dropping resistor and
avoiding errors. The operational amplifier
is usually set to unity gain with R1 = R2. Figure 2.12: Current-to-voltage interfacing network

Output voltage for current-to-voltage interfacing

​R2​  ​​
_
V ​  ​​  = ​ ​R​   ​ ​​ × ​RD​  ​​  × ​I​ in​​​
​ out
1
​
The ratio R2/R1 is the amplifier gain. Therefore, R1 = R2 gives us unity gain.
V
​ out
​  ​​  = ​R​ D​​  × ​I​ in​​​
​

Example 2.5
Calculations for current-to-voltage interface
A 5 mA to 25 mA current source delivers a 10 mA input signal to a
current load. The buffer amplifier, with unity gain, must produce an
output range of 3 V to 7 V. Calculate the:
a) Value of the dropping resistor (RD).
b) Output voltage (Vout).
Solution
a) Value of the dropping resistor (RD).
​​V​ out​​  = ​R​ D​​  × ​I​ in​​
​V​  ​​
​R​ D​​  = ​ _ out
I​ in​  ​​
 ​
7
= ​ _ −3 ​
25 × ​10​​  ​
= 280  Ω​

b) Output voltage (Vout).

​​V​ out​​  = ​R​ D​​  × ​I​ in​​
= ​(280)(​​ 10 × ​10​​  −3)​ ​
= 2, 8  V​

58 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 Example 2.6
Calculations for current-to-voltage interface
A current source operates in a 4 mA to 20 mA range and needs to be
connected to a V to 5 V control system using an operational amplifier.

Module 2
Determine:
a) An appropriate value for the feedback resistor.
b) The output voltage when the input current is 13,2 mA.
Solution
a) Appropriate value for the feedback resistor.
​​V​ out​​  = ​R​ f​​  × ​I​ in​​
​V​  ​​
R​ f​​  = ​ _
​ out
I​ in​  ​​
 ​
5
= ​ _ −3 ​
20 × ​10​​  ​
= 250  Ω​

b) The output voltage when the input current is 13,2 mA.

​​V​ out​​  = ​R​ f​​  × ​I​ in​​
= ​(250)​​(13, 2 × ​10​​  −3​)​
= 3, 3  V​

Activity 2.5
1. Draw a fully labelled circuit diagram of a standard attenuation
network used in operational amplifier circuits. Include the voltage
output formula and specify how the resistor ratios affect the
attenuation of each input signal. (6)
2. Give four typical practical examples of signal conditioning processes
that can be achieved through using operational amplifiers. (4)
3. Define the term ‘interface’. (2)
4. Draw fully labelled diagrams for the following circuits:
4.1 Current-to-voltage interface. (6)
4.2 Voltage-to-current interface. (6)
5. A V to 5 V signal source is needed to interface with a 4 mA to 20
mA control system. Determine the value of the dropping resistor
(RD) if both the input (Rin) and feedback (Rf ) resistors have similar
values of 50 kΩ. (5)

TVET FIRST Transducers 59

 6. A transducer has an output current that varies between 4 mA and 20
mA. This output signal must be interfaced with the standard V to 5 V
control system. The operational amplifier that is used to achieve this
interfacing has unity gain. Calculate the:
6.1 Value of a suitable resistor for RD.(3)
6.2 Output voltage for an input current of 12,5 mA. (3)
6.3 Output current from the transducer if 3,75 V is measured at the
output of the interface amplifier. (4)
7. A thermocouple has an output of 15 mV per 20 °C and is required
to measure the temperature of a furnace in the range of 60 °C and
500 °C. Calculate the value of the feedback resistor that will obtain
the best results for this measurement with a standard signal range
of V to 5 V if the metering resistor has a value of kΩ. (4)
8. A detector bridge consists of three standard resistors, each kΩ, and
a resistance thermometer with a nominal resistance of kΩ at 25
°C. The temperature coefficient of the resistance thermometer is
0,00Ω/Ω/°C. The bridge’s supply voltage is 3 V. Determine:
8.1 The detector voltage when the thermometer temperature is
100 °C. (4)
8.2 A suitable feedback resistor value for an operational amplifier
if the above detector voltage is used in a V to 5 V amplification
network. The metering resistor is kΩ and the output voltage
must be 4 V at 100 °C. (3)
9. Calculate the value of the input resistor (R1) for a voltage-to-current
interface network, given that the dropping resistor (RD) is 1,5 kΩ
and the feedback resistor (R2) is MΩ. This network needs to interface
a V to 5 V signal with a 4 mA to 20 mA control system. Also
determine the output current for an input voltage of 2 V.  (5)
TOTAL: [55]

Unit 2.9: Analogue combination circuits

2.9.1 Properties of an ideal operational amplifier

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a highly effective differential amplifier
that uses voltage feedback to maintain a stable voltage gain. The ideal
operational amplifier has the following properties:
• Infinite input impedance: Ensures that the operational amplifier draws
no current from the input source, preserving the integrity of the input
signal.

60 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 • Infinite bandwidth: Allows the operational amplifier to amplify
signals of any frequency without any loss of gain, ensuring consistent
performance across a wide range of frequencies.
• Zero output impedance: Enables the operational amplifier to deliver the
full output signal to the load without any loss or attenuation, providing

Module 2
maximum power transfer.
• Zero open-loop gain: In an ideal operational amplifier without feedback,
the output would be perfectly stable and zero when the inputs are equal,
eliminating any potential for signal drift.
• Zero offset voltage: This means that the operational amplifier produces
zero output when the input voltage difference is zero, ensuring perfect
accuracy and no deviation in the output signal.

2.9.2 C
 haracteristics and applications of
operational amplifiers
An operational amplifier has several key characteristics:
• Very high open-loop gain: In the absence of feedback, the operational
amplifier provides extremely high amplification of the input signal, making
it highly sensitive to small input differences.
• High input impedance: This ensures minimal current draw from the
signal source, preserving the original signal and preventing loading
effects.
• Low output impedance: This allows the operational amplifier to effectively
drive loads and deliver strong output signals with minimal loss.
• Wide bandwidth: The operational amplifier can amplify signals over a
broad range of frequencies, ensuring versatile performance in various
applications.
• Fast slew rate: The operational amplifier can rapidly change its output
voltage in response to changes in the input signal, making it suitable for
high-speed applications.
Typical applications of operational amplifiers include:
• Interfacing: Connecting different electronic devices and systems while
maintaining signal integrity.
• Instrumentation circuits: Enhancing the accuracy and performance of
measurement systems.
• Analogue computers: Performing mathematical operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and integration using continuous
signals.
• Summing: Combining multiple input signals into a single output.

TVET FIRST Transducers 61

 • Differentiating: Producing an output that represents the rate of change of
the input signal.
• Integrating: Producing an output that represents the accumulation of the
input signal over time.
• Inverting: Reversing the polarity of the input signal to produce an output
that is the negative of the input.

2.9.3 Summing amplifier

A summing amplifier or summer is an operational amplifier circuit that summing amplifier
combines the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single output or summer: an
operational amplifier
voltage. We can use it to obtain a sum total of several individual input signals circuit that is used to
as follows: combine the voltages
present on two or more
• If the input resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all equal, the result will be a unity inputs into a single
output voltage; used to
gain total.
obtain a sum total of
• If the input resistors have different values, the output will be the sum of several individual input
signals
the input signals.

a) Operating principle of a summing amplifier

Figure 2.13 shows the circuit diagram of a summing amplifier:

• Input signals: Multiple input voltages (V1), (V2)
I1
and (V3) are applied to the inverting input of IF
V1 R1 RF
the operational amplifier through resistors (R1),
I2
(R2) and (R3) respectively.
V2 R2 –
• Virtual ground: The non-inverting input of the
Vout
I3
operational amplifier is grounded, creating a +
virtual ground at the inverting input due to the V3 R3
high gain of the operational amplifier.
• Current summation: The currents (I1), (I2) and
(I3) through the input resistors (R1), (R2) and Figure 2.13: Summing amplifier circuit
(R3) respectively are summed at the inverting
input. These currents are given by:
​V1​  ​​
_ ​V2​  ​​
_ ​V3​  ​​
_
I​ 1​  ​​  = ​ ​R​   ​ ​​ ;  ​I2​  ​​ ​ ​R​   ​ ​​ ;  ​I3​  ​​ ​ ​R​   ​​​​
1 2 3
​
• Feedback: A feedback resistor (RF) connects the output (Vout) to the
inverting input, allowing the operational amplifier to balance the
summing currents by adjusting the output voltage.
• Output voltage: The output voltage (Vout) is the inverted and scaled sum
of the input voltages and is given by:

​  ​​  = − ​RF​  ​​​(​R

​  ​   ​ ​​ + ​ ​R​   ​ ​​ + ​ ​R​   ​​​)​​
​V1​  ​​
_ ​V2​  ​​
_ ​V3​  ​​
_
V
​ out
1 2 3
​

62 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 The inverting summing amplifier sums the input voltages, inverts them and
scales the result according to the feedback and input resistors.

Feedback current and output voltage of a summing amplifier

​IF​  ​​  = − ( ​I1​  ​​  + ​I​ 2​​  + ​I​ 3​​  )

Module 2
​  ​​  = − ​RF​  ​​​(​R
​  ​   ​ ​​ + ​ ​R​   ​ ​​ + ​ ​R​   ​​​)​​
​V1​  ​​
_ ​V2​  ​​
_ ​V3​  ​​
_
​Vout
1 2 3

If all the resistors are equal in value:

V ​  ​​  = − ( ​V1​  ​​  + ​V​ 2​​  + ​V​ 3​​  )​
​ out
​
Amplifier gain:
​Vout
_ ​  ​​
A
​ V​  ​​  = ​  ​V​   ​​​​
in
​
b) Applications of summing amplifiers
Audio experts can merge signals from different channels and produce them
as a unified track as follows:
• Each audio input is adjustable separately.
• Adjustments to individual inputs do not alter the final output.
Summing amplifiers are also widely used in digital-to-analogue converters.
This application ensures precise conversion from digital signals to analogue
sound.

Example 2.7
Calculations for a summing amplifier
A summing amplifier has inputs V1 = –5 V; V2 = 0, 5 V; V3 = 8 V. The input
resistors have the following values: R1 = 10 kΩ; R2 = 5 kΩ; R3 = 18 kΩ.
Calculate the output voltage Vout if RF = 15 kΩ.

Solution

( 1 R​ 2​  ​​ ​R3​   ​​​ )​

​V​  ​​ ​V2​  ​​ _ ​V3​  ​​
​  ​​  = − ​RF​  ​​​ _
​​Vout ​  ​R​ 1 ​ ​​ + ​ _ ​  + ​ 

= − 15  000 × ​(_ 5  000 18  000 )

−5 8 0, 5
​  10  000 ​  + ​ _  ​  + ​ _  ​ ​
= − 0, 667  V​

Example 2.8
Calculating field resistance
A summing amplifier has the following values: R1 = 6 kΩ; R2 = 8,5 kΩ; R3
= 12 kΩ. The input voltages are V1 = 1,5 V; V2 = –0,25 V; V3 = 0,75 V. If
Vout = –5,945 V, calculate the value of RF.

TVET FIRST Transducers 63

 Solution
​​V​ out​​  = − ​RF​  ​​​(_ ​R2​  ​​ ​R3​  ​​ )
​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​
​  ​R​ 1 ​ ​​ + ​ _ 2
 ​  + ​ _3 ​ ​
1

− 5, 945 = − ​RF​  ​​​(_ 8 500 12 000 )

1, 5 − 0, 25 0, 75
​  6 000 ​  + ​ _  ​  + ​ _ ​ ​
− 5, 945 = − ​RF​  ​​​(0, 283 × ​10​​  −3​)​
− 5, 945
R​ F​​  = ​ _
​  ​
− 0, 283 × ​10​​  −3​
= 21  kΩ​

2.9.4 Integrator circuit

The integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs integration integrator: an
(mathematical operation). The output voltage from this circuit is operational amplifier
circuit that performs
proportional to the integral of the input voltage. This means that the the mathematical
magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage operation of integration;
the output voltage is
is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or proportional to the
discharges the capacitor, through which the required negative feedback integral of the input
voltage
occurs. The feedback component used in this amplifier circuit is a capacitor.

a) Operating principle of an integrator circuit

In the integrator circuit in Figure 2.14:
• Input signal: A voltage signal (Vin) is applied to the C
inverting input of the operational amplifier through a
resistor (R).
R –
• Virtual ground: The non-inverting input of the
Vout
operational amplifier is grounded, creating a virtual Vin +
ground at the inverting input.
• Current flow: The input voltage (Vin) creates a current
(I) through the resistor (R), which is given by:
​Vin​  ​​
_ Figure 2.14: Integrator circuit
I = ​ R ​​
​
• Integration: The current (I) charges the capacitor (C) connected in the
feedback loop from the output (Vout) to the inverting input. The voltage
across the capacitor (VC) is given by the integral of the current over time:
1
_ 1 ​V​  ​​
_
​ C​  ​​  = ​ C​ ​∫​ ​ I​  dt = ​ 
V ​ ​∫​ ​ _in​  dt​
C ​  R ​
​
• Output voltage: The output voltage (Vout) is the negative of the voltage
across the capacitor (VC) due to the inverting configuration of the
operational amplifier. Therefore, the output voltage is:
​Vin​  ​​
_
Rate of change of  ​Vout
​  ​​  = ​ C ​R​   ​ ​​ V/s
in

1
_
 ​V​ 
​ out
​​  = − ​ RC​ ​∫​ ​ ​Vin​  ​​  dt​​

64 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 The integrator circuit produces an output voltage that is proportional to
the negative integral of the input voltage over time with a scaling factor
of (
​​ _ 1
​  RC ​)​​.
The rate at which the output voltage changes is related to the value of the

Module 2
input voltage at that instant. The output voltage is 90° out of phase with the
input voltage.

Rate of change and output voltage for an integrator

​Vin​  ​​
_
​rate of change of  ​Vout
​  ​​  = ​ C ​R​   ​ ​​ V/s
in

1
_
 ​V​ out​​  = − ​ RC​ ​∫​ ​ ​Vin​  ​​  dt​​

b) Applications of integrator circuits

Examples of applications of integrator circuits include the following:
• They are used in analogue computers, analogue-to-digital converters and
wave-shaping circuits.
• They serve as charge amplifiers for shaping waveforms.
• They are are used to build integrator circuits.
• High-gain discrete transistor configurations are also viable alternatives
for constructing these circuits.

Example 2.9
Integrator calculations
An integrator circuit has the following component values: C = µF;
R = 82 kΩ; VC = 5 V; t = 0 s. Vin is a rectangular pulse of 5 V which
begins at t = 0 and ends at t = 100 ms. Calculate the output voltage
at the end of the pulse.

Solution
1
​  ​​  = − ​ _
​​Vout ​ ​∫​ ​  ​Vin​  ​​  dt​
RC
1
= − ​ _ ​ ​∫​ ​  ​Vin​  ​​  dt​ + ​VC​  ​​​(0)​
RC
0,1
1
= − ​ _____________
   −6 ​  × ​ ∫​  ​5dt​ + 5
82  000 × 1 × ​10​​  ​ 0
1
= − ​ _____________
    ​ × 5 × 0, 1 + 5
82  000 × 1 × ​10​​ −6​
= − 1, 1  V​

TVET FIRST Transducers 65

 2.9.5 Differentiator circuit
A differentiator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs differentiator: an
differentiation (mathematical operation). This means that it produces an operational amplifier
circuit that performs
output voltage that is directly proportional to the rate of change of the input differentiation and
voltage with respect to time. In this circuit, a capacitor is connected to the produces a voltage
inverting input terminal of the amplifier while the resistor RF forms the output which is directly
proportional to the rate
negative feedback element across the operational amplifier. of change of the input
voltage with respect to

a) Operating principle of a differentiator circuit time

In the differentiator circuit in Figure 2.15:

• Input signal: A voltage signal (Vin) is applied to the R
inverting input of the operational amplifier through a C
capacitor (C). –
• Virtual ground: The non-inverting input of the Vin
Vout
operational amplifier is grounded, creating a virtual +
ground at the inverting input due to the high gain of
the operational amplifier.
• Current flow: The input voltage (Vin) creates a current
Figure 2.15: Differentiator circuit
(I) through the capacitor (C), which is given by:
d ​Vin​  ​​
_
​I = C ​  dt ​​
This is because the current through the capacitor is proportional to the
rate of change of the voltage across it.
• Feedback and output: The current (I) flows through the feedback resistor
(R) connected from the output (Vout) to the inverting input. According to
Ohm’s law, the voltage across the resistor (R) is:

​ R​  ​​  = IR = R​(C ​  dt ​)​​

d ​Vin​  ​​
_
V
• ​Inverting configuration: The output voltage (V ) is the negative of the
out
voltage across the resistor (R) due to the inverting configuration of the
operational amplifier. Therefore, the output voltage is:
d
_
​Vout
​  ​​  = − RC ​ dt​ ​Vin​  ​​
d ​Vin​  ​​  t
_
 =​ − ​R​ f​​  C ​  dt ​​
The differentiator amplifier produces an output voltage that is proportional
to the negative rate of change (derivative) of the input voltage, scaled by the
product of the feedback resistor (R) and the capacitor (C).

Output voltage of differentiator

d
_
​Vout
​  ​​  = − RC ​ dt​ ​Vin​  ​​
d ​Vin​  ​​  t
_
 =
​ − ​R​ f​​  C ​  dt ​​

66 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 b) Applications of differentiator circuits
Examples of applications of differentiators are the following:
• Differentiating amplifiers are specifically designed to handle triangular
and rectangular signals.

Module 2
• Their primary function is in wave-shaping circuits.
• They actively identify and process high-frequency components in the
input signal.

Example 2.10
Differentiator calculations
Table 2.3 provides values for an input signal.
Table 2.3: Input signal

Period 1 t = 0 to t = s V = 0, constant
Period 2 t = s to t = 4 s V = 0, rising to V = 6 V
Period 3 t = 4 s to t = 8 s V = 6 V, constant

Calculate the output voltages for each time period if RF = 50 kΩ and C = 10 µF.

Solution
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3
_ d​V​  ​​  t Δ ​V​  ​​  t d​V​  ​​t 6
​​  in ​ = 0 ​  ​​  = − ​Rf​  ​​  C ​ _
​Vout in
Δt
​ ____
​​  in ​= ​ _8−4
 ​
dt dt
V
​ out
​  ​​  = 0   V​
​ = − 50  000 × 10 × ​10​​ −6​ × 1, 5 = 1,5  ​Vs​​  −1​​
= − 0, 75  V​ Δ ​V​  ​​  t
​  ​​  = − ​Rf​  ​​C ​ _
​​Vout in
Δt
​
d​V​  ​​t
____ 6−0
​​  in ​= ​ _4−1
 ​ = − 50  000 × 10 × ​10​​ −6​ × 1, 5
dt
= 2  ​Vs​​  −1​​ = 0, 5  V​
d​V​  ​​t
​  ​​  = − ​Rf​  ​​C _
​​Vout ​  in ​
dt
= − 50  000 × 10 × ​10​​ −6​ × 2
= − 1  V​

Example 2.11
Differentiator amplifier calculations
A differentiator amplifier has the following values: C = 0,2 µF and
RF = 1,2 kΩ. If the input pulse ranges between 0 and 6 V in 0,s,
determine the output voltage.

TVET FIRST Transducers 67

 Solution
d
​  ​​  = − RC ​ _
​​Vout ​ ​Vin​  ​​
dt
RC = (1, 2 × ​10​​  3​  ) (0, 2 × ​10​​  −6​  )
= 0, 24  ms​
(6 − 0) d
​​  d ​ ​Vin​  ​​  = ​ _
_
0, 1
 ​ ​  ​​  = − RC ​ _
​​Vout ​ ​Vin​  ​​
dt dt
= 60  V/s​ = − ​(0, 24 × ​10​​  −3​)(​​ 60)​
= − 0, 0144  V​

2.9.6 Inverting amplifier

An inverting amplifier is a circuit with an output voltage that changes in the inverting amplifier:
opposite direction to the input voltage so it is out of phase by 180°. a circuit with an output
voltage that changes in
the opposite direction to
a) Operating principle of an inverting amplifier the input voltage so it is
out of phase by 180°
In the inverting amplifier circuit in Figure 2.16:
• The output voltage (Vout) is phase inverted by 180° RF
relative to the input voltage. When the input voltage
(Vin) is negative, the output voltage (Vout) becomes Vin Rin –
positive, and vice versa. Vout
+
• The voltage gain of the amplifier (AV) is determined by
the resistor values Rin and RF.
• An operational amplifier has infinite input impedance,
which means that no current flows into the inverting Figure 2.16: Inverting amplifier circuit
input. With no current flow through the input
impedance, there is no voltage drop between the inverting and non-
inverting inputs.
Output voltage and gain of an inverting amplifier
​Vin​  ​​ ​RF​  ​​
_
​Vout
​  ​​  = ​  ​R​   ​
​​
in

​Vin​  ​​ ​RF​  ​​
_
V
​ out
​  ​​  = − ​  ​R​   ​  (inverting
​​ phase)​
in

​Vout
_ ​  ​​ ​RF​  ​​
_
A
​ V​  ​​  = ​  ​V​   ​ ​​ = ​ ​R​   ​​​​
in in
​
b) Applications of inverting amplifier circuits
Examples of applications of inverting amplifiers are the following:
• They are used as a transresistance amplifier, also known as a
transimpedance amplifier, to convert current to voltage.

68 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 • They are particularly useful in low-power applications.
• They are used in the output stage of systems designed with various sensor
types.

Example 2.12

Module 2
Inverting amplifier calculations
Calculate the value of the feedback resistor (RF) of an inverting amplifier
that has the following values:
• Rin = kΩ.
• Vin = V.
• Vout = 12 V.
Solution
​R​  ​​
​  ​​  = − ​ _
​​Vout R
F
​ in​  ​​
 ​ × ​Vin​  ​​
​R​  ​​
12 = − ​ _F
1  000
 ​ × 1
RF​  ​​  = 12   kΩ​
​

Example 2.13
Inverting amplifier calculations
The inverting amplifier in
Vin +
Figure 2.17 has the following
Vout
values: Rin = kΩ and RF = 12
–
kΩ. If the input voltage Vin =
0,6 V, calculate the value of RF
the output voltage Vout.
R1
Solution
​RF​  ​​
_
​AV​  ​​  = ​ ​R​   ​​​
in

12 000 Figure 2.17: Inverting amplifier

​ = ​ _
1 000
 ​
= 12​
​V​  ​​
​​A​ V​​  = ​ _
V
out
​ in​  ​​
 ​ Alternatively:
​Vin​  ​​ ​RF​  ​​
_
​Vout
​  ​​  = ​A​ V​​  × ​V​ in​​ ​Vout
​  ​​  = ​  ​R​   ​
in
​​
= 12 × 0, 6 (0, 6 ) (12 × ​10​​ 3​  )
____________
 = ​ 
​    (1 × ​10​​ 3​  )
 ​
= 7, 2 V​
 = 7, 2 V​

TVET FIRST Transducers 69

 Example 2.14
Inverting amplifier calculations
For the inverting amplifier in Figure 2.18, +VCC
the following values apply:
Vout = 4,55 V and RF = 13 kΩ. If the
V1 –
input voltage Vin = 0,7 V, calculate the
Vout
value of the input resistance Rin. V2 +
Solution
​V​  ​​ ​R​  ​​ –VCC
​​Rin​  ​​  = ​ _
V
in F
​ out
​  ​​
 ​
Figure 2.18: Inverting amplifier
(0, 7 ) (13 × ​10​​  3​  )
= ​ ____________
   4, 545
 ​

 = 2 kΩ​

2.9.7 Non-inverting amplifier

In a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input voltage signal (Vin) is applied non-inverting
to the non-inverting (+) input terminal. This means that the output gain of amplifier: input voltage
signal (Vin) is applied
the amplifier becomes positive in comparison to the inverting amplifier. The to the non-inverting (+)
resulting output signal is in phase with the input signal. input terminal so that
the output gain becomes
positive in comparison
a) Operating principle of a non-inverting amplifier to the inverting amplifier
and the resulting output
12 kΩ signal is in phase with
RF the input signal
1 kΩ
Vin Rin –
0,6 V Vout
+

Figure 2.19: Non-inverting amplifier circuit

Figure 2.19 shows a non-inverting amplifier. We can achieve feedback control

in this circuit by applying a small part of the output voltage signal back to the
inverting (–) input terminal using an RF and R1 voltage divider circuit. This
produces negative feedback. This closed-loop configuration produces a non-
inverting amplifier circuit with good stability and high input impedance.

Output voltage and gain of a non-inverting amplifier

​  ​​  = ​(​  ​R​   ​

​​ )​ ​Vin​  ​​
​Rin​  ​​  + ​R​ F​​
_
​Vout
in

​Vout
_ ​  ​​ ​Rin​  ​​  + ​R​ F​​
_
A
​​ V​  ​​  = ​  ​V​   ​ ​​ = ​  ​R​   ​​
​​
in in

70 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 b) Applications of non-inverting amplifiers
Non-inverting amplifiers are used in applications that require signal
amplification without introducing phase inversion. Examples of applications
include:

Module 2
• Voltage amplifiers.
• Voltage followers.
• Buffers.
• Oscillators.
• Active filters.
• Instrumentation amplifiers.

Example 2.15
Non-inverting amplifier calculations
Calculate the output voltage of a non-inverting amplifier that has a
feedback resistor of 10 kΩ and an input resistor with a value of 0,5 kΩ.
The input voltage is 20 mA.

Solution

(​  R​ 1​   ​ + )

​R​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​​Vout F
​​
1 ​ × ​Vin​  ​​

= ​(_  ​ + 1)​  × 20 × ​10​​  −3​

​  10  000
500
= 0, 42  A
= 420  mA​

Example 2.16
Non-inverting amplifier calculations
A non-inverting operational amplifier has a voltage gain AV of 15 and an
input resistance Rin of 1,5 kΩ. Calculate the value of RF.

Solution
​R​  ​​  + ​R​  ​​
​​A​ V​​  = ​ _ in
R
​ in​  ​​
 ​
F

​ Rf​  ​​  = ​A​ V​​ ​Rin​  ​​  − ​R​ in​​

= ​Rin​  ​​  ( ​AV​  ​​  − 1)
= 1 500(15 − 1)
= 21 kΩ​

TVET FIRST Transducers 71

 2.9.8 Comparator
A comparator is an electronic circuit that uses an operational amplifier’s comparator: an
high gain in its open-loop state with no feedback resistor to compare one electronic circuit that
uses an operational
analogue voltage level with another and produce a digital output signal. amplifier’s high gain in
It has a high input resistance, low output resistance and high open-loop its open-loop state with
no feedback resistor to
gain. The output is a digital signal that indicates the difference between the compare one analogue
analogue input signals. voltage level with
another and produce a
The operational amplifier has been used with negative feedback in all the digital output signal

applications we have examined thus far. However, a comparator is a unique

type of operational amplifier used without feedback.
• The comparator operates in an open-loop configuration.
• Its open-loop gain (AO) is extremely high.
• If the voltage difference (V2 – V1) exceeds approximately 100 µV, the
operational amplifier saturates.

a) Operating principle of a comparator

13 kΩ
RF

Vin Rin –
0,7 V Vout 4,55 V
+

Figure 2.20: Comparator circuit

In the comparator circuit in Figure 2.20:

• If V2 is greater than V1, Vout rises to +VCC.
• If V2 is less than V1, Vout falls to –VCC.
• The operational amplifier functions as a two-state digital device with Vout
switching from high to low.

b) Applications of comparators
Examples of applications of comparators include:
• Voltage level detectors.
• Zero-crossing detectors.
• Relaxation oscillators.
• Absolute-value detectors.
• Analogue-to-digital converters.

72 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 2.9.9 D
 ifferences between the operational
amplifier circuits
Table 2.4 summarises the differences between operational amplifier circuits.
Table 2.4: Differences between operational amplifier circuits

Module 2
Operational Function Configuration Output Applications
amplifier
Summing amplifier Adds multiple input Has multiple input The output voltage is Audio mixing, signal
voltages together. resistors connected the weighted sum of processing.
to the inverting input. the input voltages.
Integrator circuit Performs mathematical Has a feedback The output voltage Signal integration,
integration of the input capacitor and an is a continuous sum analogue
signal, generating an input resistor. (integral) of the input computers, wave
output proportional voltage over time. shaping.
to the integral of the
input.
Differentiator Performs mathematical Has a feedback The output voltage Edge detection in
circuit differentiation of the resistor and an input is proportional to signal processing,
input signal, generating capacitor. the derivative of the wave shaping.
an output proportional input voltage.
to the rate of change of
the input.
Inverting amplifier Amplifies the input Input resistor is The output voltage Signal inversion,
signal and inverts its connected to the is the amplified, analogue
phase by 180°. inverting input and a inverted version of computation.
feedback resistor is the input voltage.
connected between
the inverting input
and the output.
Non-inverting Amplifies the input Input is connected The output voltage is Signal amplification,
amplifier signal without inverting to the non-inverting an amplified version buffer stages.
its phase. input and a voltage of the input voltage,
divider feedback maintaining the
network. same phase.
Comparator Compares two input Has an open-loop The output voltage Voltage level
voltages and switches configuration with no switches to +VCC or detection, zero-
the output to indicate feedback. –VCC depending on crossing detectors,
which input is higher. whether the non- analogue-to-digital
inverting input (V2) is conversion.
greater than or less
than the inverting
input (V1).

TVET FIRST Transducers 73

 Activity 2.6
1. Use a single operational amplifier to add three input voltages together. Illustrate this with a
labelled circuit diagram of the operational amplifier.  (4)
2. An amplifier has the following parameters: V1 = 1,5 V; V2 = 2,7 V; V3 = 2,3 V; R1 = 90 kΩ;
R2 = 119 kΩ; R3 = 450 kΩ; RF = 700 kΩ. Calculate the output voltage and the voltage gain
of the amplifier. (5)
3. Determine the input resistance for an integrator amplifier if C = 14 μF, Vin = 7 V and the
output voltage changes at a rate of 20 V/s. (3)
4. Determine the input voltage (Vin) for an integrator amplifier with a rate of change of
0,45 V/s, a capacitance (C) of 50 μF and an input resistance (Rin) of 12,5 kΩ.  (4)
5. Calculate the gain and output voltage of an inverting amplifier given the following
information:
• Input voltage = 0,6 V.
• Feedback resistance = 12 kΩ.
• Input resistance = 2 kΩ. (4)
6. For an inverting operational amplifier with RF = 18 kΩ, Vin = 3 V and Vout = 9 V, calculate
the value of Rin in kΩ.  (4)
7. An inverting operational amplifier has Rin = 2 kΩ and RF = 4 kΩ. Calculate the voltage
gain and determine the input voltage (Vin) if the output voltage (Vout) is 6 V.  (4)
8. Determine the output voltage and gain of a non-inverting amplifier with Vin = 5 V;
R1 = 10 kΩ; RF = 30 kΩ.  (5)
9. Given a non-inverting amplifier with an input voltage of V and an output voltage of 8 V,
calculate the value of the feedback resistor required if the input resistance is 4 kΩ.  (3)
10. Consider the amplifier in Figure 2.21 and then answer the following questions:
10.1 Identify the type of operational amplifier represented by the diagram. (1)
10.2 Calculate Rin if Vin = 2 V, Vout = 5 V and RF = 1,5 kΩ. (3)
RF

Vin Rin –
Vout
+

Figure 2.21: Operational amplifier circuit

TOTAL: [40]

74 Module 2 TVET FIRST

Summary of Module 2

Unit
2.1 Basic transducer theory

Module 2
● Transducer: Converts one form of energy into another and is used to sense and measure physical
phenomena and transform them into electrical signals or other usable forms of energy.
● Active transducer: Converts one form of energy into another without using an external power source.
● Passive transducer: Requires an external power source to convert one form of energy into another.
● Components or elements of a transducer: Sensing element, transduction element and signal conditioning
element.
● Sensor: A device that detects a physical quantity and produces an electrical signal. It has no other
component except itself.
● Actuator: A device that receives the electrical signal produced by a sensor and converts it into physical
output.
● Classification of transducers: Based on power requirement, application, conversion, output signal,
physical phenomenon, working principle.
● Basic measuring system consists of three elements: Sensor or input device, signal processor and receiver
or output device.

Unit
2.2 Data acquisition systems

● Data acquisition system: Obtains information from transducers that measure physical conditions and
converts the data into digital signals for processing and analysis.
● Data acquisition systems measure and record signals in two main ways: Direct measurement and
transducer-base measurement.
● Two main classes of data acquisition systems: Analogue and digital.
● Terms used with data acquisition systems: Amplification, attenuation, linearisation, offsetting, signal
conditioning and interfacing.
● Elements of an analogue data acquisition system: Transducer, signal conditioner, visual display unit,
Graphic recording instrument and computer system.
● Elements of a digital data acquisition system: Transducer, signal conditioner, scanner or multiplexer,
signal converter, analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter, auxiliary equipment and digital recorder.

Unit
2.3 Amplification

● Amplifier multiplier circuit: Used to amplify the signal to the desired measuring range.
​ out
V ​  ​​ ​R​  ​​ ​R​  ​​

( ​Rm​  ​​ )
_ _F _F
● Input and output voltages for an amplifier: V​ 
​​ in​​ = ° ​C​ max​​× ​   ​​; V​ 
​​ out​​ = V
​ in​  ​​​ 1 + ​   ​ ​​; V​ 
​​ out​​ = − V
​ in​  ​​× ​   ​​
°C ​Rm​  ​​
​ 1​  ​​
R ​ 3​  ​​
R

(​R1​  ​​+ R​ 2​  ​​ ​  ​​ )

_ _
● Out-of-balance voltage of the detector bridge: V​ 
​​ D​​ = V
​ S​  ​​​ ​   ​− ​   ​ ​​; d
​ R = dt ​RTH
​  ​​α​
​R3​  ​​+ R
​ TH

Unit
2.4 Attenuation

● Attenuation: Decreases the voltage, current, power or amplitude level of the signal so that the
conditioned signal is within the accepted usable range.
​V1​  ​​​R2​  ​​ ​V2​  ​​​R4​  ​​

[(​R1​  ​​+ R​ 2​  ​​ ) (​R3​  ​​+ R​ 4​  ​​ )]

_ _
● Output voltage for an attenuation network: ​​V​ out​​ = A​ ​ ​   ​ ​+ ​ ​   ​ ​ ​​

TVET FIRST Transducers 75

 Unit
2.5 Linearisation

● Linearisation: A way of improving signals that do not show a linear relationship to the actual
measurement to increase efficiency and maximise output power.

Unit
2.6 Offsetting

● Offsetting: Uses analogue techniques to shift a signal’s reference level by a predictable amount.

Unit
2.7 Signal conditioning

● Signal conditioning: A process that prepares the analogue signal for conversion to a digital form.
● Signal conditioning phases in the context of data acquisition: Amplification, filtering, linearisation,
isolation, attenuation, offsetting, normalisation and digitisation.

Unit
28 Interfacing

● Interface: A circuit which enables the transfer of data from one electrical system to another.
● Interface circuits: Categorised as either driver or receiver units.
● Interfacing methods:
◦ Voltage-to-current interfacing: Converts a conditioned voltage signal into a standard current range.
◦ Current-to-voltage interfacing: Converts a conditioned current signal into a standard voltage range.
● Output voltage
​R​  ​​ and voltage drop for voltage-to-current interfacing:
_2
​Vout
​  ​​ = V
​ in​  ​​× ​   ​​; Voltage drop across dropping resistor = IL × RD
​R1​  ​​ ​R​  ​​
_2
● Output
​ voltage for current-to-voltage interfacing: V​ 
​​ out​​ = ​   ​× ​RD​  ​​× I​in​  ​​​
​R1​  ​​
The ratio R2/R1 is the amplifier gain. Therefore, R1 = R2 gives us unity gain.
​​Vout
​  ​​ = R
​ D​  ​​× I​in​  ​​​

Unit
2.9 Analogue combination circuits

● Properties of an ideal operational amplifier: Infinite input impedance, infinite bandwidth, zero output
impedance, zero open-loop gain and zero offset voltage.
● Key characteristics of operational amplifier: Very high open-loop gain, high input impedance, low output
impedance, wide bandwidth and fast slew rate.
● Summing amplifier or summer: An operational amplifier circuit that is used to combine the voltages
present on two or more inputs into a single output voltage to obtain the sum of several individual input
signals.
● Feedback current and output voltage of a summing amplifier:
​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​

(​R1​  ​​ ​R3​  ​​ )
_1 _2 _3
​​IF​  ​​ = − ( I​1​  ​​+ I​2​  ​​+ I​3​  ​​) ; ​Vout
​  ​​ = − R
​ F​  ​​​ ​   ​+ ​   ​+ ​   ​ ​​
​R2​  ​​
● Integrator: An operational amplifier circuit that performs the mathematical operation of integration. The
output voltage is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. ​V​  ​​
_in 1
_
● Rate of change and output voltage for an integrator: R
​ ate of change of V
​ out
​  ​​ = ​   ​ V/s; ​Vout
​  ​​ = − ​  ​​∫​ ​  ​V​  ​​dt​​
C ​Rin​  ​​ RC in

● Differentiator: An operational amplifier circuit that performs differentiation and produces a voltage
output which is directly proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage with respect to time.

76 Module 2 TVET FIRST

Unit
2.9 Analogue combination circuits (continued)

d d ​Vin​  ​​t
_ _
● Output voltage of differentiator: V​ 
​​ out​​ = − RC ​  ​​Vin​  ​​ = − R
​ F​  ​​C ​  ​​
dt dt

Module 2
● Inverting amplifier: A circuit with an output voltage that changes in the opposite direction to the input
voltage so it is out of phase by 180°. ​V​  ​​​R​  ​​ ​V​  ​​​R​  ​​
_
in F _
in F
● Output ​  voltage
​Vout​​ ​R​  ​​ and gain of an inverting amplifier: V​ 
​​ out​​ = ​   ​; V ​ out
​  ​​ = − ​   ​ (inverting phase)​
_ _f ​Rin​  ​​ ​ in​  ​​
R
​​AV​  ​​ = ​   ​ = ​   ​​
​Vin​  ​​ ​Rin​  ​​
● Non-inverting amplifier: Input voltage signal (Vin) is applied to the non-inverting (+) input terminal so that
the output gain becomes positive in comparison to the inverting amplifier and the resulting output signal
is in phase with the input signal. ​R​  ​​+ R
​ ​  ​​ ​V​  ​​ ​R​  ​​+ R
​ ​  ​​

( )
_
in F _
out _
in F
● Output voltage and gain of a non-inverting amplifier: V​ 
​​ out​​ = ​ ​   ​​​Vin​  ​​; ​AV​  ​​ = ​   ​ = ​   ​​
​Rin​  ​​ ​Vin​  ​​ ​Rin​  ​​
● Comparator: An electronic circuit that uses an operational amplifier’s high gain in its open-loop state with
no feedback resistor to compare one analogue voltage level with another and produce a digital output
signal.

Summative assessment for Module 2

1. Define the following terms:
1.1 Transducer.(2)
1.2 Active transducer. (2)
1.3 Passive transducer. (2)
2. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false by writing only
‘True’ or ‘False’ next to the question number (2.1–2.5).
2.1 The feedback component to an integrator circuit is a resistor.
2.2 A capacitor is used as a feedback component in a differentiator circuit.
2.3 The output signal from an analogue comparator circuit is in digital format.
2.4 During offsetting, digital techniques are used for shifting the reference signal.
2.5 The output signal from an attenuator circuit is much bigger in value that the
input signal. (5)
3. The concept of unity gain in an operational amplifier denotes a relationship
between two resistors. Name these two resistors and identify the relationship
between them. (3)
4. Give four practical examples of signal conditioning processes that can be
achieved through using operational amplifiers. (4)
5. A standard V to 5 V signal source is required to interface with a standard 4 mA
to 20 mA control system. Calculate the value of the load resistor for a certain
voltage-to-current interfacing network that consists of a 10 kΩ input resistor
and a 250 kΩ feedback resistor. (8)

TVET FIRST Transducers 77

 6. A voltage-to-current interface amplifier has an input resistor of 20 kΩ and a
dropping resistor of 2 kΩ. It is used to couple a V to 5 V system to a 4 mA to
20 mA control circuit. Calculate the value of the feedback resistor required.  (4)
7. A thermocouple has an output signal of mV per 10 °C and is required to
measure the temperature of a roaster with a temperature range of 100 °C to
500 °C. Calculate the value of a suitable metering resistor for an amplifier
multiplier to interface with a standard V to 5 V signal range if the feedback
resistor is 100 kΩ. Show all your calculation steps. (10)
8. A non-inverting amplifier is used to amplify the output signal of a detector
bridge, which in turn activates a 5 V indicator lamp when a temperature of
100 °C is reached. The metering resistor is 900 Ω and the detector voltage
reads 0,06 V when the lamp is activated. Calculate the value of the feedback
resistor of the amplifier. (6)
9. Draw a block diagram of an analogue data acquisition system and explain the
function of each block. (12)
10. Draw simple labelled sketches of the following:
10.1 Integrator.(3)
10.2 Differentiator.(3)
10.3 Summing amplifier. (3)
10.4 Comparator.(3)
TOTAL: [70]

78 Module 2 TVET FIRST

 Module

3
Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity

Overview of Module 3
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 3.1: Ultrasonic theory

• List properties of ultrasonic energy through various forms of matter.

• Explain how sound waves are generated.
• List properties of ultrasonic waves.
• Explain the term piezoelectricity and draw a neatly labelled diagram of a piezoelectric crystal.
• List and explain two main groups into which piezoelectricity can be divided.
• Explain the term magnetostriction.
• Explain the function of a DC bias applied to the magnetostrictive core.
• Draw a labelled diagram of a typical magnetostrictive core.
Unit 3.2 Ultrasonic applications

• List industrial applications of ultrasonics.

• Explain the operating principles of the following ultrasonic applications:
◦ Ultrasonic cleaning.
◦ Ultrasonic machining (drilling).
◦ Ultrasonic soldering.
◦ Ultrasonic thickness testing/gauging.
◦ Ultrasonic welding.
• Explain with the aid of sketches the operating principles of the above ultrasonic applications.
• Describe the properties of the cleaning fluid used in ultrasonic cleaning.
• Give a detailed description of the tool tip used in ultrasonic drilling.
• Describe the slurry used and its functions during the drilling process.
• Explain the primary function of the vibrating tip used in ultrasonic soldering.
• Explain what is meant by the term cavitation.
• List precautionary measures to be taken in ultrasonic welding when working with radioactive
materials.
• List advantages of ultrasonic metal welding.
• List essential functions of the cutting fluid used during the ultrasonic machining process.
Unit 3.3 Radiation

• Explain what you understand by the following terms: radiation, electromagnetic radiation,
K-shell emission, efficiency of X-ray production, ionising radiation, X-ray, characteristic
radiation, the efficiency of X-ray production.
• List three ways in which energy can be transmitted.
• Draw a neatly labelled diagram showing the range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 79

 • List and explain properties of electromagnetic radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum.
• List characteristics of X-rays.
• Explain the generation or production of X-rays.
• Explain X-ray generation by means of diagrams.
• List two different atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons.
• List practical applications of X-rays and give one example of each.
• Explain with the aid of a labelled diagram the construction and operating principle of a modern
X-ray tube.
• Name primary functions of the power supply of an X-ray machine.
• Explain with the aid of a neatly labelled diagram the X-ray power supply unit.
• List factors which determine the efficiency of an X-ray.
• Use the information given in an X-ray tube to calculate the following values:
◦ Supply voltage.
◦ Shortest wavelength produced.
◦ Frequency of radiation.
◦ Power dissipated by tube.
◦ The X-ray power in watts.
◦ The percentage efficiency.
◦ Current drawn by the tube.
• Explain the purpose of the spectrometer as applied to the X-ray tube.
Unit 3.4 Radioactivity

• Explain what you understand by the following terms: radiation detectors, radioactivity, non-
ionising radiation, ionising radiation.
• List three categories of radiation detectors and explain their operating principles.
• Name gas-filled detectors and explain the functions of these instruments.
• Name and explain the operating principles of the following types of gas-filled detectors.
◦ Ionisation chamber.
◦ Proportional counter.
◦ Geiger-Muller counter.
• Explain what you understand by inert gas.
• Explain with the aid of neatly labelled diagrams the operating principles of the following
detectors and give a detailed description:
◦ Ionisation chamber.
◦ Proportional counter.
◦ Geiger-Müller counter.
◦ Photomultiplier tube.
◦ Semiconductor detector.
Ultrasonics is the field of science and technology which explores the properties and use of ultrasonic
sound waves. These sound waves have a frequency which is too high for the human ear to hear
and are essentially travelling vibrations. Transducers using ultrasonic sensors have many military,
navigation, industrial, scientific and medical applications.

80 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation Sound wave
used in the medical field to reveal images of Infrasound
the bones of people and animals. They are (below 16 Hz)
also used in industrial applications for the
non-destructive testing of materials and in
security applications, for example at airports.
Ultrasound
(over 20 kHz)

Module 3
Figure 3.1: Ultrasonic frequencies are higher than audible frequencies

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. How do ultrasonic sensors that are used in vehicle parking systems work?
2. How do fish finders work to detect a shoal of fish?
3. How is radiation used to treat cancer?

Unit 3.1: Ultrasonic theory

3.1.1 P
 roperties of ultrasonic energy through
various forms of matter
a) Acoustic energy and ultrasonic energy
acoustic (sound)
Acoustic (sound) energy is produced in a medium by creating alternating
energy: the energy in high- and low-pressure regions, which move through the medium at a speed
sound waves that travels
as vibrations through a
related to the medium’s density (see Figure 3.2). This energy transmission
medium such as air or occurs through collisions between the atoms or molecules in the medium.
water
Ultrasonic energy refers to sound energy with frequencies above the audible
medium: a gas, liquid
or solid range, which is around 20 kHz.
ultrasonic energy:
increased decreased atmospheric
sound energy with
frequencies above the pressure pressure pressure
audible range, which is
around 20 kHz

motion of air molecules propagation

associated with sound of sound

Figure 3.2: Acoustic energy

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 81

 b) Generation of ultrasonic energy
Ultrasonic energy is generated using piezoelectricity or magnetostriction. piezoelectricity: the
Piezoelectricity is the generation of a voltage by crystals that become generation of a voltage
by crystals that become
electrically polarised when under mechanical stress. Magnetostriction is electrically polarised
the change in dimensions of a ferromagnetic material when exposed to a when under mechanical
stress
magnetic field.
magnetostriction: the
change in dimensions
c) T
 ransmission properties of ultrasonic energy in of a ferromagnetic
different materials material when exposed
to an oscillating
magnetic field
Ultrasonic energy can propagate through solids, liquids and gases. The
transmission properties of ultrasonic energy in different materials are
described as follows:
• Excellent in solids.
• Good in liquids.
• Poor in gases.
• Non-existent in a vacuum.

d) B
 ehaviour of ultrasonic energy when moving
between media of different densities
Ultrasonic energy behaves similarly to electromagnetic energy. It reflects and
refracts when moving between media of different densities (see Figure 3.3).
It also experiences absorption resulting in attenuation over distance. This
attenuation is inversely proportional to the material’s density and directly
proportional to the square of the distance travelled.
ultrasonic
source

incident rays

refracted rays
reflected rays

Figure 3.3: Reflection and refraction of ultrasonic waves

82 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 3.1.2 How sound waves are generated
compression or When sound waves travel in a gas or a fluid, the gas or fluid is compressed
longitudinal wave: and expanded as the compression or longitudinal wave passes through
a wave where the
displacement of the (see Figure 3.4(a)). The properties of the wave depend on the compression
medium is parallel to stiffness and the density of the gas or fluid. Kinetic energy is generated by
the propagation of the
wave
the motion of the longitudinal waves.
kinetic energy: energy
When waves travel in solid materials, there are two possible forms:
which a body possesses
compression or longitudinal waves, which are the same as those in gases

Module 3
by virtue of being in
motion
or fluids, and transverse waves where the motion is at right angles to the
direction of propagation (see Figure 3.4(b)).

amplitude expansion amplitude wavelength crest

direction
direction

trough
wavelength compression

longitunal waves transverse waves

(a) Compression or longitudinal waves (b) Transverse waves

Figure 3.4: Shape and movement of waves
transverse wave:
a wave where the
displacement of
the medium is
3.1.3 Properties of ultrasonic waves
perpendicular to
the direction of the
Ultrasonic waves have the following properties:
propagation of the wave • Frequencies are higher than 20 000 Hz (20 kHz).
• The energy content is high.
• They require a medium in which to travel. If there is no medium, there
are no ultrasonic waves.
• Ultrasonic waves are reflected, refracted and absorbed in a similar way to
sound waves.
• They can be transmitted over long distances with minimal energy loss.
Scan here to see
• Short wavelengths result in high penetrating power.
a list of different
frequency ranges
• They produce intense heating effects when passing through a substance.
that humans and • The speed of propagation increases with frequency.
some animals
can hear.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 83

 3.1.4 Piezoelectricity and the piezoelectric crystal
The piezoelectric effect describes how pressure applied to a piezoelectric
material generates a voltage. The term ‘piezo’ means to press or be pressed.
This effect occurs only in non-conductive materials such as a quartz crystal.
A quartz piezoelectric crystal consists of silica and oxygen (SiO4) arranged
in a crystalline structure which is electrically neutral (see Figure 3.5). Silicon
and oxygen are linked together and their electronegativity is different. When
pressure is applied, this linkage is disturbed, resulting in the creation of
electrical energy. The energy generated can be stored in metal plates. The more
pressure is exerted, the larger is the amount of energy that will be created. A
different effect is generated when the piezoelectric material is placed between
charged metal plates. When the crystal deforms, it generates sound waves.

Foutput + Fintput

+ – + +
– +
– +
– +
– +
– +
–
– + –
– + –
+ – + +
– +
– +
– +
– +
– +
–
Foutput Fintput
–
(a) (c) (b)
no stress tension compression
+ + + + + – – – – –
–
– –
+ + + + + +

– – – – – –
+ +
+
– – – – – + + + + +

+ silicon – oxygen
atom atom

Figure 3.5: Piezoelectric crystal

3.1.5 Two main types of piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity is divided into two main types:
• Direct piezoelectric effect: When a crystal experiences oscillating
mechanical stress, it generates a small electric charge in microvolts that is
directly proportional to the applied stress (see Figure 3.6).
• Converse piezoelectric effect: When an alternating electromagnetic
force (emf) or magnetic field is applied to a crystal, the crystal changes its
dimensions. The magnitude and polarity of the oscillating emf or magnetic
field determine the direction and degree of this dimensional change.

84 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 force
+

metal piezoelectric material

plate
+ –

force –

Module 3
Figure 3.6: Direct piezoelectric effect

3.1.6 Magnetostriction
Magnetostriction occurs when ferromagnetic materials, such as iron-
cobalt and nickel alloys, change their dimensions in response to oscillating
magnetic fields. Figure 3.7 shows a ferromagnetic material consisting of
many small magnets. When the material is not magnetised, the domains are
randomly arranged. If the material is magnetised, the domains are orientated
with their axes parallel to one another. This results in a change to the overall
dimension of the material so that it expands or contracts depending on the
direction of the applied magnetic field.

applied
magnetic
field
(vertical)
–∆l

H=0

no applied
magnetic
field

l ∆l

applied
magnetic
field
(horizontal)

Figure 3.7: Magnetostriction

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 85

 3.1.7 F
 unction of a DC bias applied to the
magnetostrictive core
A DC bias is applied to a magnetostrictive core to enable the core to expand nodal line: the line in
along the nodal line. The nodal line in the core is the line that remains at the core that remains
at rest while the other
rest while the other parts vibrate. This expansion allows the core to oscillate parts vibrate
when an AC signal from an ultrasonic generator is applied (see Figure 3.8).

nodal line

AC from
ultrasonic magnetostricitive
generator core

DC bias
winding

Figure 3.8: Magnetostrictive transducer

Figure 3.9 illustrates a typical magnetorestrictive core.

Figure 3.9: Typical Fe-based magnetostrictive cores

Activity 3.1
1. Explain the following concepts specifically related to ultrasonic energy:
1.1 The frequency range of ultrasonic energy.
1.2 The methods used to generate ultrasonic energy.
1.3 How ultrasonic energy travels through different mediums.
1.4 Two unique properties of ultrasonic energy.
1.5 How ultrasonic energy behaves when moving from between
media of different densities. (10)

86 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 2. Using a neatly labelled sketch of a piezoelectric crystal, explain the
piezoelectric effect. (10)
3. What is meant by the term ‘magnetostriction’? How does
magnetostriction occur? (5)
4. What role does the DC bias serve when applied to the
magnetostrictive core? (3)
5. Draw a labelled diagram illustrating a typical magnetostrictive

Module 3
transducer.(5)
6. How do sound waves propagate through solid materials? (4)
TOTAL: [35]

Unit 3.2: Ultrasonic applications

3.2.1 Industrial applications of ultrasonics

Modern ultrasonic generators convert alternating electric currents into
mechanical oscillations, which produce frequencies over several gigahertz
(1 GHz = 1 billion Hz).
Examples of the applications of ultrasonics include:
• Sonar: Used for detection and communication in electronic engineering,
navigation and submarine warfare.
• Physics: Measures compressibility, specific heat ratios and elasticity of
matter.
• Technology: Produces emulsions, detects flaws, measures thickness in
materials and uses surface acoustic waves in electronic control devices.
• Medicine: Diagnoses and treats diseases, repairs tissue, treats arthritis,
gout and muscular injuries, destroys kidney stones and provides
detailed imaging during pregnancy. It offers finer surgical incisions
with ultrasonic scalpels and is more revealing than X-rays for certain
cancers.
We will focus on the following ultrasonic applications in the engineering
industry:
• Ultrasonic cleaning.
• Ultrasonic machining (drilling).
• Ultrasonic soldering.
• Ultrasonic thickness testing/gauging.
• Ultrasonic welding.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 87

 3.2.2 O
 perating principles of ultrasonic
applications
a) Ultrasonic cleaning
Ultrasonic cleaning is used for cleaning delicate items such as jewellery, hair
springs and fragile components where physical contact or high-pressure air
could cause damage.
Operating principle of ultrasonic cleaning
items being cleaned cleaning tub/container

cleaning fluid
cavitation bubbles

ultrasonic
transducers

ultrasonic generator

power supply unit

Figure 3.10: Ultrasonic cleaner

Figure 3.10 illustrates how an ultrasonic cleaner works:

• A tub filled with cleaning fluid has piezoelectric or magnetostrictive
ultrasonic transducers attached to the sides or bottom.
• The items to be cleaned are either suspended in the cleaning fluid or
placed in a special perforated container inside the tub. cavitation: the
• The transducers are activated by an ultrasonic generator, causing the formation of small
bubbles in the low-
liquid to vibrate. pressure regions in a

• The vibration in the liquid causes cavitation bubbles.

liquid when the liquid
has been accelerated to

• The agitated liquid and the cavitation bubbles remove the dirt on the items. high velocities

Cavitation
Cavitation occurs when ultrasonic energy creates alternating high and low
pressure in the liquid, forming and collapsing bubbles. When the bubbles
collapse, they generate high-energy shock waves that dislodge dirt from
the immersed parts. In extreme cases, cavitation can cause surface erosion
of materials and can also mix liquids that normally do not blend, like oil
and water.

88 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 For cleaning large quantities of items, a conveyor belt can move parts
through the cleaning fluid at a set speed.
Properties of the cleaning fluid
The cleaning fluid should have the following properties:
• Be able to hold the dirt in a suspended form to prevent redepositing it on
the items.
• Have wetting properties to ensure thorough physical contact with the

Module 3
surface to be cleaned.
viscosity: the state of • Viscosity: Have a low viscosity to minimise resistance to the propagation
being thick, sticky and of ultrasonic energy.
semifluid in consistency
due to internal friction • Surface tension: Have a low surface tension to ensure easier cavitation
and allow it to get into small gaps to remove dirt.
• Chemical Compatibility: Be compatible with the material being cleaned
and any contaminants present to effectively break them down.
• Degreasing Properties: Can contain surfactants or detergents that help
to dissolve oils, greases, and other hydrophobic substances.
• Non-corrosive: It should not damage the items being cleaned or the
ultrasonic cleaner itself.
• Temperature Stability: The fluid should be effective over a range of
temperatures, as ultrasonic cleaning often involves heating the solution to
improve cleaning efficiency.
• Environmental Safety: The cleaning fluid should be environmentally
friendly and safe for disposal after use.
• Foam Control: Must have additives that control foam formation, as this
can interfere with the cavitation process.
Applications of ultrasonic cleaning
Ultrasonic cleaning is used in many
applications in both science and
industry. Where extreme cleanliness is
required, ultrasonic cleaning is more
effective than mechanical or chemical
cleaning. It can penetrate items and
remove tightly bonded dirt from a
wide variety of surfaces. Examples of
items cleaned using ultrasonic cleaners
Figure 3.11: Ultrasonic cleaner used for disinfecting include jewellery, lenses and other
tweezers before depilation procedures optical parts, watches, dental and
surgical instruments, tools and coins. Large ultrasonic cleaners are also used
in assembly lines. Figure 3.11 shows an example of an ultrasonic cleaner.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 89

 b) Ultrasonic machining (drilling)
Materials that are too hard or brittle for conventional machining can be abrasion: the process
shaped by abrasion. An ultrasonic drill uses abrasion to create cavities of of scraping or wearing
something away
various shapes in these materials. The machine includes a magnetostrictive
core clamped at its nodal line and a coupling cone attached to the tool tip.
Operating principle of ultrasonic drilling

magnetostrictive
transducer

high-frequency
power vibration

coupling cone

tool tip
workpiece cooler
slurry

tank fixture pump

Figure 3.12: Ultrasonic drilling

Figure 3.12 illustrates how ultrasonic drilling works:

• The workpiece is immersed in a suspension of abrasive powder and water slurry: a mix of solids
called slurry. suspended in water

• Vibrations from the magnetorestrictive transducer transfer through the

linearly: vertically up
and down
coupling cone to the tool tip and pass to the workpiece via the slurry.
• The vibrations agitate the abrasive particles linearly, gradually carving a
cavity matching the tool tip’s shape.
Tool tip used in ultrasonic drilling
Figure 3.13 illustrates the tool tip used in ultrasonic drilling:
• It can be made of soft materials such as copper as the abrasive particles
do the actual cutting. Compared to hard materials, soft materials absorb
collision energy, which reduces wear.
• It can also be easily made into the desired shape using standard
machining methods. This shaped tool tip is then used to create
corresponding shapes in the workpiece during the drilling process.

90 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 spindle thrust
and feed
tool holder from slurry
pump
tool

abrasive grit
metal chips working gap

Module 3
workpiece
Note
● A feedback Figure 3.13: Tool tip used in ultrasonic drilling
circuit, which
includes a Functions of the cutting fluid / slurry used in the ultrasonic drilling
permanent
magnet, feedback process
winding,
resistor and The slurry consists of abrasive powder and water that is continuously
capacitor, tunes recycled. The functions of the slurry are to:
the generator
frequency to the • Maintain a steady presence of abrasive particles between the tool tip and
natural vibration workpiece.
frequency of the
magnetostrictive • Prevent particles from settling and halting machining action.
core to achieve
maximum • Cool and reduce deformation of the workpiece by reducing the heat
amplitude of generated during the cutting process.
vibration.
● Additionally, • Lubricate the tool.
the tool feed is
generally servo-
• Quench sparks.
controlled to
ensure the most
• Wash away debris/burs from the cutting area.
effective rate of • Minimise tool wear.
machining.
• Serve as a transport medium for the abrasive particles.
Applications of ultrasonic machining and drilling
Ultrasonic machining is used for:
• Precision machining.
• Cutting brittle materials such as carbide, glass and
ceramics.
• Cutting diamonds and other precious stones.
Applications of ultrasonic drilling include:
• Drilling through rigid rocks that would otherwise be
damaged by a rotary drill.
Figure 3.14: Ultrasonic drilling in CNC machines • In the medical field, surgeries involving the skeleton
lapidary: the engraving,
and heart.
cutting or polishing of
stones and gems
• In lapidary, for drilling small holes in gemstones and beads.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 91

 c) Ultrasonic soldering
A major challenge with soldering aluminium and its alloys is that an oxide
film forms on a cleaned surface immediately after soldering. This prevents
the solder from adhering to the aluminium. We resolve this issue by using an
ultrasonic soldering tool.
Operating principle of ultrasonic soldering

vibration tool tip

solder

cavitation
oxide
layer solidified
solder

base material

Figure 3.15: Ultrasonic soldering

Figure 3.15 illustrates how ultrasonic soldering works:

• Heat from the heated soldering tip melts the solder.
• Ultrasonic vibrations from the generator are transferred to the heated
soldering tip.
• The molten solder acts as a transfer medium for the vibrations.
• This induces cavitation at the tip of the soldering tool to break up and oxide: a compound
disperse surface oxides. of oxygen and another
chemical element
• The cavitating bubbles burst, cleaning all surfaces and allowing the liquid micropore: a tiny pore
solder to wet and bond to an oxide-free material.
• The vibrations also ensure that the solder joint is free of voids and force
the liquid solder into crevices and micropores in the substrate of the
material.
• The primary function of the vibrating tip used in ultrasonic soldering is
to cause cavitation in the molten solder, breaking up the oxide film. This
allows the solder to flow onto the aluminium surface and set before a new
oxide film can form, which prevents reoxidation.
Applications of ultrasonic soldering
Ultrasonic soldering can be performed with a handheld
ultrasonic soldering iron as well as mass production ultrasonic
soldering machines (see Figure 3.16). It is used to solder
metals and ceramics in solar photovoltaics and specialised Figure 3.16: Digital soldering station used
electronics and sensors. for soldering electronic components

92 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 See it online
Watch this video to learn more about ultrasonic soldering:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WuYdsStS1MQ&t=134s

d) Ultrasonic thickness testing/gauging

Ultrasonic thickness gauging is a non-destructive method for measuring
material thickness from one side, offering speed, reliability and versatility.
It works on metals, plastics, composites, fibreglass, ceramics and glass.

Module 3
However, it is less effective on wood, paper, concrete and foam due to poor
sound transmission.

couplant: a liquid used

A couplant, typically a liquid such as oil, glycerine or water, is used to help
in ultrasonic testing to ultrasonic energy transfer from the transducer to the test specimen by
facilitate the transfer of
sound energy from the
displacing air and improving sound transmission. This process requires no
transducer to the test cutting or sectioning, ensuring the material remains intact.
material by displacing
air Operating principle of ultrasonic thickness gauging

to display unit
(oscilloscope)

transmitting ultrasonic receiving

transducer generator transducer

striking
sound beam
returning
workpiece sound thickness of workpiece
beam

Figure 3.17: Ultrasonic thickness testing or gauging

An ultrasonic thickness gauge uses the reflection of the waves from the
workpiece being measured.
Figure 3.17 shows how to measure thickness using ultrasonics:
• A sound pulse is generated by an ultrasonic transmitting transducer.
• The pulse travels through the workpiece and is reflected back to a
receiving transducer.
• The gauge measures precisely how long it takes for the pulse to travel
through the workpiece and reflect back from the inside surface of the
material.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 93

 • The time lapse between the first and second deflection is proportional to
the distance travelled by the pulse through the material and the thickness
can therefore be determined.
Applications of ultrasonic thickness gauging
Ultrasonic thickness gauging is a widely used, non-destructive test technique
for measuring the thickness of a material from one side. It is fast, reliable and
versatile and, unlike a micrometre or calliper, it requires access to only one
side of the workpiece. Figure 3.18 illustrates a handheld digital ultrasonic
thickness gauge.
Ultrasonic thickness gauges are used in:
• The automotive industry to measure metal sheets and windscreens.
• Engineering and manufacturing to ensure consistency of parts on the
production line.
• Building and construction to measure the thickness of walls and pipes. Figure 3.18: Ultrasonic
• Glass manufacturing to measure the thickness of glass. thickness gauge used to
determine the thickness
of materials
e) Ultrasonic welding
Theoretically, if surfaces could be machined to perfect smoothness and
no oxide films were present, the surface atoms would unite and form a
permanent bond. Realistically, this is not possible, so we use ultrasonic
welding to bond materials.
Primary function of the vibrating tip used in ultrasonic soldering
In ultrasonic welding, the vibratory energy from an ultrasonic transducer
breaks down the oxide films and causes minor deformation of surface
irregularities, allowing a solid bond to form. This vibratory energy is
provided by an ultrasonic transducer similar to those used in machining and
soldering except that the tool tip is different.
The components are clamped clamping force
between the tool tip and a frequency
transducers converter
supporting anvil with enough vibration coupler
pressure to keep them in
close contact (see Figure welding tip
3.19). Vibratory energy is
weld mats
transmitted to the joint for
a set time, allowing bonding anvil
without using filler rods or
generating external heat. Figure 3.19: Ultrasonic welding

With ultrasonic welding, high-frequency vibrations are applied to the

surfaces of two parts by a vibrating tool called a coupling cone. Welding

94 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 occurs because of frictional heat generated at the interface between the two
parts. Ultrasonic welding is an automated process that requires the welder to
pull a lever or push a button to produce the ultrasonic weld.
Operating principle of ultrasonic welding
ultrasonic
sonotrode vibrations
F

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polymer layers
metal insert
groove micro channel

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.20: Ultrasonic welding

Figure 3.20 illustrates how ultrasonic welding works:

pneumatic actuator:
• The parts to be welded are put under a mechanical load with a pneumatic
a mechanical device that actuator that holds the transducer and coupling cone.
uses compressed air
acting on a piston inside • Mechanical vibrations are transmitted to the interface between the
a cylinder to move a material surfaces, which focuses the vibrations to create intermolecular
load along a linear path
and surface friction.
• This friction creates heat, the materials melt and the joint solidifies into a
welded bond.

Applications of ultrasonic welding

Ultrasonic welding is used in:
• The electronics industry to make electronic devices such as switches and
sensors.
• The medical field to make items such as catheters and masks.
• The automotive manufacturing industry to make lamp assemblies,
dashboards, buttons and switches.
• Engineering to make parts for motors and generators.
• The energy industry to make solar panels.
• The aerospace industry for aircraft and missiles.

Precautionary measures to be taken in ultrasonic welding when

working with radioactive materials
Radioactive materials can be welded using ultrasonic welding. Ensure that
you follow precautionary measures when using these materials.
• Ensure proper shielding to minimise radiation exposure.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 95

 • Limit exposure time near radioactive materials.
• Use remote operation whenever possible.
• Provide workers with appropriate protective gear.
• Monitor radiation levels regularly.
• Establish restricted access zones.
• Offer training on radiation safety protocols.
• Implement safe waste disposal procedures.
• Conduct routine equipment and facility inspections.
• Adhere to regulatory requirements for handling radioactive materials.

Advantages of ultrasonic metal welding

The primary advantage of ultrasonic welding is the absence of heat, which
prevents material deformation that occurs with conventional arc welding.
This method is ideal for joining electrical and electronic components,
splicing metallic foil and welding aluminium sheets. The clamping force can
range from a few grams for light materials to several thousand kilograms for
heavy pieces.

In addition:
• Assembly is a rapid, tidy, effective and consistent process that requires
minimal energy.
• There is no need for solvents, adhesives, mechanical fasteners or other
consumables.
• The resulting assemblies are robust and clean.

Activity 3.2
1. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false:
1.1 Ultrasonic energy ranges from 20 kHz to 50 kHz.
1.2 Ultrasonic cleaning is best suited for cleaning objects which are difficult to reach, for
example a gear of a fully assembled gearbox.
1.3 The surface tension of the cleaning fluid used during the ultrasonic cleaning process
should be high since ultrasonic energy is best propagated through solids.
1.4 When using the ultrasonic machining process, the tool tip sinks the cavities into the
material being machined.
1.5 The main advantage of using ultrasonic soldering rather than conventional soldering
is that no heat is applied that would deform the material. (5)
2. Explain how an ultrasonic soldering iron works using a labelled diagram and describe the
main purpose of the vibrating tip. (8)

96 Module 3 TVET FIRST

3. Answer the following regarding ultrasonic cleaning:
3.1 Draw a labelled block diagram illustrating an ultrasonic cleaning tub. (7)
3.2 Provide a detailed explanation of the cleaning tub described in Question 3.1, including
the type of transducer used with an ultrasonic cleaning tub. (6)
3.3 Define the term cavitation in your own words. (2)
3.4 Explain the characteristics of the cleaning fluid typically used in ultrasonic cleaning. (5)
3.5 Why is ultrasonic energy effective at mixing liquids that do not normally mix? (2)

Module 3
4. Explain the operational principle of ultrasonic machining with the help of diagrams. (9)
5. Describe the operational principle of ultrasonic welding using diagrams. (7)
6. Explain the operational principle of ultrasonic thickness gauging with the aid of diagrams. (9)
TOTAL: [60]

Unit 3.3: Radiation

3.3.1 Radiation terminology

a) Radiation
radiation: energy that
Radiation is energy that travels either as high-speed particles or as
travels either as high- electromagnetic waves known as photons. It is present in our homes through
speed particles or as
electromagnetic waves
radios and microwave ovens and we are constantly exposed to extremely low
known as photons levels from our natural surroundings.
non-ionising
radiation: radiation b) Non-ionising and ionising radiation
that lacks sufficient
energy to remove tightly Radiation is categorised into two types:
bound electrons from
atoms or molecules, thus • Non-ionising radiation: Radiation that lacks sufficient energy to remove
not causing ionisation tightly bound electrons from atoms or molecules, thus not causing
ionising radiation:
radiation with enough
ionisation. Examples include visible light, radio waves, microwaves and
energy to remove infrared radiation.
electrons from atoms or
molecules, creating ions • Ionising radiation: Radiation with enough energy to remove electrons
electromagnetic from atoms or molecules, creating ions. Examples include X-rays, gamma
radiation: radiation
rays and high-energy ultraviolet radiation.
that propagates in
waves or particles across
various wavelengths and
Together, these two types of radiation form the electromagnetic spectrum,
frequencies, forming the which is shown in Figure 3.21.
electromagnetic (EM)
spectrum c) Electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum
wavelength:
distance between two Electromagnetic radiation is energy that propagates in waves or particles
corresponding points of across various wavelengths and frequencies, forming the electromagnetic
two consecutive waves
(EM) spectrum.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 97

 Electromagnetic radiation is generated when an atomic particle, such
as an electron, is accelerated by an electric field, causing it to move. As
the particle moves, it produces oscillating electric and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other, forming bundles of light energy known
as photons. These photons travel at the speed of light as quantised photon: bundle of light
energy
harmonic waves and are categorised based on their wavelength in the
electromagnetic spectrum. Unlike sound waves, electromagnetic waves
do not need a medium for transmission. Therefore, these waves can
travel through space regardless of frequency, wavelength or method
of propagation. The electric and magnetic waves exhibit specific
characteristics, including energy, amplitude, wavelength and frequency, as
they travel perpendicular to each other.

3.3.2 Range of electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into seven sections based on
increasing wavelength and decreasing energy and frequency:
• Gamma rays.
• X-rays.
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• Visible light. Scan here for a
more detailed
• Infrared (IR) radiation. version of the
electromagnetic
• Microwaves. spectrum.
• Radio waves.
ionising radiation non-ionising radiation

gamma ray X-ray ultravoilet infrared microwave radio

visible

higher energy lower energy

Figure 3.21: The electromagnetic spectrum

98 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 3.3.3 P
 roperties of electromagnetic radiation on
the electromagnetic spectrum
Table 3.1: Different types of electromagnetic waves and their properties

Wave type Properties

Radio waves Longest wavelength.
Lowest frequency.
Used to transmit radio and television signals.
Microwaves Part of radio waves.

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Used in microwave ovens and cell phone signal transmission.
Infrared Generates heat.
Used in heat lamps, stove tops and security systems.
Visible light Colours that we see are made up of visible light waves.
Different colours have different wavelengths.
White light is a mix of all colours in the visible light spectrum.
Ultraviolet (UV) High energy due to short wavelengths.
Useful for some sterilisation applications.
Can damage cells if there is too much exposure.
Moderate amounts from the sun help to produce vitamin D.
X-rays Short wavelengths and high frequencies.
Can penetrate many types of matter because of higher energy.
Used in X-ray machines in the medical industry.
Also used in some engineering projects, automated inspection and
testing, non-destructive inspection and testing, and security systems.
Gamma rays Shortest wavelength with the highest frequency.
Used in the medical industry to treat cancer.

3.3.4 T
 hree ways in which energy can be
transmitted
Energy can be transmitted in three ways:
• Electromagnetic waves:
◦ Energy is transmitted as electromagnetic waves, which travel through
space without requiring a medium.
◦ X-rays are a good example where the energy is carried by photons,
which are packets of electromagnetic energy.
◦ Other examples include visible light, radio waves and microwaves.
These waves travel at the speed of light and can penetrate various
materials depending on their wavelength and energy.
• Particle radiation:
◦ Energy is carried by high-speed particles, such as electrons, protons,
neutrons and alpha particles.
◦ These particles are often emitted during radioactive decay processes
where unstable nuclei release energy to become more stable.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 99

 ◦ Particle radiation can ionise atoms and molecules by knocking out
electrons, which is why it is particularly significant in the context of
nuclear reactions and radiation therapy.
• Conduction:
◦ Although more commonly associated with heat transfer, conduction
also plays a role in radiation when energetic particles transfer energy
through direct contact.
◦ In this process, kinetic energy is passed from one particle to another
in a material.
◦ For instance, in certain radiation interactions, energetic particles
collide with atoms in a material, transferring energy and causing
excitation or ionisation of those atoms.

3.3.5 X-rays
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic X-rays: a form of
radiation with a very high frequency electromagnetic
radiation with a very
and energy. They can pass through high frequency and
most substances, making them energy

valuable in medical and industrial

imaging. Unlike visible light, X-rays
can penetrate the human body,
producing shadow-like images of
bones, organs and signs of disease or Figure 3.22: X-ray of hands
injury, making them a crucial tool in
medical diagnostics (see Figure 3.22). Additionally, X-rays are used in cancer
treatment and astronomical exploration.

3.3.6 Characteristics of X-rays

The following are the main characteristics of X-rays:
• Invisible to the naked eye.
• Electrically neutral, lacking positive or negative charge, and unaffected by
magnetic or electrical fields.
• No mass.
• Travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
poly-energetic:
composed of photons
• Cannot be optically focused. that have a range of
energies
• Poly-energetic or heterogeneous, with photons having various energy fluorescence: the
levels. property of some atoms
and molecules to absorb
• Travel in straight lines. light at a particular
wavelength and to then
• Can induce fluorescence in certain substances. emit light of a longer

• Cause chemical changes in radiographic and photographic film.

wavelength

100 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 • Can be absorbed or scattered by tissues in the body.
• Can generate secondary radiation.
• Can cause chemical and biological damage to living tissue.

3.3.7 Generation of X-rays

X-rays are generated when electrons hit a metal target. The electrons are
released from a heated filament and are accelerated by a high voltage towards
the metal target. X-rays are produced in energy packets called photons. They

Module 3
form when the released electrons lose energy by colliding and interacting
with the metal atom’s orbital electrons or nucleus.
To generate X-rays we need:
• A source of electrons.
• A method to accelerate the electrons at high speeds.
• A target material for the electrons to impact and interact with.

3.3.8 Diagram of generation of X-rays

Figure 3.23 shows how X-rays are generated in the target material when
struck by the high-velocity electron beam. According to the law of
conservation of energy, the reduction in the electron’s speed must equal the
amount of energy radiated as electromagnetic radiation or X-rays.
electron forced out
nucleus through collision nucleus

vacancy

X-ray photon
target
K material K electron moves
L atoms L to fill vacancy
M M (high energy level
valence valence to lower energy level)
electron electron

Figure 3.23: Generation of X-rays

Did you know?

3.3.9 T
 wo atomic processes that produce X-ray
The word photons
‘bremsstrahling’
derives from Two atomic processes can produce X-ray photons:
German bremsen ‘to
brake’ and strahlung
• Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation).
‘radiation’. • K-shell emission resulting in characteristic radiation.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 101

 In both processes, free electrons are directed at a target of heavy atoms, such
as tungsten, which is commonly used in X-ray tubes.
a) Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation)
In bremsstrahlung, a high-speed electron strikes a material and is slowed
down or stopped by the forces of atoms it encounters, which alters
its trajectory (see Figure 3.24). The electron’s speed decreases due to
interactions with the target atom’s electrons. This slowdown converts into
electromagnetic energy, which is emitted as X-rays. Bremsstrahlung X-rays
are particularly useful for medical and industrial applications.
projectile electrons

high-energy
bremsstrahlung
x-ray low-energy
bremsstrahlung
x-ray

Figure 3.24: Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation)

b) K-shell emission and characteristic radiation

K-shell emission occurs when a fast-moving
electron collides with a K-shell electron and ejects characteristic radiation emitted
the electron from the K-shell, leaving behind a hole.
Electrons from orbits with higher energy move
into this lower energy orbit to fill the hole. This
movement releases excess electromagnetic energy
outer-shell
in the form of X-rays, known as characteristic electron fills
radiation (see Figure 3.25). The energy of these vacant K-shell
X-rays corresponds to the energy difference space
between the outer and inner shell electrons involved incoming
in the transition. Since each element has a unique photon ejected K-shell
arrangement of electrons at specific energy levels, photoelectron
the radiation produced from these interactions is
characteristic of the element involved. Figure 3.25: K-shell emission or characteristic radiation

102 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 3.3.10 Practical applications of X-rays
The methods of energy transmission highlight the different ways in which
energy from X-rays and other forms of radiation can be transmitted,
affecting various applications in medicine, industry and science. Table 3.2
lists the practical applications and examples of X-rays in different
industries.
Table 3.2: Practical applications and examples of X-rays

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Field of practical application Examples of practical application
Engineering • Non-destructive inspection (NDT or NDI) is used for inspecting materials and
components without causing damage.
• Automatic inspection and testing is used in automated systems for quality
control and defect detection.
Medicine • X-rays are used for diagnosing fractures and other medical conditions.
• CAT scans (computed tomography) provide detailed cross-sectional images of
the body for medical diagnosis.
Scientific research • Inunderstand
quantum mechanics, X-rays are used in experiments and research to
atomic and subatomic structures.

3.3.11 Construction and operating principle of an

X-ray tube
rotating anode
tungsten target
stator
glass tube
rotor
bearings

anode

focusing cup window

X-ray photon beam
hot cathode filament
electrons
anode heel effect

Figure 3.26: Construction of an X-ray tube

The modern X-ray tube in Figure 3.26 has a helical tungsten filamentary
cathode and a copper anode with a target insert, typically made of tungsten
or molybdenum. The copper anode acts as a heat exchanger to dissipate the
significant heat generated alongside X-rays. It rotates so that the electron
beam does not strike the same spot on the target continuously, thus avoiding

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 103

 overheating. Different target materials can be used to produce various X-ray
spectra for specific applications.
The glass tube is highly evacuated to prevent gaseous discharge when high
voltages, around 150 kV, are applied between the cathode and anode. The
tube is often encased in a shockproof housing filled with oil, which provides
electrical insulation and helps cool the tube.
The stator and rotor make up the motor unit, which is responsible for the
rotation of the anode.
The X-ray tube operates as follows:
• The anode is set to a high positive potential relative to the
cathode.
• Electrons from the hot cathode filament are accelerated in
a narrow beam towards the tungsten target.
• High-speed electrons collide with the target atoms,
dislodging electrons from their normal energy levels.
• The dislodged electrons gain energy and move to higher
Figure 3.27: X-ray tube
energy levels, primarily producing heat.
• Only electrons that release energy by falling from higher energy levels to
the innermost energy level (K-shell) generate X-ray energy.
• A vacancy must exist in the lower energy level for electrons to fall from a
higher level, caused by excitation from the high-velocity electrons from
the cathode.

3.3.12 F
 unctions of the power supply for an X-ray
tube
The power supply of an X-ray machine functions to:
• Provide low-voltage current to heat the X-ray tube filament using a step-
down transformer.
• Generate a high potential difference between the anode and cathode
using a step-up transformer.

3.3.13 Operation of the X-ray power supply unit

Figure 3.28 illustrates the circuit of the power supply unit for an X-ray tube.
Note the following key aspects of the X-ray power supply unit:
• Milliamperage (mA) selector: Measures the number of electrons moving
through the filament. This is controlled via the mA selector on the control
panel.
• Kilovoltage peak (kVp) selector: Controls the voltage of the X-ray tube
current. This adjusts the number of electrons moving from the cathode to
the anode.

104 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 kVp selector timer

X-ray tube
AC power kVp mA
supply

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high-voltage transformer filament
transformer

autotransformer
mA selector

Figure 3.28: X-ray tube power supply

The power supply unit consists of two circuits:

• High-voltage circuit: Uses 60 to 100 kVp to accelerate electrons and
generate X-rays. It is controlled by the kilovoltage setting.
• Low-voltage filament circuit: Supplies 7 to 10 V to the filament. It is
controlled by the milliamperage setting. It ensures sufficient electron
supply via thermionic emission and protects the filament for longevity.
The circuit has the following transformers:
• Step-up transformer: Increases the voltage from 220 V to 60–100 kVp
for the high-voltage circuit.
• Step-down transformer: Decreases the voltage from 220 V to 7–10 V for
the filament circuit, ensuring stable electron emission.
• Autotransformer: Acts as a voltage compensator, correcting minor
fluctuations before the high-voltage circuit.
The timer is built into the high-voltage circuit. It controls the duration of the
X-ray exposure by regulating the application of high voltage to the tube. This
efficiency of X-ray
production: the ratio determines the flow of tube current and X-ray production time.
of the total X-ray radiant
energy emitted as
X-ray radiation to the
e) Efficiency of X-ray production
total electron energy
deposited in the target
The efficiency of X-ray production is the ratio of the total X-ray radiant
by electrons accelerated energy emitted as X-ray radiation to the total electron energy deposited in
from the filament
the target by electrons accelerated from the filament.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 105

 3.3.14 F
 actors determining the efficiency of X-ray
production
The factors that affect the efficiency of X-ray production are:
• Power deposition.
• Tube voltage. atomic number: the
number of protons
• Tube current. found in one atom of an

• The type and atomic number of the target material.

element

Activity 3.3
1. Define the following terms:
1.1 Radiation. (2)
1.2 Photon. (2)
1.3 Electromagnetic radiation. (2)
1.4 Ionising radiation. (2)
2. List the different types of waves found in the electromagnetic
spectrum.(7)
3. State four characteristics of X-rays. (5)
TOTAL: [20]

3.3.15 Calculations for X-ray tubes

a) S
 upply voltage and Shortest wavelength of X-rays
produced
Shortest wavelength of X-rays produced
h×c
_
λ = ​ 
V × q​​
​
where:
λ​
​ = wavelength of radiation (m)
h = Plank’s constant (​6, 63 × ​10​​ −34​​) (J/s)
c = velocity of light (​3 × ​10​​ 8​​) (m/s)
V = supply / applied voltage (V)
q = electron charge (​1, 6 × ​10​​ −19​​) (C)
Note: This formula can be manipulated to calculate the supply voltage:
h×c
_
V = ​ 
λ×q
​​
​

106 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 b) Frequency of radiation
Relationship between the wavelength and frequency of the radiation
​c = λf​

where:
c = velocity of light (​3 × ​10​​ 8​​) (m/s)
γ = wavelength of radiation (m)

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f = frequency (Hz)

c) Power dissipated by the tube

emitted power (Pr): Emitted power (Pr) is the rate at which energy is released as radiation. Note
the rate at which energy that emitted power can also be called emitted ray power, dissipated power or
is released as radiation;
also called emitted ray X-ray power.
power, dissipated power
or X-ray power Emitted power (Pr)
​Pr​  ​​  = 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​  × Z ​V​​  2​  I​

where:
Pr = emitted power (W)
Z = atomic number of the target material
V = tube voltage (supply voltage) (V)
I = tube current (A)

d) X-ray power deposition

power deposition
Power deposition (Pd) is the rate of energy deposition in the target.
(Pd): the rate of energy
deposition in the target Power deposition (Pd)
​​Pd​  ​​  = VI​

where:
Pd = power deposition (W)
V = tube voltage (supply voltage) (V)
I = tube current (A)

X-ray production e) Percentage efficiency

efficiency (η): the ratio
of emitted power to The X-ray production efficiency (η) is determined by the ratio of emitted
power deposition
power to power deposition.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 107

 X-ray production efficiency (η)
​p​  ​​
​η = ​ _r
​Pd​  ​​
 ​ × 100%
1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​  × Z ​V​​  2​  I
= ​ _____________
   VI
​ × 100%
= 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​  ZV × 100%​

where:
​η​= X-ray production efficiency
Z = atomic number of target material
V = applied anode voltage (V)

f) Current drawn by the X-ray tube

Current drawn by the X-ray tube
no of electrons emitted × q
I = ​ ___________________
   t ​​
​
where:
I = current drawn by X-ray tube (A)
q = electron charge (​1, 6 × ​10​​ −19​​) (C)
t = time (s)

Example 3.1
X-ray calculations
The cathode of a specific X-ray tube emits 1,5 × 1017 electrons per second
when supplied with a 120 kV anode voltage. The target material is
molybdenum (Z = 45). Determine the:
a) Shortest wavelength of X-rays produced.
b) Percentage efficiency.
c) X-ray power in watts (also referred to as power used).
d) Power dissipated by the tube.
Solution
a) Shortest wavelength of X-rays produced.
h×c
λ = ​ _
​ V×q
​ 
(6, 63 × ​10​​  −34​  ) (3 × ​10​​  8​  )
= ​ _________________
  
   −19  ​
3
(120 × ​10​​  ​  ) (1, 6 × ​10​​  ​  )
= 1, 036 × ​10​​  −11​  m​

108 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 b) Percentage efficiency.
η = 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​  ZV × 100 %
​
= 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​ × 45 × 120 000 × 100%
= 0, 756 % ​

c) X-ray power in watts.

no of electrons emitted × q
I = ​ ___________________
​    t
​

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(1, 5 × ​10​​  17​  ) (1, 6 × ​10​​  −19​  )
= ​ __________________
   1
 ​
= 24  mA​

​​P​ r​​  = 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​  × Z ​V​​  2​  I

= 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​ × 45 × ​(120 × ​10​​ 3​  )​​  2​  × (24 × ​10​​  −3​  )

= 21, 773  W​

d) Power dissipated by the tube.

​ Pd​  ​​  = VI ​​P​ dissipated​​  = ​P​ d​​  − ​P​ r​​
= (120 × ​10​​  3​  ) (24 × ​10​​  −3​  ) = 2  880 − 21, 773
= 2  880  W = 2, 859  kW​

Example 3.2
X-ray calculations
The anode voltage of an X-ray tube has a supply voltage of 110 kV. The
atomic number of the target material is 42 and the filament cathode emits ​
1 × ​10​​ 17​​electrons per second. Calculate the:
a) Shortest wavelength produced.
b) X-ray power.
c) Power dissipated by the tube.
Solution
a) Shortest wavelength produced.
h×c
λ = ​ _
​ V×q
​
6, 626 × ​10​​  −34​  × 2, 997 × ​10​​  8​
= ​ ___________________
  
   −19 ​
3
110 × ​10​​  ​  × 1, 602 × ​10​​  ​
1, 986 × ​10​​  −25​
= ​ _−14 ​
1, 762 × ​10​​  ​
= 1, 1268 × ​10​​  −11​  m​

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 109

 b) X-ray power.
​Current drawn by tube (I) =  number of electrons  ×  q
= 1 × ​10​​  17​  × 1, 602 × ​10​​  −19​
= 0, 01602  A​

​Total power supplied to tube = V × I

= 110 × ​10​​  3​ × 0, 01602
= 1  762, 2  W​

η = 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​  × ZV
​
= 1, 4 × ​10​​  −9​ × 42 × 110 × ​10​​ 3​
= 6, 468 × ​10​​  −3​  per unit
%η = 6, 468 × ​10​​  −3​ × 100
= 0, 6468%​

​X-ray power =  total power × η

= 1  762,2 × 6,468 × ​10​​ −3​
= 11, 3979  W​

c) Power dissipated by the tube.

​Power dissipated = total power − power used (X-ray power)
= 1  762, 2 − 11, 3979
= 1  750, 8  W​

Example 3.3
Wavelength frequency calculation
If the wavelength of an X-ray is 650 nm, calculate the frequency of the
wave.

Solution
​c = λf
f = ​ _c ​
λ
3 × ​10​​  ​
−19
= ​ _ −9 ​
650 × ​10​​  ​
= 4, 615 × ​10​​  14​  Hz​

110 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 3.3.16 P
 urpose of the spectrometer as applied to
the X-ray tube
spectrometer: a The purpose of the spectrometer in relation to an X-ray tube is to analyse
measuring instrument and measure the spectrum of X-ray radiation produced by the tube. This
used to analyse and
measure the spectrum involves:
of X-ray radiation
produced by the tube
• Identifying wavelengths and energies: The spectrometer identifies the
specific wavelengths and corresponding energies of the emitted X-rays.
This determines the types of radiation produced, such as characteristic

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and Bremsstrahlung radiation.
• Determining intensity: It measures the intensity of the X-rays at
different wavelengths, which provides information on how much
radiation is being emitted at each energy level. This enables the efficiency
and output of the X-ray tube to be assessed.
• Quality control: By analysing the X-ray spectrum, the spectrometer
ensures that the X-ray tube is functioning correctly and producing the
desired radiation for specific applications, whether medical, industrial or
scientific.
• Material analysis: In applications such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF), the
spectrometer can be used to identify and quantify the elements present in
a sample by detecting the characteristic X-rays emitted from the material
when it is irradiated by the X-ray tube.
• Calibration: It is used to calibrate the X-ray tube by verifying that the
produced radiation matches the expected standards and specifications,
which ensures accurate and consistent performance.
The spectrometer provides detailed information about the X-ray emissions,
allowing for precise control, optimisation and use of the X-ray tube’s
capabilities.

Activity 3.4
1. Explain what you understand by the following terms:
1.1 Electromagnetic radiation. (2)
1.2 K-shell emission. (2)
1.3 Efficiency of X-ray production. (2)
1.4 Ionising radiation. (2)
1.5 X-ray. (2)
1.6 Characteristic radiation. (2)
2. Draw a neatly labelled diagram showing the range of the
electromagnetic spectrum. (7)

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 111

 3. List and explain properties of electromagnetic radiation and the
electromagnetic spectrum. (7)
4. List two different atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons.(2)
5. Explain with the aid of a labelled diagram the construction and
operating principle of a modern X-ray tube. (10)
6. If the wavelength of an X-ray is 700 nm, calculate the frequency
of the wave. (2)
7. The cathode of a specific X-ray tube emits 1,5 × 10 electrons per
17

second when supplied with a 120 kV anode voltage. The target

material is molybdenum (Z = 45). Determine the:
7.1 Shortest wavelength of X-rays produced. (2)
7.2 Percentage efficiency. (2)
7.3 X-ray power in watts (also referred to as power used). (3)
7.4 Power dissipated by the tube. (3)
TOTAL: [50]

Unit 3.4: Radioactivity

3.4.1 Radioactivity terminology

a) Radioactivity
Radioactivity or radioactive decay is the process by which the unstable radioactivity or
nucleus of an atom loses energy in the form of particles or electromagnetic radioactive decay:
the process by which
waves. This process results in the transformation of the original atom into a the unstable nucleus of
different element or isotope. The energy released in the process is known as an atom loses energy in
the form of particles or
radiation. A material that has unstable nuclei is known as radioactive material electromagnetic waves
and its level of radioactivity is the rate at which it emits radiation (energy).
Types of radioactive decay are the following:
• Alpha decay: The nucleus emits an alpha particle comprising two protons
and two neutrons. Alpha particles have low penetration ability and can
be stopped by a sheet of paper. This is used in smoke detectors where
americium-241, an alpha emitter, ionises air to detect smoke particles.
• Beta decay: The nucleus emits a beta particle, which may be an electron
(beta-minus) or a positron (beta-plus). Beta particles have higher
penetration than alpha particles but can be stopped by plastic or glass.
This is used in medical treatments, such as radiotherapy for cancer, where
radioactive isotopes such as iodine-131 emit beta particles to destroy
cancer cells.

112 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 • Gamma decay: The nucleus emits gamma rays, which are high-energy
photons. Gamma rays have high penetration ability and require dense
materials such as lead for shielding. They are used in sterilisation of
medical equipment and food irradiation to kill bacteria and other
pathogens without leaving residual radioactivity.

b) Non-ionising radiation
Non-ionising radiation refers to electromagnetic waves that do not carry
enough energy to ionise atoms or molecules. This type of radiation generally

Module 3
has lower energy and longer wavelengths compared to ionising radiation. It
has the following applications:
• Radio waves: Used for communication in radio and television
broadcasting, cell phones and Wi-Fi.
• Microwaves: Used in microwave ovens, radar systems and satellite
communications.
• Infrared radiation (IR): Used in remote controls, thermal imaging
cameras and heating applications.
• Visible light: This is the range of electromagnetic radiation that is visible
to the human eye.
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation: Found in sunlight and used in sterilisation
and fluorescent lamps. UV radiation can cause chemical reactions and
has applications in disinfection and curing materials.

c) Ionising radiation
Ionising radiation has enough energy to ionise atoms or molecules by
removing tightly bound electrons. This type of radiation can cause chemical
changes and damage living tissue, making it both useful and hazardous. It
has the following applications:
• X-rays: Used in medical imaging to view the inside of the body, such as
in X-ray radiography and CT scans.
• Gamma rays: Emitted from radioactive isotopes and used in cancer
treatment (radiotherapy) and industrial radiography to inspect welding
and structural integrity.
• Alpha particles: Used in smoke detectors and for radiation therapy in
treating some cancers.
• Beta particles: Used in medical applications, such as treating eye and
bone cancers, and in industrial processes to measure the thickness of
materials.
radiation detector: a
device designed to detect d) Radiation detectors
and measure ionising
radiation Radiation detectors are devices designed to detect and measure ionising

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 113

 radiation. They are used in fields such as medical diagnostics, nuclear power,
environmental monitoring and scientific research. Radiation detectors can
measure different types of radiation, including alpha particles, beta particles,
gamma rays and X-rays.

3.4.2 Categories of radiation detectors

There are three main categories of radiation detectors:
• Gas-filled detectors: These detectors include ionisation chambers,
proportional counters and Geiger counters. They detect the charged
particles that the radiation creates as it passes through gases. They are
used in nuclear power plants for monitoring radiation levels to ensure
safety and prevent overexposure.
• Scintillation detectors: These detectors use materials that scintillate when scintillate: give off light
exposed to radiation. The light is converted into an electrical signal by a
photomultiplier tube. They are used in medical imaging, such as PET scans,
to detect gamma radiation emitted from radioactive tracers inside the body.
• Semiconductor (solid-state) detectors: They detect radiation in a
similar manner to ionisation chambers, but they use a semiconductor
material (silicon or germanium) at a much lower voltage. When radiation
strikes the semiconductor, it creates electron-hole pairs that produce
a measurable current. They are used in handheld devices for detecting
gamma rays and X-rays in various environments, including security
screening at airports. Note
There is also a
3.4.3 Functions of gas-filled detectors radiation detector
called a dosimeter,
which measures a
The three different gas-filled detectors are ionisation chambers, proportional person’s exposure
counters and Geiger counters. The main difference between them is the to radiation over
voltage level used to operate them. time. Personal
dosimeters are
used by workers in
a) Ionisation chamber environments with
potential radiation
The ionisation chamber is a gas-filled radiation detector with a uniform exposure, such as
radiologists and
response to a wide range of radiation. It is operated at a low voltage to detect nuclear power
and measure types of ionising radiation, for example X-rays, gamma rays plant workers, to
monitor and limit
and beta particles. their cumulative
radiation exposure.
b) Proportional counter
A proportional counter can measure the energy of incident radiation. incident radiation:
It is operated at a voltage that is higher than the ionisation chamber but radiation falling on an
object
lower than the Geiger counter. It produces a detector output pulse that
is proportional to the radiation energy absorbed by the detector from
ionisation. It is used where energy levels of incident radiation must be
known, such as the accurate measurement of X-ray radiation.

114 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 c) Geiger counter
inert gas: a gas that is A Geiger counter, also called a Geiger-Müller counter, is used to detect
not chemically reactive radioactive emissions. The counter consists of a tube filled with an inert gas,
such as helium, neon or argon, at low pressure. The gas becomes electrically
conductive when high-energy radiation particles enter the tube.

3.4.4 Operating principles of gas-filled detectors

Module 3
a) Operating principle of an ionisation chamber
gas-filled
container
+
anode (+) DC supply
radiation
particles –
cathode (–)
Electrometer
insulator

Figure 3.29: Ionisation chamber

Figure 3.29 illustrates how an ionisation chamber works:

• The ionisation chamber consists of a closed, gas-filled cylinder with two
electrodes: an anode (+) and a cathode (–).
• The electrodes are at different electrical potentials, creating an electrical
field between them.
• When radiation enters the chamber, the electrodes ionise the gas between
them.
• The ions move to the electrodes of opposite polarity.
• This creates a small current flow that can be amplified and measured
using an electrometer.

b) Operating principle of a proportional counter

high voltage
anode wire (+) gas-filled tube
amplifier

output

radiation insulator
particles

cathode (–)

Figure 3.30: Proportional counter

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 115

 Figure 3.30 shows how a proportional counter works:
• An anode wire is inserted into a gas-filled tube and a relatively high
voltage of up to 1 000 V is applied.
• The cathode is formed b the outer covering of the container.
• The applied voltage is large enough to accelerate electrons and the
collisions ionise other gas atoms in the tube.
• The output from the counter is amplified and sent to a display unit.

c) Operating principle of a Geiger counter

cathode (–)
amplifier

radiation gas-filled tube counter

particles display
speaker

gas at low anode (+)

pressure

Figure 3.31: Geiger counter

Figure 3.31 illustrates how a Geiger works:

• The gas-filled tube is the sensing element used to detect the radiation.
• The cathode is the thin metal wall of the tube.
• The anode is a fine tungsten wire stretched lengthwise inside the tube.
• A high voltage (+500 V) is applied between the electrodes in the tube.
• When radiation enters the tube and collides with the gas, it pushes
electrons away from the gas atoms and creates ion pairs.
• The anode attracts electrons, creating other ion pairs and sending a
current through the wire.
• The current goes to the information display and moves a pointer across a
scale or displays a number on a screen.
A Geiger counter provide counts per minute or the number of ion pairs
created every 60 seconds. If the loudspeaker is on, it clicks every time an
ion pair is created. The number of clicks indicates how much radiation is
entering the Geiger counter.

3.4.5 Inert gases

Inert gases are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon
(Xe), radon (Rn), and oganesson (Og). These gases are colourless, odourless,
tasteless and non-flammable. Inert gases do not easily undergo chemical
reactions with other substances and are unlikely to form chemical compounds.

116 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 All the inert gases are present in Earth’s atmosphere and, except for helium
and radon, their major commercial source is the air, from which they are
obtained by liquefaction and fractional distillation. Most helium is produced
commercially from natural gas wells.

3.4.6 O
 perating principle of the scintillation
detector (photomultiplier tube) and the
semiconductor detector

Module 3
a) Scintillation detector (photomultiplier tube)
photoelectric cell: The scintillation detector is a photomultiplier tube that contains a
an electron tube with a photoelectric cell and a series of electrodes. It is used to detect and amplify
light-sensitive cathode
that emits electrons low light and radiation levels. Since the levels are low, the photocurrent must
when illuminated and be amplified. The detector multiplies the current produced by incident light
an anode for collecting
these electrons by as much as 100 million (108) times in multiple dynode stages, enabling
dynode: an individual photons to be detected when the incident light is low.
intermediate electrode
in a photomultiplier
tube that emits
Operating principle of a photomultiplier tube or
additional electrons scintillation detector
photo
cathode 10 V 100 V 300 V anode
radiation/low light levels

electrical connectors
1 3 dynodes 7
5

8
2 4 6
200 V electrons 800 V
focusing photomultiplier tube
electrode
50 V
Figure 3.32: Photomultiplier tube

Figure 3.32 shows how a photomultiplier tube works:

photocathode: • The photocathode releases electrons when light hits it.
an element in a
photoelectric cell
• The electrons are electrostatically directed towards the secondary
that emits electrons emitting surface of a dynode.
when light hits it, thus
enabling the flow of • Applying a suitable voltage to the dynode results in the emission of an
current through the average of five electrons for each primary electron that strikes it.
device
electrostatically: • Each dynode is set at a positive potential of about ±100 V higher than the
relating to static previous one.
electricity

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 117

 • The secondary electrons are directed to subsequent dynodes, repeating
the process and amplifying the initial emission from the photocathode.
• The anode collects the electrons and acts as the signal output electrode.
• The photomultiplier’s gain depends on the material type and the number
of dynodes used.
Magnetic fields can impact the gain of photomultiplier tubes by deflecting
electrons from their intended path between stages, causing them to miss a
dynode or the final anode. To prevent this interference, magnetic shields
made of materials like mu-metal are placed around the tube.
The sensitivity of a photomultiplier tube depends on three factors:
• The cathode sensitivity.
• The emission factor of each stage.
• The number of stages.

b) Semiconductor detector
A semiconductor detector is also known as solid-state detector. It uses
semiconductor materials such as silicon. The concentration of atoms in a
solid-state semiconductor is much greater than in a gas. This allows the
semiconductor detector to be smaller than the ionisation chamber and to
have a much lower operating voltage. Semiconductor diodes are used in
radiation protection, gamma and X-ray spectrometry and particle detectors.
Operating principle of a semiconductor detector

N
radiant display
energy
PN junction/ P
depletion layer
–

Figure 3.33: Semiconductor detector

Figure 3.33 shows how a semiconductor detector works:

• A semiconductor detector consists of a reversed biased PN junction.
• When radiant energy penetrates the depletion layer, electron-hole pairs
are generated, which causes conduction across the junction.
• The produced pulsed output is amplified and counted.

118 Module 3 TVET FIRST

 Activity 3.5
1. Define radioactivity and explain how it leads to the formation of a
different element or isotope. (3)
2. Compare the penetration abilities of alpha, beta and gamma decay.
Provide an example of an application for each type of decay. (6)
3. Explain the difference between ionising and non-ionising radiation
and list two applications for each type. (6)

Module 3
4. Draw a neat and fully labelled diagram of an ionisation chamber.
Include labels for all key parts. (6)
5. Describe how a Geiger counter works, mentioning the role of the
gas-filled tube and how ion pairs are detected. (5)
6. Illustrate and explain the operating principle of the photomultiplier
tube.(8)
7. Describe how a semiconductor detector works and explain why it is
smaller and operates at a lower voltage than an ionisation chamber. (5)
8. Explain what an inert gas is and where it is used in radiation
detectors.(6)
TOTAL: [45]

Summary of Module 3

Unit
3.1 Ultrasonic theory

● Acoustic (sound) energy: The energy in sound crystals that become electrically polarised when
waves that travels as vibrations through a under mechanical stress.
medium such as air or water. ● Magnetostriction: The change in dimensions of
● Sound waves in a gas or a fluid: Compression or a ferromagnetic material when exposed to an
longitudinal waves. oscillating magnetic field.
● Sound waves in a solid: Compression or ● Transmission properties: Excellent in solids; good
longitudinal waves, and transverse waves. in liquids; poor in gases; non-existent in a vacuum.
● Ultrasonic energy: Sound energy with frequencies ● Quartz piezoelectric crystal: Consists of silica and
above the audible range of 20 kHz. Generated oxygen (SiO4) arranged in a crystalline structure
using piezoelectricity or magnetostriction. which is electrically neutral. Pressure disturbs the
● Ultrasonic energy reflects and refracts when linkage, resulting in the creation of electrical energy.
moving between media of different densities. ● Two types of piezoelectricity:
It also experiences absorption resulting in ● Direct piezoelectric effect: Oscillating mechanical
attenuation over distance. stress generates a small electric charge.
● Properties of ultrasonic waves: High frequencies
and energy; require a medium, are reflected,
◦ Converse piezoelectric effect: Alternating emf
or magnetic field applied to a crystal changes
refracted and absorbed; travel long distances its dimensions.
with minimal energy loss; have high penetrating
● DC bias: Applied to a magnetostrictive core
power; produce intense heating; speed of
enables the core to expand along the nodal line,
propagation increases with frequency.
which allows the core to oscillate when an AC
● Piezoelectricity: The generation of a voltage by signal from an ultrasonic generator is applied.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 119

 Unit
3.2 Ultrasonic applications

● Applications of ultrasonics: sonar, physics, technology and medicine.

● Ultrasonic cleaning: Uses ultrasonic transducers to vibrate cleaning fluid in a tub. The agitated liquid and
the cavitation bubbles remove the dirt on the items. Used for cleaning delicate items where physical
contact or high-pressure air could cause damage.
● Ultrasonic machining (drilling): Workpiece immersed in slurry. Vibrations from tool tip creates cavities
of various shapes. Used for drilling through rigid rocks, surgeries on skeleton and drilling holes in
gemstones and beads.
● Ultrasonic soldering: Vibration of the soldering tip causes cavitation in the molten solder, breaking up
the oxide film. This allows the solder to flow onto the aluminium surface and set before a new oxide film
can form, which prevents reoxidation. Used to solder metals and ceramics in solar photovoltaics and
specialised electronics and sensors.
● Ultrasonic thickness gauging: Ultrasonic transducer generates a sound pulse which travels through
the material and is reflected back to a receiving transducer. The time lapse is used to determine the
thickness. A non-destructive method for measuring material thickness of metals, plastics, composites,
fibreglass, ceramics and glass.
● Ultrasonic welding: High-frequency vibrations applied to the surfaces of two parts by a vibrating tool
called a coupling cone. Welding occurs because of frictional heat generated at the interface between the
two parts.
● Cleaning fluid properties: Suspension, wetting, low viscosity, low surface tension, chemical compatibility,
degreasing properties, foam control, non-corrosive, temperature stability; environmental safety.
● Tool tip for ultrasonic drilling: Made of soft materials; can be easily made into the desired shape using
standard machining methods.
● Functions of slurry: Maintain steady presence of abrasive particles; cooling, lubricating, quenching sparks,
flushing away debris, minimising tool wear, transport medium for the abrasive particles.
● Function of vibrating tip in ultrasonic soldering: Breaks down oxide film and causes minor deformation of
surface irregularities, allowing a solid bond to form.
● Cavitation: Occurs when ultrasonic energy creates alternating high and low pressure areas in a liquid,
forming and collapsing bubbles. Collapse of bubbles generates high-energy shock waves that dislodge
dirt from the immersed parts in an ultrasonic cleaner.
● Advantages of ultrasonic metal welding: Absence of heat, which prevents material deformation
● Functions of the cutting fluid: Heat reduction, deformation reduction, flushing of debris, quality
improvement, reduction of wear and tear.

Unit
3.3 Radiation

● Radiation: Energy that travels either as high- ● Transmission of energy in three ways:
speed particles or as electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic waves, particle radiation and
known as photons. conduction.
● Non-ionising radiation: Radiation that lacks ● Electromagnetic spectrum: Gamma rays, X-rays,
sufficient energy to remove tightly bound ultraviolet (UV) radiation, visible light, infrared (IR)
electrons from atoms or molecules, thus not radiation, microwaves, radio waves.
causing ionisation. ● Characteristics of X-rays: Invisible, electrically
● Ionising radiation: Radiation with enough energy neutral, no mass, travel at the speed of light in a
to remove electrons from atoms or molecules, vacuum, cannot be optically focused, polyenergetic,
creating ions. travel in straight lines, induce fluorescence in
● Electromagnetic radiation: Radiation that certain substances, cause chemical changes
propagates in waves or particles across various in radiographic and photographic film, can be
wavelengths and frequencies, forming the absorbed or scattered by tissues in the body,
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. can generate secondary radiation and can cause
● X-rays: A form of electromagnetic radiation with a chemical and biological damage to living tissue.
very high frequency and energy.

120 Module 3 TVET FIRST

Unit
3.3 Radiation (continued)

● To generate X-rays: Require a source of electrons, Power deposition, tube voltage, tube current,
a method to accelerate the electrons at high type and atomic number of the target material.
speeds and a target material for the electrons to ● Shortest wavelength of X-rays produced:
impact and interact with.
h×c
● Two atomic processes produce X-ray photons: ​λ = _
​ V × q ​​
Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) and K-shell ● Relationship between the wavelength and
emission resulting in characteristic radiation. frequency of the radiation:

Module 3
● Modern X-ray tube: Tungsten filamentary ​c = λf​
cathode, copper anode with a target insert, highly
evacuated glass tube, motor. ● Emitted power (Pr): Rate at which energy is
released as radiation; also called emitted ray
● Power supply:
power, dissipated power or X-ray power:
● Step-down transformer: Provide low-voltage
​Pr​  ​​ = 1, 4 × 1
​ 0​​ −9​× Z V
​ ​​  2​I​
current to heat the X-ray tube filament.
◦ Step-up transformer: Generates a high potential
difference between the anode and cathode.\
● Power deposition (Pd): Rate of energy deposition
in the target:

◦ Autotransformer: Acts as a voltage

compensator, correcting minor fluctuations
​​Pd​  ​​ = VI​
● X-ray production efficiency (η): Ratio of emitted
before the high-voltage circuit. power to power deposition:
◦ Milliamperage (mA) selector: Measures the
number of electrons moving through the
​η = _
​pr​  ​​
​ ​P​  ​​ ​× 100%
d

filament. This is controlled via the mA selector 1, 4 × ​10​​ −9​× Z ​V​​  2​I

on the control panel. = ​ _____________
   VI ​× 100%

◦ Kilovoltage peak (kVp) selector: Controls the

voltage of the X-ray tube current. This adjusts
​ 0​​ −9​ZV × 100%​
= 1, 4 × 1
the number of electrons moving from the ● Current drawn by the X-ray tube:
cathode to the anode. no of electrons emitted × q
◦ Timer: Controls the duration of the X-ray
exposure by regulating the application of high
​I = ​ ___________________
    t  ​​
● Purpose of the spectrometer: Identifying
voltage to the tube. wavelengths and energies, determining intensity,
● Factors affecting efficiency of X-ray production: quality control, material analysis, calibration.

Unit
3.4 Radioactivity

● Radioactivity or radioactive decay: The process radioactive emissions. Inert gas in tube becomes
by which the unstable nucleus of an atom loses electrically conductive when high-energy
energy in the form of particles or electromagnetic radiation particles enter the tube.
waves. ● Inert gases: Colourless, odourless, tasteless and
● Types of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, gamma. non-flammable. Do not easily undergo chemical
● Radiation detector: A device designed to detect reactions with other substances and are unlikely
and measure ionising radiation. to form chemical compounds.
● Categories of radiation detectors: Gas-filled, ● Scintillation detector: Photomultiplier tube
scintillation, semiconductor. contains a photoelectric cell and a series of
electrodes. Used to detect and amplify low
● Ionisation chamber: Gas-filled radiation detector
light and radiation levels. Multiplies the current
operated at a low voltage to detect and measure
produced by incident light in multiple dynode
types of ionising radiation.
stages, enabling individual photons to be
● Proportional counter: Operated at a voltage that detected when the incident light is low.
is higher than the ionisation chamber but lower
● Semiconductor or solid-state detector: Uses
than the Geiger counter. Can measure the energy
semiconductor materials such as silicon. Used
of incident radiation.
in radiation protection, gamma and X-ray
● Geiger or Geiger-Müller counter: Used to detect spectrometry and particle detectors.

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 121

 Summative assessment for Module 3
1. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false by writing only ‘True’
or ‘False’ next to the question number (1.1–1.5). (5)
1.1 During ultrasonic cleaning, the transducers must be attached to the top
of the cleaning tub.
1.2 When cavitation occurs, vapour voids form when the pressure is dropping
1.3 When cavitation occurs, vapour voids collapse when the pressure is rising.
1.4 Ultrasonic machining is suitable for materials that are too soft.
1.5 Ultrasonic machining uses a hardened tool tip.
2. State two features that are common to both the processes of ultrasonic soldering
and ultrasonic welding. (2)
3. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of a piezoelectric crystal. (5)
4. Name three main physical apparatuses that are required to effect ultrasonic
cleaning.(3)
5. Define the following terms:
5.1 Magnetostriction.(2)
5.2 Cavitation.(2)
6. Choose the correct term from those in brackets. Write only the answer next to
the question number (6.1–6.6). (6)
6.1 During ultrasonic machining, it is the (tool tip/abrasive particles) that sink
the cavities onto the surface of the work piece
6.2 During ultrasonic cleaning, surface dirt is removed when vapour voids
(build up/collapse).
6.3 During ultrasonic soldering, the oxide film (causes/prevents) the solder
from adhering.
6.4 During ultrasonic welding, the oxide film is (broken down/built up) by
the vibratory energy of ultrasonic transducers.
6.5 During the (direct/converse) piezoelectric effect, an electric field begins to
exist when a crystal is exposed to an oscillating mechanical stress.
6.6 The (direct/converse) piezoelectric effect causes contraction or expansion
to a crystal that is exposed to an electric field.
7. Name two practical ultrasonic application techniques where an oxide film forms
over the surfaces of the two materials in use. (2)
8. Briefly explain the action steps that lead to the breaking down of the oxide film
for each technique you mentioned in Question 7. (4)
9. State the two most important features that are used to differentiate between the
rays of the electromagnetic spectrum. (2)

122 Module 3 TVET FIRST

10. Draw and fully label a neat circuit diagram of the Geiger-Müller counter. (6)
11. Data: Anode voltage = 138 kV; atomic number = 54; electron charge
= 1,602 × 1019; number of electrons emitted per second = 3,25 × 1016.
Use the data given from an X-ray tube to calculate the following:
11.1 Percentage efficiency of the tube. (3)
11.2 Power dissipated by the tube. (10)
12. The following data on an X-ray machine is available:
• Supply voltage = 90 kV.
• Atomic number = 42.
• Cathode emission = 1 × 1017 electrons/second.
• Planck’s constant = 6,636 × 10–34 J/s.
• Electron charge = 1,602 × 10–19 C.
• Velocity of light = 2,997 × 108 m/s.
• Calculate the shortest wavelength of X-ray produced. (4)
13. An X-ray tube is powered by a 100 kV DC supply and draws a maximum current
of 90 mA. The efficiency of the tube is 0,l7%. Calculate the:
13.1 Total number of electrons striking the target material per second. (3)
13.2 Total power supplied to the tube. (2)
13.3 X-ray power of the tube. (2)
13.4 Power dissipated by the tube. (2)
TOTAL: [65]

TVET FIRST Ultrasonics, X-rays and radioactivity 123

 Module

4
Automatic inspection, testing and NDT

Overview of Module 4
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 4.1: Inspection methods or techniques

• Explain the purpose of an automatic inspection system.

• Explain the term NDT as used in automatic inspection.
• Discuss alpha, beta and gamma radiation as applied to radioactivity with reference to charge
and penetration abilities.
• List minimum requirements for the effective operation of an industrial automatic inspection,
testing and grading system.
• Draw a neatly labelled block diagram of an automatic inspection, testing and sorting device.
Also, describe the function of each block.
• Explain the difference between a two-way and a three-way inspection system with the aid of a
neatly labelled diagram and descriptions.
• Draw a neatly labelled diagram of resistive and capacitive testing circuit.
Unit 4.2: Automatic production testing

• List two production testing methods and describe their operating principles in the
manufacturing process.
• List steps to be taken to prevent electrical shock hazards.
• List two types of production line safety tests and explain how the tests are conducted.
• Draw a labelled circuit diagram of a hipot (high voltage) test or the dielectric voltage withstand
test.
• List three locations to be tested in a hipot test.
• Explain the difference between an insulation resistance test and withstand voltage testing.
• Explain with the aid of a sketch how a megohmmeter is connected in a circuit during testing.
• List three terminals of a megohmmeter and explain how each terminal is connected in a circuit.
• List the purposes of insulation resistance testing method.
Unit 4.3: Metal detectors

• List four industries where metal detectors are utilised and give a function of the metal
detector in each case.
• Draw a block diagram of a metal detector and explain its operating principle.
Quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) are the cornerstones of all manufacturing
and industrial processes. Without these controls, the end products may be substandard and
pose a risk to the end user. It is therefore necessary to introduce checks and balances in all
manufacturing facilities. Automatic inspection systems, testing, grading and sorting have become
part of such quality control measures. This module examines some of the methods used in the
modern industrial environment to produce quality products and services.

124 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 Figure 4.1: Metal detector in a food production line

Module 4
Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. Discuss alpha, beta and gamma radiation in terms of their charge and penetration abilities.
2. List two production testing methods and describe their operating principles in the manufacturing
process.
3. List four industries where metal detectors are used and describe the function of the metal
detector in each case.

Unit 4.1: Inspection methods or techniques

4.1.1 Purpose of an automatic inspection system

automatic inspection An automatic inspection system uses electronic circuitry and
system: uses preprogrammed parameters to inspect, test, sort and grade production items
electronic circuitry
and preprogrammed to ensure that they meet specifications. The system is designed to make clear
parameters to inspect, decisions under specific conditions, for example a simple Go-NoGo two-way
test, sort and grade
production items to system or a High-Go-Low three-way system.
ensure that they meet
specifications
non-destructive
4.1.2 N
 on-destructive testing or inspection (NDT
testing (NDT): involves or NDI)
testing materials and
objects for defects or Non-destructive testing (NDT) involves testing materials and objects for
flaws that are not visible
to the naked eye without defects or flaws that are not visible to the naked eye without permanently
permanently altering altering or damaging them in any way. This saves time and money in product
or damaging them in
any way evaluation.
casting: an object made
by pouring molten metal
Various NDT methods are used to detect flaws. One of the earlier and still
or other material into a popular methods is called a magnetic particle inspection used to detect a
mould
flaw in a casting. The surface of the casting is painted with a mixture of oil
and iron filings. It is then placed in the magnetic field of an electromagnet.
If there is an invisible flaw in the casting, a line of iron filings will form on

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 125

 the surface above the flaw. This happens because the flaw acts as an air gap fringing field: a
and creates a fringing field around it. The iron filings are attracted to this phenomenon in which
the magnetic flux
fringing field, revealing the flaw’s presence. flowing in a magnetic
core spreads or fringes
More advanced methods for detecting flaws in castings use X-rays, gamma out into the surrounding
rays, ultrasonic waves and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. These medium

methods measure or visualise changes in the radiation’s behaviour when it

encounters a flaw, indicating the flaw’s presence.

4.1.3 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation

The use of radioactive isotopes is becoming more common in non-destructive
testing. They emit radiation similar to X-rays. A piece of radioactive cobalt
provides a portable radiation source that can replace bulky X-ray generators.
Alpha, beta and gamma particles all penetrate materials but the extent of
their penetration is determined by the material’s density. Nuclear penetration
capability is inversely proportional to matter density regardless of changes
caused by nuclear radiation in the matter’s structure. These particles have the
following charges and penetration abilities:
• Alpha particles: Positively charged with low penetration but cause
intense ionisation by attracting negative charges.
• Beta particles: Negatively charged with higher penetration. They cause
the continuous rearrangement of molecular structures and leave traces of
ionisation and atomisation.
• Gamma particles: Neutral and highly penetrating due to their short
wavelength. This causes significant secondary electron emission in the
material.

4.1.4 M
 inimum requirements for an automatic
inspection system
For a typical industrial automatic inspection system to operate effectively, it
must meet the following minimum requirements:
• Integrate as many processes as possible into a single stage.
• Evaluate the availability and economic factors of labour versus
automation.
• Account for the characteristics of the final product, including size, mass,
structure, density, colour and texture.
• Consider the product’s shelf life and demand.
• Assess packaging and storage methods
• For rejection cycles, it must determine alternatives if the product is
rejected in the main production line.

126 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 4.1.5 C
 omponents of an automatic inspection
system

raw material quality bulk production

receiving acceptance storage line

inspection
alternative feedback line and
runs testing
fail
pass

recycle grading

Module 4
counting
rejected packaging
waste sorting storage
items
dipatch

Figure 4.2: Block diagram of automatic inspection, testing and sorting system

The block diagram in Figure 4.2 illustrates the components of an automatic

inspection system:
Raw material receiving: This is the initial stage where raw materials are
received for production. The materials are checked for quantity and initial
quality before entering the production process.
• Quality acceptance: The raw materials undergo a more thorough
quality inspection to ensure that they meet the required standards and
specifications. Only materials that pass this check proceed further.
• Bulk storage: Accepted raw materials are stored in bulk until they are
needed in the production line. This stage ensures a steady supply of
materials for continuous production.
• Production line: This is where the manufacturing or assembly of
products takes place. Raw materials are processed and transformed into
finished or semifinished products.
• Inspection and testing: The manufactured products undergo inspection
and testing to ensure that they meet all required specifications and quality
standards. This stage identifies any defects or issues.
• Pass inspection and testing:
◦ Grading: Products that pass the inspection and testing phase are
graded based on quality, size or other relevant criteria. Grading
categorises products for further processing or market segmentation.

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 127

 ◦ Sorting: Graded products are then sorted according to their
categories. Sorting streamlines the subsequent processes such as
packaging and dispatch.
◦ Counting, packaging, storage and dispatch: Sorted products
are counted, packaged appropriately, stored if necessary and then
dispatched to their final destinations, such as customers or retail outlets.
• Fail inspection and testing: Products that fail the inspection and
testing phase are moved to the rejected items stage. These items are then
analysed to determine the next steps:
◦ Waste: Items that cannot be recycled or reused are moved to the
waste stage. These materials are disposed of in an environmentally
responsible manner.
• Recycle: Rejected items that can be reprocessed are sent to the recycling
stage. Here, materials or components are salvaged and reused in the
production process.
• Alternative runs: This stage handles items that require rework or
additional processing. Alternative runs ensure that products are brought
up to the required quality standards before being reintroduced to the
main production line.
• Feedback line: Information from various stages of the inspection system
is fed back to earlier stages. This feedback loop provides continuous
improvement of the production process and ensures that quality issues
are promptly identified and rectified.
Each stage plays a role in ensuring that the production process runs
smoothly and efficiently, and produces high-quality products.

4.1.6 Two-way and three-way inspection systems

a) Go-NoGo or two-way system
A Go-NoGo inspection system is used in inspection and quality control Go-NoGo inspection
to check a component against specific criteria, specifications or tolerances system: a binary
test with only two
(see Figure 4.3). This binary test has two outcomes: pass or fail. A outcomes: pass or fail;
component passes only if it meets the Go condition and fails the NoGo checks a component
against specific criteria,
condition. specifications or
tolerances

no rejected
production line inspection sorter
go accepted

Figure 4.3: Go-NoGo two-way inspection system

128 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 The test does not provide details on how much the component conforms
to or deviates from the criteria or tolerances. It only indicates whether the
part is acceptable (within tolerances and usable) or unacceptable (must be
rejected).
This test is ideal for factory production areas because it is easy to use and
requires minimal skill or interpretation. Also, there are few or no moving
parts, which makes it durable in a harsh production environment. Many
companies incorporate the Go-NoGo test in a broader system or use it to
oversee various processes. This approach helps them pinpoint problem areas
for future corrective actions.

b) High-Go-Low or three-way inspection system

Module 4
High-Go-Low The High-Go-Low inspection system uses three categories to test items (see
inspection system: Figure 4.4):
uses three categories to
test items: high items • High: Items in this category can be returned to production for
returned for reworking;
go items accepted; low
reworking.
items rejected • Go: Items in this category meet the standards and are acceptable.
• Low: Items in this category are of poor quality, do not conform to
standards and are rejected.

hi rework

production line inspection sorter go accept

lo reject

Figure 4.4: High-Go-Low three-way inspection system

4.1.7 Resistive and capacitive testing circuit

A resistive and capacitive testing circuit is used to evaluate the electrical
properties of resistors and capacitors in a circuit:
• Resistive testing circuit: Measures resistance to determine how much
a component opposes the flow of current. It uses a multimeter or an
ohmmeter to check the resistance value to ensure that the resistor
functions correctly in the circuit.
• Capacitive testing circuit: Measures capacitance to assess a capacitor’s
ability to store charge. It uses a capacitance meter or an LCR meter to
verify the capacitor’s value and performance in the circuit.

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 129

 resistance reactance

voltage Zunknown current

transformer transformer

I1 search
coil
neutral
phase- phase-
Vout A sensitive sensitive
If detector defector

Rfeedback
Zstandard 90º phase
shift
phase reference

Figure 4.5: Autobalance transformer ratio arm bridge

Figure 4.5 illustrates an autobalance transformer ratio arm bridge:

• The multiwinding current transformer acts as a current balance
detector:
◦ One winding on the current transformer core receives an alternating
current (I1) generated by a known voltage and an unknown
impedance.
◦ The second winding on the core is driven by a balancing current
(If ) produced by a known variable voltage and known standards of
resistance and capacitance.
◦ A third winding on the core functions as a search coil to detect a null
in the core flux.
• The output from the search coil is amplified, producing a bridge balancing
voltage that is applied through a resistor to the feedback winding.
• The initial current (I1), derived from the voltage transformer and the
unknown impedance, is countered by the feedback current (If ). The
condition of equality is maintained only by the finite gain of the amplifier
and stability considerations.
• The amplifier output is connected to two phase-sensitive detectors, one of
which includes a unity gain 90° phase shift network.
• A stable oscillator provides the signal for the bridge and a reference
voltage for the detectors.
• Analogue detector voltage outputs indicate the variation in the resistive
and reactive terms from the value set by the standard impedance. These
outputs can represent capacitance, inductance or resistance, depending
on the bridge network used.
• Tapped voltage transformers in cascade provide digital taps feeding

130 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 impedance standards. Along with the autobalance circuit, this set-up
allows for a wide range of measurements.

Activity 4.1
1. Explain the purpose of an automatic inspection system and its
significance in manufacturing. (4)
2. Describe the Go-NoGo (two-way) system used in automatic
inspection and its application in quality control. (4)
3. Discuss the minimum requirements for the effective operation of
an industrial automatic inspection, testing and grading system. (4)
4. Draw a block diagram of an automatic inspection, testing and
sorting system and describe the function of each component. (13)

Module 4
5. Compare and contrast the Go-NoGo system and the High-Go-Low
system used in automatic inspection. (4)
6. Explain the term non-destructive testing (NDT) and describe its
application in automatic inspection. (2)
7. Discuss the penetration abilities and charges of alpha, beta and
gamma radiation as well as their relevance in non-destructive
testing.(9)
TOTAL: [40]

Unit 4.2: Automatic production testing

4.2.1 Production testing methods

Manufacturers must ensure their products are safe for both consumer and
industrial use, and must comply with strict national and international
safety standards. Automatic production testing is therefore essential in
today’s competitive manufacturing environment because quality control
is a vital part of the process. Proper testing procedures ensure smooth
product flow and reduce defective parts in an assembly. This maintains
efficient production as identifying product defects early minimises wasted
time and effort.
Here, we focus on production testing in the manufacturing process of
resistive components (not specifically resistors) and capacitive components
(not specifically capacitors). In automatic production inspection, two
commonly used testing methods are automated optical inspection (AOI) and
automated X-ray inspection (AXI).

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 131

 a) Automated optical inspection (AOI)
Operating principle
Automated optical inspection (AOI) uses cameras and sophisticated image automated optical
processing software to visually inspect printed circuit boards (PCBs) inspection (AOI): uses
cameras and image
and other products. The AOI system captures high-resolution images of processing software to
the product and compares them against a predefined template or set of visually inspect PCBs
and other products;
standards. It can detect defects such as incorrect component placement, captures high-resolution
missing components, solder joint issues and surface defects such as scratches images and compares
them against a
or misalignments. predefined template or
set of standards
Role in the manufacturing process
AOI is deployed after the soldering process or final assembly. It provides
a quick and non-contact method to identify visual defects, ensuring
that products meet quality standards before moving to the next stage in
production. AOI helps to reduce human error and speeds up the inspection
process, making it ideal for high-volume manufacturing.

b) Automated X-ray inspection (AXI)

Operating principle
Automated X-ray inspection (AXI) uses X-rays to inspect the internal automated X-ray
structure of a product, particularly for solder joints and components that are inspection (AXI): uses
X-rays to inspect the
not visible to the naked eye, such as ball grid array (BGA) components. The internal structure of a
X-ray system generates images that reveal the internal details, allowing the product

detection of hidden defects such as voids in solder joints, misalignments and ball grid array (BGA):
a type of surface-mount
bridging between connections. packaging used for
integrated circuits
Role in the manufacturing process
AXI is used in the inspection of complex PCBs, especially those with
high-density packaging or multilayer designs. It is usually performed after
soldering and assembly processes to verify the integrity of connections
and to ensure that internal defects do not compromise the product’s
functionality. AXI ensures the reliability of products where visual inspection
methods are insufficient.

4.2.2 Preventing electrical shock hazards

Faulty insulation or compromised safety grounding systems in electrical
products can cause injuries and electrocution. To ensure a product is safe,
it is essential to understand the hazards in each electrical product. Despite
requiring an electrical power source and using electrical or electronic
components, products should not pose an electrical shock hazard to users.

132 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 Preventing electrical shock hazards involves several tests:
• Dielectric voltage withstand test (hipot test): Assesses a product’s ability
to endure a high voltage between its circuits and ground.
• Insulation resistance test: Evaluates the quality of a product’s electrical
insulation.
• Leakage current test: Ensures the current flowing between the AC source
and ground remains within safe limits.
• Ground continuity test: Verifies that all exposed conductive metal
surfaces have a path to the power system ground.

4.2.3 Production line safety tests

We will focus on describing two widely performed production line safety

Module 4
tests: the dielectric voltage withstand test (hipot test) and the insulation
resistance test.

a) Dielectric voltage withstand test (hipot test)

When a strong enough electromotive force is applied, current flows in a
material by moving electric charge. Metals such as copper have many free
electrons that easily transfer electric charge. Electrons in insulating materials
cannot move freely so they cannot effectively carry charge. However,
applying a sufficiently high voltage can force even insulating materials to
conduct.

dielectric voltage
The dielectric voltage withstand test or hipot (high potential) test is the
withstand test or most common safety test performed by electronic product manufacturers.
hipot test: a test that
stresses a product’s
This test stresses a product’s insulation far beyond normal use conditions. If
insulation far beyond the insulation can withstand a much higher voltage for a certain period, it
normal use conditions
will function adequately at its normal voltage throughout the product’s life.
This is why it is called a voltage withstand test.

b) Insulation resistance test (Megger test)

Every electric wire in a plant, whether in a motor, generator, cable, switch
or transformer, is covered with electrical insulation. The wire is made of
good conductors of electric current such as copper or aluminium. Insulation
insulation resistance resists current and keeps it on its path along the conductor.
(IR) test or Megger
test: a test that ensures The insulation resistance (IR) test or Megger test ensures that the insulation
that the insulation
between isolated
between isolated conductors maintains a resistance that limits leakage
conductors maintains current to an acceptable level when a high voltage is applied. This means
a resistance that limits
leakage current to an
it aims to ensure that the cable, cord or component is safe for end users
acceptable level when and performs correctly when installed in its intended product or operating
high voltage is applied
environment.

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 133

 An IR tester, such as a megohmmeter, applies a DC voltage across the
insulation and measures the leakage current to calculate the insulation
resistance (see Figure 4.6). Most IR testers have variable output voltages, but
tests are usually specified at 500 or 1 000 V. Standards published by safety
agencies define the acceptable leakage current for electrical products.
The IR test is related to the hipot test but provides more detailed information
about the device under test (DUT). Safety agencies sometimes require the IR
test after the hipot test to ensure the DUT’s insulation was not damaged by
the high voltage. Figure 4.6: Megohmmeter

4.2.4 Circuit diagram of hipot test

Figure 4.7 shows the circuitry of a hipot tester.
hipot tester

HV OUT with metal

enclosure

kV

return
mA

Figure 4.7: Hipot test circuitry

4.2.5 Three locations to be tested in hipot test

Withstand voltage testing checks whether an electrical product or part has
sufficient dielectric (insulation) strength for the voltages it may encounter.
The test covers three locations:
• Between the power supply line and the grounded enclosure: Verifies
the dielectric strength of the basic insulation in Class 1 devices with
protective grounding.
• Between the power supply line and any ungrounded enclosure: Checks
the dielectric strength of double or reinforced insulation in both Class 1
and Class 2 devices.
• Between the enclosure and isolated connections: Ensures that the
connections are electrically isolated to verify basic insulation in devices
with isolated connections.

4.2.6 D
 ifferences between insulation resistance
testing and voltage withstand testing
While insulation resistance testing and withstand voltage testing are similar,
they differ in purpose and method. Table 4.1 compares the two tests.

134 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 Table 4.1: Insulation resistance testing versus voltage withstand testing

Insulation resistance testing Withstand voltage testing

• Measures the resistance value at a certain • Checks the dielectric strength to see if
voltage, not the strength of the insulation. an insulation breakdown occurs.
• Uses DC current to measure resistance. • Often uses AC current.
4.2.7 H
 ow a megohmmeter is connected in a
circuit during testing
Figure 4.8 shows a basic megohmmeter
test leads connection schematic. A megohmmeter
works like a multimeter set to its ohmmeter
function, but with some differences:

Module 4
• The megohmmeter produces much
higher output voltages than a
382 00 multimeter. It uses voltages of 100 V,
wire conductor 250 V, 500 V, 1 000 V, 2 500 V, 5 000
insulation (copper or
(jacket; aluminium
V and even 10 000 V with 500 V and
unshielded) wire) 1 000 V being the most common.
Higher voltages stress insulation more,
Figure 4.8: Connecting to a megohmmeter leading to more accurate results.
• Unlike a multimeter that measures in ohms, a megohmmeter measures in
megohms.
• The megohmmeter has high internal resistance, making it safe to use
despite the higher voltages.

4.2.8 T
 hree terminals of megohmmeter and how
each is connected in a circuit
A megohmmeter has three terminals
(see Figure 4.9):
line • LINE or L terminal: Also known as
the hot terminal, it connects to the
conductor whose insulation resistance is
being measured. These tests are always
guard performed with the circuit de-energised.
• EARTH or E terminal: Connects to the
382 00

megohmmeter ground conductor on the other side of

the insulation.
earth • GUARD or G terminal: Provides a return
circuit that bypasses the meter. Use this
terminal to exclude certain currents from
the measurement by connecting this part
Figure 4.9: Connecting the three terminals of a megohmmeter of the circuit to the GUARD terminal.

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 135

 4.2.9 Purposes of insulation resistance testing
Insulation resistance testing is used for:
• Quality control during the production of electrical equipment.
• Ensuring specifications and proper installation.
• Periodic preventive maintenance.
• Troubleshooting tasks.

Activity 4.2
1. True or False: Automatic production testing is essential in today’s competitive
manufacturing environment for maintaining quality control. (1)
2. Which of the following is a benefit of a good testing programme in manufacturing?
A. Increases the number of defective parts in assembly.
B. Ensures smooth product flow.
C. Delays the production process.
D. Eliminates the need for compliance with safety standards. (1)
3. What is the primary purpose of establishing proper testing procedures in production? (1)
4. Compliance with strict _____ and _____ safety standards is necessary for manufacturers. (1)
5. Which of the following is not a safety test used to prevent electrical shock hazards?
A. Dielectric withstand test.
B. Insulation resistance test.
C. Leakage current test.
D. Conductivity test. (1)
6. What does the insulation resistance (IR) test measure in a product’s insulation? (1)
7. True or False: The hipot test assesses a product’s ability to endure high voltage between its
circuits and ground. (1)
8. What type of current does insulation resistance testing use?
A. AC current.
B. DC current.
C. Both AC and DC current.
D. None of the above. (1)
9. Name one application of the insulation resistance test in the context of product testing. (1)
10. A megohmmeter has high internal resistance and uses voltages of up to _____ V for
testing.(1)
11. Draw and label the circuit set-up for performing a dielectric withstand (hipot) test on a
capacitive component. Include the power supply, the test component and the connection
points for measuring insulation strength. (9)
12. Given a simplified testing circuit using a megohmmeter (similar to Figure 4.10), explain
the function of each terminal: LINE, EARTH, GUARD. (6)
TOTAL: [25]

136 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 Unit 4.3: Metal detectors

4.3.1 Metal detectors in industry

Table 4.2 provides examples of where metal detectors are used for specific
functions in various industries.
Table 4.2: Metal detector usage in industry

Industry Function
Food industry Ensures food safety by detecting and removing metal
contaminants in food products during the manufacturing
process to prevent harm to consumers and to comply with
safety regulations.
Security industry Enhances security by detecting concealed weapons or metal

Module 4
objects on individuals at airports, courthouses and other
secure facilities to prevent security breaches and ensure
public safety
Mining industry Aids in exploration and recovery by locating metal ores and
valuable minerals underground or in rock formations to
increase the efficiency of mining operations.
Construction industry Identifies hidden metal objects, such as rebar or pipes,
inside walls or concrete structures to avoid damaging them
during drilling, cutting or demolition, ensuring the safety and
integrity of the construction project.

4.3.2 Operating principle of a metal detector

In some manufacturing processes the presence of metal objects can cause
serious harm to the end user of products such as bread, baby cereal and
canned goods. This is dangerous and can be prevented if proper checks and
balances are employed during the manufacturing process. One common
method is the use of metal detectors (see Figure 4.10).

metal
detector
conveyor
belt

Figure 4.10: Industrial food metal detector

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 137

 search coil

search
oscillator mixer filter rectifier amplifier

magnetic
field reference
oscillator output

audio alarm
conveyor stop switch
reject piston

Figure 4.11: Block diagram of a metal detector

Figure 4.11 illustrates the operation of a metal detector based on the

principle of electromagnetic induction:
• A magnetic field is formed around a coil of wire (search coil) when a
current flows through it.
• The search coil is connected to an oscillator called the search oscillator,
which oscillates at a particular frequency.
• A reference oscillator is tuned to the same frequency and both are
connected to a mixer stage of the metal detector circuitry.
• Since both oscillators resonate at the same frequency, the output from the
mixer is zero.
• When any metallic objects come within the sensing range of the search
coil, the magnetic field around the coil changes.
• This causes the frequency of the search oscillator to change.
• The frequencies of the search and reference oscillators are now different
and this difference can be observed at the output of the mixer.
• The difference in frequency is then filtered, rectified, amplified and sent
to a warning device such as an alarm. It may also stop a conveyor or even
reject the product.

138 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 Activity 4.3
1. Which industry uses metal detectors to enhance security by detecting
concealed weapons or metal objects on individuals at secure facilities?
A. Food industry.
B. Security industry.
C. Mining industry.
D. Construction industry. (1)
2. Explain how metal detectors aid the mining industry. (3)
3. Draw and label a block diagram of a metal detector, including
the search coil, search oscillator, reference oscillator, mixer, filter,
rectifier, amplifier and warning device. (10)

Module 4
4. Describe the principle of operation for a metal detector and how
it detects metal objects. (6)
5. Discuss the importance of metal detectors in the food industry
and how they ensure consumer safety. (5)
TOTAL: [25]

Summary of Module 4

Unit
4.1 Inspection methods or techniques

● Automatic inspection system: Uses electronic circuitry and preprogrammed parameters to inspect, test,
sort and grade production items to ensure that they meet specifications.
● Non-destructive testing (NDT): Involves testing materials and objects for defects or flaws that are not
visible to the naked eye without permanently altering or damaging them in any way.
● Use of radioactive isotopes in NDT: Alpha, beta and gamma particles all penetrate materials but the
extent of their penetration is determined by the material’s density:
◦ Alpha particles: Positively charged with low penetration.
◦ Beta particles: Negatively charged with higher penetration.
◦ Gamma particles: Neutral and highly penetrating due to their short wavelength.
◦ Minimum requirements for an automatic inspection system: Integration into single stage, labour versus
automation, characteristics of final product, product’s shelf life and demand, packaging and storage
methods, alternatives for rejects.
● Components of an automatic inspection system: Raw material receiving, quality acceptance, bulk storage,
production line, inspection and testing. If product passes inspection and testing: grading, sorting, counting,
packaging, storage and dispatch. If product fails inspection and testing: sent to waste or to alternative runs
for recycling. Feedback loop provides continuous improvement of the production process.
● Go-NoGo inspection system: A binary test with only two outcomes: pass or fail. Checks a component
against specific criteria, specifications or tolerances
● High-Go-Low inspection system: Uses three categories to test items: high items returned for reworking;
go items accepted; low items rejected.
● Resistive and capacitive testing circuit: Used to evaluate the electrical properties of resistors and
capacitors in a circuit.

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 139

 Unit
4.2 Automatic production testing

● Automated optical inspection (AOI): Uses cameras and image processing software to visually inspect
printed circuit boards (PCBs) and other products. System captures high-resolution images of the product
and compares them against a predefined template or set of standards.
● Automated X-ray inspection (AXI): Uses X-rays to inspect the internal structure of a product.
● Tests to prevent electrical shock hazards: Dielectric voltage withstand test (hipot test), insulation
resistance test, leakage current test, ground continuity test.
● Dielectric voltage withstand test or hipot test: A test that stresses a product’s insulation far beyond
normal use conditions
● Insulation resistance (IR) test or Megger test: A test that ensures that the insulation between isolated
conductors maintains a resistance that limits leakage current to an acceptable level when high voltage is
applied.
● Three locations to be tested in hipot test: Between the power supply line and the grounded enclosure,
between the power supply line and any ungrounded enclosure, between the enclosure and isolated
connections.
● Insulation resistance testing: Measures the resistance value at a certain voltage, not the strength of the
insulation. Uses DC current to measure resistance.
● Withstand voltage testing: Checks the dielectric strength to see if an insulation breakdown occurs. Often
uses AC current.
● A megohmmeter has three terminals: LINE or L terminal, EARTH or E terminal, GUARD or G terminal.

Unit
4.3 Metal detectors

● Industrial applications of metal detectors: Food, security, mining, construction.

● Operating principle of metal detector: Search coil is connected to search oscillator. Reference oscillator
is tuned to the same frequency and both are connected to a mixer stage. When any metallic objects
come within the sensing range of the search coil, the magnetic field around the coil changes, causing the
frequency of the search oscillator to change. The difference between the frequencies of the search and
reference oscillators is observed at the output of the mixer.

Summative assessment for Module 4

1. State five minimum requirements of an automatic inspection systems. (5)
2. Name in any order five main elements of the block diagram of a basic metal
detector unit. (5)
3. Refer to Figure 4.12 and then answer the following questions:
3.1 Give the full name of the electronic circuit that the block diagram in
Figure 4.13 represents. (1)
3.2 If the circuit in question is operating and the output is not active and not
faulty, interpret this yielded result. (1)
3.3 If the circuit in question is operating and the output is now active, interpret
this yielded result. (1)

140 Module 4 TVET FIRST

 3.4 State the relationship between the magnitudes of f1 and f2 during a time when
the circuit is operating but there is no active output and yet the output is not
faulty.(2)
3.5 Discuss in detail the relationship between the magnitudes and the states of
both f1 and f2 during a time when the circuit is operating and the output is
now active. (4)
3.6 State any three practical examples of industries where the circuit in question
is used. (3)

search
search f1 ± f2 filter rectifier
oscillator
coil f1 mixer f0 = f1 + f2

reference
oscillator output A
f2

Figure 4.12: Circuit

4. Discuss in point form the operating principle of the direct-viewing method used
in NDT when a crack is present on a casting. (5)
5. Explain the operation of a basic metal detector circuit when metal is detected in
the vicinity of the detector. (5)
6. Name in any order three parts/units/stages that are used in the construction of
conventional metal detectors. (3)
TOTAL: [35]

TVET FIRST Automatic inspection, testing and NDT 141

 Module

5
Electronic safety devices

Overview of Module 5
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 5.1: Industrial safety devices

• Explain the difference between electromechanical safety devices to those of electronic safety
devices as applied to the various industries.
• Give the advantage of fitting electronic safety devices to the industry.
• Name and describe any two different types of electronic safety devices.
• Describe the term optoelectronics and mention what an optical relay consists of.
• Explain the purpose of the following devices:
◦ Electronic safety devices.
◦ Guard and safeguarding devices.
• List the functions that a device needs to be able to perform in order to qualify as a safety
device.
• List important factors to consider when installing any safety device.
• List two safety devices that are usually difficult for operators to bypass.
• List two types of proximity switches.
• Name two things that guards and safeguarding devices are meant to accomplish.
• List and explain general types of machine safeguards.
• Explain the operating principle of safety light curtains with the aid of a neatly labelled circuit
diagram and in description.
• Draw labelled diagrams of the following and give a detailed description of their operating
principles with specific reference to photoelectric safety devices:
◦ Industrial hydraulic punch press.
◦ Smoke detector.
◦ Flame-failure detector device.
• List applications of safety light curtains.
• List and explain the difference between two types of smoke detectors.
• Explain the operating principle of an ionisation smoke detector with the aid of a neatly
labelled diagram and in description.
• List two types of photoelectric smoke detectors and explain their principle of operation.
• List types of flame detectors and characteristics of flames.
• Explain what you understand by safety interlocking switches.
• Describe the terms positive and negative protection as applied to the electrical industries and
enhance your descriptions with practical examples.
• Explain the term intrinsic safety.

142 Module 3 TVET FIRST

• Describe the following terms with reference to intrinsic safety:
◦ Hot-spots.
◦ Abnormal condition.
◦ Energy levels.
◦ The loop concept when evaluating equipment.
◦ A margin of safety under the worst possible conditions.
◦ Transformer construction.
◦ Isolation by encapsulation.
• Explain the difference between hazardous area and zone.
Unit 5.2: Intrinsic safety

• Describe the term intrinsic safety as applicable to the workplace safety environment.
• Name and give detailed descriptions of the various steps involved when determining intrinsic
safety.
• Draw a neatly labelled diagram illustrating the various energy levels with regard to intrinsic safety
as applied to a chemical plant.
• Draw neatly labelled diagrams and give detailed descriptions of the following devices with

Module 5
reference to intrinsic safety:
◦ Series protective elements.
◦ Shunt protective elements.
◦ Zener barrier protection.
Worker safety is of critical concern in the
manufacturing industry due to the reliance on
potentially dangerous equipment. Employees
must be protected from machine-related
injuries, such as disfigurement, amputation or
death, through appropriate safety devices and
safeguards. The Occupational Health and Safety
Act emphasises the need for such measures to
ensure the safety of workers and others involved
with machinery. Proper use of machine guarding
and safety devices allows for safe and efficient Figure 5.1: Explosion-proof distribution box
operations, but many operators bypass these used in hazardous locations
measures, leading to severe injuries or fatalities.
This module explores the use of electronically controlled safety devices to prevent such incidents in
the industry.

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. What are electronic safety devices?
2. Why do you think we need safety equipment in a workplace?
3. What do you understand about the term ‘hazardous areas’.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 143

 Unit 5.1: Industrial safety devices
5.1.1 C
 omparing electromechanical and electronic
safety devices
Electromechanical and electronic safety devices both aim to enhance
workplace safety but differ significantly in their design, operation and
application across various industries. Both types of safety devices are
required in various industries. The choice between them depends on
the specific safety requirements, the nature of the hazards and the
operational environment. Table 5.1 compares their designs, differences
and applications.
Table 5.1: Electromechanical versus electronic safety devices

Electromechanical safety devices Electronic safety devices

Design and
operation
• Mechanical components: Use
electromechanical parts such as switches,
• Electronic components: Use
electronic components such as sensors,
relays and actuators to perform safety microprocessors and software to monitor
functions. and control safety functions.
• Direct interaction: Require direct physical
interaction to trigger a safety response, such
• Automated detection: Incorporate
advanced technologies such as infrared,
as pressing a stop button or activating a ultrasonic or laser sensors to detect hazards
lever. without physical interaction.
• Reliability: Known for their robustness and
reliability in harsh industrial environments.
• Flexibility and precision: Offer greater
flexibility and precision in monitoring and
controlling safety parameters.
Applications • Manufacturing: Used in machinery with
moving parts, such as presses, conveyor
• Manufacturing: Used in automated
production lines to detect and respond to
belts and cutting machines, to provide safety breaches without human intervention.
immediate shut-off in case of an emergency.
• Healthcare: Used in medical equipment to
• Automotive: Used in assembly lines to
ensure the safety of workers around robotic
monitor and ensure the safe operation of
devices such as MRI machines and surgical
arms and heavy machinery. robots.
• Construction: Found in heavy equipment,
such as cranes and excavators, to prevent
• Aerospace: Used in aircraft systems
to monitor and control safety-critical
accidents due to equipment malfunction. operations, ensuring passenger and crew
safety.
Examples • Emergency stop buttons: Large, easily
accessible buttons that immediately stop the
• Light curtains: Use infrared beams to create
a barrier that stops machine operation when
machine when pressed. breached.
• Safety interlock switches: Prevent
machinery from operating if safety guards or
• Proximity sensors: Detect the presence of
an object or person in a specific range and
doors are not properly closed. trigger safety responses.
• Limit switches: Detect the presence or
absence of an object and can halt operations
• Programmable logic controllers (PLCs):
Advanced controllers that manage safety
if an unexpected object is detected. protocols and can quickly adapt to different
safety requirements through software
adjustments.

144 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 5.1.2 A
 dvantages of electronic safety devices in
industry
There are many advantages to using electronic safety devices in industry:
• Enhanced precision and sensitivity:
◦ Accurate hazard detection: Electronic safety devices can detect hazards
with high precision, ensuring timely responses to potential dangers.
◦ Adjustable sensitivity: These devices can be calibrated to respond to
varying levels of risk, providing tailored safety measures for different
situations.
• Automation and efficiency:
◦ Automatic monitoring: Electronic safety devices continuously monitor
environments without the need for manual intervention, reducing the
burden on human operators.
◦ Faster response times: Automated systems can react instantaneously

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to detected hazards, minimising the risk of injury or damage.
• Versatility and flexibility:
◦ Adaptability: Electronic safety devices can be easily reprogrammed
or reconfigured to accommodate changes in production processes or
safety standards.
◦ Wide range of applications: They can be used in diverse settings from
manufacturing and healthcare to aerospace and automotive industries.
• Data collection and analysis:
◦ Continuous monitoring: Electronic devices can log data over time,
providing insights into safety trends and potential issues.
◦ Predictive maintenance: Analysing this data helps predict equipment
failures and schedule maintenance proactively, reducing downtime.
• Integration with modern technologies:
◦ Compatibility with IoT: Electronic safety devices can integrate with
IoT systems, enhancing overall system connectivity and control.
◦ Advanced features: They often include features such as remote
monitoring, automated alerts and integration with other safety and
control systems.
• Improved compliance and record keeping:
◦ Regulatory compliance: Electronic safety devices can help ensure
compliance with industry safety standards and regulations through
precise monitoring and reporting.
◦ Audit trails: Automatic record keeping provides clear documentation
of safety measures and incidents, aiding in audits and investigations.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 145

 • Enhanced worker safety and morale:
◦ Proactive hazard management: By preventing accidents and ensuring
a safer working environment, electronic safety devices contribute to
higher worker morale and productivity.
◦ Reduced human error: Automation minimises the potential for
human error, which is a common cause of workplace accidents.
• Cost-effectiveness:
◦ Long-term savings: While the initial investment may be higher,
electronic safety devices often lead to long-term cost savings by
reducing accidents, downtime and maintenance costs.
◦ Efficiency gains: Increased operational efficiency through
automation and predictive maintenance further contributes to cost-
effectiveness.
• Scalability:
◦ Easily scalable: Electronic safety systems can be scaled up or down
Note
according to the size and complexity of the operations, providing a
Electrical safety
flexible safety solution for growing businesses. devices manage
• Real-time alerts and remote access: high power directly

◦
to prevent hazards,
Immediate notifications: Electronic devices can send real-time alerts like circuit breakers
or fuses. Electronic
to operators or management if a hazard is detected. safety devices
◦ Remote monitoring: Many electronic safety devices allow for remote monitor or control
the system and use
monitoring and control, providing greater oversight and quick low-power circuits,
response capabilities. like sensors or
relays, to support
safety actions.
5.1.3 Types of electronic safety devices However, in this
course, we use
Circuit breakers and fuses are two types of electronic safety devices that both these terms
are effective in protecting industrial and household electrical systems from in reference to one
context.
damage and ensuring safety against electrical hazards.

a) Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers are safety devices designed to protect electrical circuits circuit breaker: a
from damage caused by overloads, short circuits or other electrical faults. safety device designed to
protect electrical circuits
They automatically interrupt the flow of electricity when an abnormal from damage caused by
condition is detected. This prevents potential damage to the electrical system overloads, short circuits
or other electrical
and reduces the risk of fire or injury. Circuit breakers can be reset manually faults by automatically
or automatically after the fault condition is cleared. Table 5.2 describes three interrupting the flow
of electricity when an
types of circuit breakers. abnormal condition is
detected

146 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 Table 5.2: Types of circuit breakers

Breaker Usage Image

Miniature circuit Used for low-voltage applications in residential,
breaker (MCB) commercial and industrial settings to protect
lighting circuits and electrical outlets.

Figure 5.2: MCB

Moulded case Suitable for higher current ratings and
circuit breaker industrial applications and have adjustable trip
(MCCB) settings for better protection.

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Figure 5.3: MCCB
Ground fault Designed to protect against electrical shock by
circuit interrupter detecting ground faults and interrupting the
(GFCI) circuit.

Figure 5.4: GFCI

Applications of circuit breakers

Examples of applications of circuit breakers include:
• Residential: Protect household electrical systems, including wiring,
outlets and appliances, from overloads and short circuits.
• Commercial: Safeguard electrical systems in office buildings, shopping
centres and other commercial properties.
• Industrial: Ensure the safety of industrial machinery and equipment by
preventing electrical faults.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 147

 Table 5.3 lists the advantages and disadvantages of circuit breakers.
Table 5.3: Advantages and disadvantages of circuit breakers

Advantages Disadvantages

• Reusable. • Higher initial cost.

• Customisable protection. • Complex installation.
• Enhanced safety. • Mechanical wear.
• Remote operation. • Limited lifespan.
• Visual indicators. • Potential for nuisance tripping.
b) Fuses
Fuses are safety devices that protect electrical circuits by melting a metal fuse: a safety device
wire or strip inside the fuse when an overload or short circuit occurs. This that protects electrical
circuits by melting a
breaks the circuit, stops the flow of electricity and prevents damage to the metal wire or strip
electrical system. Fuses need to be replaced after they have blown as they are inside the fuse when an
overload or short circuit
single-use devices. Table 5.4 describes three examples of fuses. occurs

Table 5.4: Examples of fuses

Fuse Usage Image

Cartridge fuse • Commonly used and general-purpose fuse used
in industrial and residential applications to protect
electrical systems and equipment.
• Cylindrical in shape and can be made from various
materials, including glass, ceramic and porcelain.

Figure 5.5: Cartridge fuse

Blade fuse • Used in automotive and low-voltage applications.
• Have a plastic body with one or more blades that are
inserted into a plug.

Figure 5.6: Blade fuses

Bolted tag fuse • Used in a range of industrial and electrical equipment.
• Cylindrical in shape with protruding metal tags that
are used to bolt the fuses into a fuse holder.

Figure 5.7: Bolted tag fuse

Applications of fuses
Examples of applications of fuses include:
• Automotive: Protect the electrical systems in vehicles, including wiring,
lights and electronic components.
• Electronics: Safeguard delicate electronic devices and circuits from
overcurrent conditions.
• Industrial: Used in electrical panels and machinery to provide
overcurrent protection.

148 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 Table 5.5 lists the advantages and disadvantages of fuses.
Table 5.5: Advantages and disadvantages of fuses

Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple design. • Single-use, requiring replacement after blowing.

• Low initial cost. • No reset capability.
• Fast response to overcurrent conditions. • Can be difficult to identify which fuse has blown.
• Wide range of sizes and ratings. • Limited precision in overcurrent protection.
• No mechanical parts to wear out. • Manual replacement leads to downtime.
5.1.4 Optoelectronics and optical relay
optoelectronics: the Optoelectronics refers to the study and application of electronic devices
study and application that source, detect and control light, which includes visible light as well
of electronic devices
that source, detect and as invisible forms of radiation such as ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
control light, which Optoelectronic devices are electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical
includes visible light as
well as invisible forms
transducers, or instruments that use these transducers.
of radiation such as

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ultraviolet and infrared An example of an optoelectronic device is an optical relay consisting of:
radiation
optoelectronic
• A transmitter (light source).
devices: electrical-to-
optical or optical-to-
• A medium (such as fibre-optics) for transmitting light energy.
electrical transducers, • An optical receiver such as a phototransistor, photodiode,
or instruments that use
these transducers
photoconductor (light-sensitive resistor) or other photosensitive junction
devices.

5.1.5 P
 urpose of electronic safety devices, guards
and safeguarding devices
a) Electronic safety devices
The primary goal of electronic safety devices is to ensure
workplace safety in accordance with OHSA regulations.
Electronic safety devices are installed on operator-
controlled industrial machines to control access to their
dangerous areas. These devices should fulfil one or more
of the following functions to qualify as safety devices:
• Stop the machine if a hand or any body part enters the
danger zone accidentally.
Figure 5.8: Two-hand control with • Restrict or remove the operator’s hands from the
two push-to-make buttons danger area during machine operation.
• Require the operator to use both hands on the machine controls, keeping
hands and body out of danger (see Figure 5.8).
• Provide a barrier synchronised with the machine’s operating cycle to
prevent entry into the danger area during hazardous machine cycles.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 149

 • Allow for safe lubrication and maintenance without creating hazards or
interfering with normal machine operation.
• Ensure security, tamper-resistance and durability.

b) Guards and safeguarding devices

Guards provide physical barriers that prevent access to dangerous areas. guards: provide
Examples of guards include protective covers for blades and interlocked physical barriers that
prevent access to
guards. Safeguarding devices either prevent or detect operator contact with dangerous areas
the point of operation or stop potential hazardous machine motion if any part safeguarding devices:
of a worker’s body is within the hazardous portion of the machine. Examples either prevent or detect
operator contact with
of safeguarding devices include two-hand control and safety light curtains. the point of operation
or stop potential
Guards and safeguarding devices serve two primary purposes: hazardous machine

• They shield operators from dangerous moving parts of machinery to motion if any part of a
worker’s body is within
prevent injuries. the hazardous portion
of the machine
• They protect other people in the workplace from injury such as being hit
by flying debris or inadvertently caught by moving machinery.

5.1.6 Functions of a safety device

To qualify as a safety device, a device must be able to perform one or more of
the following functions:
• Stop the machine: Be able to halt machine operation if a hand or any
body part enters a hazardous area accidentally.
• Restrain or remove operator’s hands: Be able to restrict or withdraw the
operator’s hands from the danger zone during machine operation.
• Require two-hand operation: Ensures the operator uses both hands on
machine controls, keeping hands and body away from danger.
• Synchronise with machine cycle: Provides a barrier or safety feature
synchronised with the machine’s operation to prevent access to hazardous
areas during critical machine cycles.
• Facilitate safe maintenance: Allows safe lubrication, maintenance or
adjustment without creating new hazards or interfering with normal
machine operation.
• Ensure security and durability: Maintains secure, tamper-resistant
characteristics and durability suitable for industrial environments.

5.1.7 F
 actors to consider when installing a safety
device
When installing any safety device, consider the following factors:
• Risk assessment: Conduct a thorough risk assessment to identify specific
hazards and determine the appropriate safety measures needed.

150 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 • Compatibility: Ensure the safety device is compatible with the specific
machinery and application where it will be installed.
• Effectiveness: Verify that the safety device effectively mitigates identified
risks and hazards according to industry standards and regulations.
• Accessibility: Position the safety device in a location that is easily
accessible to operators without hindering workflow or operation.
• Integration: Integrate the safety device seamlessly with existing machine
controls and operational processes to maintain efficiency and productivity.
• Maintenance requirements: Understand the maintenance requirements
of the safety device and ensure it can be easily inspected, tested and
maintained to ensure continued effectiveness.
• Training: Provide adequate training to operators and personnel
on the proper use and function of the safety device to maximise its
effectiveness.
• Compliance: Ensure the safety device meets relevant regulatory

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requirements and standards applicable to the industry and location.
• Durability: Select a safety device that is durable and able to withstand
the environmental conditions and operational demands of the
workplace.
• Emergency response: Consider emergency response protocols and
ensure the safety device allows for quick and effective shutdown or
intervention in case of emergencies.

5.1.8 S
 afety devices that are difficult for operators
to bypass
bypass: avoid or
Two safety devices that are difficult for operators to bypass are:
circumvent a safety
system
• Interlocked guards: These
interlocked guard:
are physical barriers that are
a physical barrier connected to the machine’s
connected to the
machine’s control system
control system. They are
that automatically stops designed in such a way that
or prevents the machine
from operating when
when the guard is opened
the guard is opened or or removed, it automatically
removed
stops or prevents the
two-hand control:
require the operator to machine from operating
simultaneously press (see Figure 5.9). Operators
two buttons or switches Figure 5.9: Interlocked guard
located at a safe distance
cannot easily bypass
from the machine’s interlocked guards without triggering a stoppage of the machine.
hazardous area
• Two-hand controls: Two-hand controls require the operator to
simultaneously press two buttons or switches located at a safe distance
from the machine’s hazardous area (see Figure 5.10). This ensures that

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 151

 both hands are away from the danger zone during machine operation.
Operators cannot bypass this safety device by using only one hand, thus
effectively preventing unsafe practices.

both hands in use

proximity switch: a
switch B switch A sensor that can detect
the presence of a nearby
Figure 5.10: Two-hand control using two push-to-make buttons object without any
physical contact
inductive proximity
5.1.9 Proximity switches switch: a sensor that
uses the changes in an
A proximity switch is a sensor that can detect the presence of a nearby object electromagnetic field to
detect metallic objects
without any physical contact. Two types of proximity switches commonly without physical contact
used are: capacitive proximity
switch: a sensor that
• Inductive proximity switches: These switches detect metallic objects uses the changes in
without physical contact (see Figure 5.11). They work by generating an capacitance detect
both metallic and non-
electromagnetic field and sensing changes in this field when a metal metallic objects without
object enters the switch’s detection range. Inductive proximity switches physical contact

are often used in industrial automation for detecting the presence of

metallic parts, positioning and counting applications.
• Capacitive proximity switches: Capacitive proximity switches
detect both metallic and non-metallic objects by sensing changes
in capacitance. When an object enters the sensing area, it alters the
capacitance between the sensor and the object, triggering the switch to
actuate. Capacitive proximity switches are suitable for detecting materials
Figure 5.11: Inductive
such as plastics, liquids and powders, making them versatile in various proximity switch
industrial applications.

5.1.10 O
 bjectives of guards and safeguarding
devices
Guards and safeguarding devices are required to accomplish two main
objectives:
• Protect operators: Using point-of-operation guarding and perimeter
guarding, they aim to shield operators from hazardous moving parts of
machinery, preventing injuries such as cuts, crushes or amputations.
• Protect others in the work area: These devices also serve to protect
individuals in the general work area from being struck by flying debris or
materials, or from accidentally being caught by moving machine parts.

152 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 5.1.11 Types of machine safeguards
There are five main types of machine safeguards designed to protect workers
and personnel near machinery:
• Guards: These are physical barriers that prevent contact with hazardous
areas. They can be fixed in place, interlocked with machine controls,
adjustable or self-adjusting.
• Safeguarding devices: These restrict access to hazardous areas and
include presence-sensing devices, pullback or restraint straps, safety trip
controls, two-hand controls and gates.
• Automated feeding and ejection mechanisms: These systems remove
the operator’s exposure to the hazardous point of operation while
handling materials.
• Machine location or distance: This method involves positioning the
machine or its components away from the operator’s work area to
eliminate hazards.

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• Miscellaneous aids: These methods provide additional protection for
operators and nearby personnel. Examples include shields to contain
debris, holding tools for material handling and awareness barriers to alert
individuals about hazards in the vicinity.

5.1.12 Safety light curtains

Safety light curtains are photoelectric presence-
sensing devices designed to protect workers
from injuries caused by hazardous machine
light
movements. They function by stopping or
source
sensor pausing the machine’s cycle whenever the light
field of the curtain is interrupted (see Figure
5.12). This is known as point-of-operation
guarding. They provide optimal safety, enhance
productivity and offer better ergonomic solutions
Figure 5.12: Safety light curtain compared to mechanical guards. They are used
in situations where workers need frequent and
safety light curtain: a easy access to hazardous points of operation.
photoelectric presence-
sensing device that stops
or pauses the machine’s
Operating principle of a safety light curtain
cycle whenever the light
field of the curtain is
The circuit diagram in Figure 5.13 illustrates how a safety light curtain
interrupted works:
• A photoelectric emitter has LEDs that emit pulses of invisible infrared light.
These light pulses are sequenced and modulated at specific frequencies.
• The receiver has phototransistors that detect the specific pulses and
frequencies. This design rejects external light sources.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 153

 • When an object interrupts the beams, +24 VDC start/restart
the system sends a stop signal to the interlock
emitter receiver
machine.
• Control logic and user controls may be in L1 L2 L3
a separate or combined enclosure.
• There is self-checking circuitry to detect K1
internal faults.
• If a fault is detected, the system sends a K2
stop signal and enters lockout mode. EDM
• The system requires component synch
M
replacement and reset to resume operation.
+24 V ground
• The reset switch for a light curtain must
be located outside and within view of Figure 5.13: Circuit diagram for safety light curtain
the protected area to avoid accidental
machine restart.
• Redundant safety outputs provide additional safety monitoring.

5.1.13 Applications of safety light curtains

Applications of safety light curtains include:
• Presses and punching machines: Protect operators from hazardous
movements in mechanical and hydraulic presses.
• Packaging machines: Ensure safe operation by detecting personnel near
moving parts.
• Automated assembly lines: Prevent accidents by stopping the machine if
someone enters a hazardous area.
• Robotic work cells: Protect workers from robot movements by creating a
safety perimeter.
• Material handling systems: Safeguard workers around conveyor systems
and automated storage/retrieval systems.
• Injection moulding machines: Prevent access to dangerous areas during
operation.
• Metalworking machines: Protect operators from cutting, bending and
forming machines.
• Automotive industry: Ensure safety around automated welding and
assembly lines.
• Food processing equipment: Prevent accidental injury by detecting the
presence of workers near hazardous areas.
• Printing and paper handling machines: Protect workers from moving
parts and nip points.

154 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 5.1.14 Photoelectric safety devices
photoelectric effect:
The photoelectric effect occurs when electrically charged particles are
a phenomenon that released from a material when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation. The
occurs when electrically
charged particles
released particles may be electrons or ions. The material may be a solid,
are released from liquid or gas. The electromagnetic energy may be visible light, infrared or
a material when it
absorbs electromagnetic
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays or gamma rays. Applications where the effect
radiation is used include the photoelectric cells or photocells that are used in burglar
photoelectric cell alarm light detectors and garage door openers.
or photocell: an
electron tube with a a) Hydraulic punch press
photosensitive cathode
that emits electrons
when illuminated and
A punch press is a type of machine that
an anode for collecting is used to cut or shape metal sheets
the emitted electrons
with dies. It can be small and manually
punch press: a type
of machine that is used
operated with a single die set or large
to cut or shape metal and CNC operated with a multistation
sheets with dies
turret holding a complex die set (see

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die: a device for cutting
or moulding metal into Figure 5.14).
a particular shape
A hydraulic press requires safety
measures to prevent the operator’s
hand from being crushed while using
it. The most common safety method
is the use of a photoelectric safety
device. Figure 5.14: Hydraulic punch press

Operating principle of a photoelectric safety device on a punch press

downward +12 V
protection diode
force NO press
light relay control
coil COM circuit
NC
work area relay contacts
mirror light beam laser
R
0V
hydraulic press

Figure 5.15: Photoelectric safety device for a hydraulic punch press

Figure 5.15 illustrates how a photoelectric safety device on a punch press

operates:
• Light shining onto a photocell, such as a light-activated SCR (LASCR) or
phototransistor, lowers the resistance of the component.
• The current flowing through the LASCR and relay coil is sufficient to

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 155

 keep the relay contacts in the closed position, which allows the press to
be operated.
• If the light is interrupted in any way, the resistance of the LASCR will
increase, which reduces the current flow to the relay.
• The relay coil will be de-energised and the contacts will open, rendering
the press inoperative.
• The same action will take place if there is no light source because of a
faulty bulb.
• The beam of light must be directed so that the work done does not
interfere with the light path.

b) Smoke detector
A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, which is usually an indicator
of a fire (see Figure 5.16).
Operating principle of a smoke detector
sleeve/optic fibre
transmitter light beam receiver
LDR
A Figure 5.16: Smoke
detector mounted on
light smoke out the ceiling
source
B
LDR

prism lenses

(a) Circuit diagram

microcontroller
alarm

light

light source photo-sensitive component

(LED) smoke (LDR or photo-transistor)

(b) Block diagram

Figure 5.17: Microcontroller-based smoke detector

156 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 Figure 5.17 illustrates how a smoke detector works:
• Two light-sensitive transducers (A and B) are connected to differential
amplifiers.
• A light source illuminates both cells using optical fibres, mirrors, lenses
or prisms.
• Brightness variations from the transmitter affect both channels equally
and cancel out at the output.
• Smoke detection occurs if smoke blocks the light path of only one
channel.
• The second light path is protected from external interference with a
protective sleeve.
• This set-up allows the measurement of the difference in light intensity
between two signals from a single light source received by two
transducers.

c) Flame-failure detector

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flame-failure
A flame-failure detector is the part of a gas burner system that ensures that
detector: the part of the fuel supply to the gas appliance is cut off automatically and immediately
a gas burner system
that ensures that the
if the flame goes out or becomes unstable. This stops the flow of gas, which
fuel supply to the gas prevents a potential explosion.
appliance is cut off
automatically and Operating principle of a flame-failure detector
immediately if the flame
goes out or becomes +
unstable, stopping D1 relay
the flow of gas and
preventing an explosion control
R1 R5

hot
electrode FET UJT
SCR
flame
R2 R4
R3 R6 reset
button
C1
burner
–

Figure 5.18: Flame-failure detector circuit

Figure 5.18 illustrates how a flame-failure detector operates:

• A ring-shaped loop of tungsten wire acts as a hot electrode which is
exposed to the flame. This wire has a positive potential.
• The burner is grounded, which gives it a negative potential.
• The flame acts as a high-impedance medium and is connected via the
electrode to the high input impedance of a field-effect transistor (FET).

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 157

 • The FET input electrode is biased by a high-impedance voltage divider
circuit of equal resistance, which is grounded by the flame.
• While the flame is burning, the FET has no output, the unijunction
transistor (UJT) does not switch on and the gate of the SCR is not
activated.
• If the flame is extinguished, the bias on the FET changes, thereby
activating the UJT and SCR, which energises the coil of a relay.
• The relay contacts activate a control circuit connected to shut-off valves
and the supply of gas is terminated.
• A new cycle can be activated by using programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) where complete automation is used or by manually pushing a
reset button.
• With a completely automated system, the process resets itself but if
the fault persists, a warning alarm sounds and the circuit shuts down
completely.

5.1.15 Comparing two types of smoke detectors

Table 5.2 compares two common types of smoke detectors: the ionisation
smoke detector and the photoelectric smoke detector.
Table 5.2: Ionisation smoke detector versus the photoelectric smoke detector

Ionisation detector Photoelectric detector

Detection mechanism Uses ionised air and electrical Uses light scattering.
current.
Sensitivity More sensitive to fast-flaming More sensitive to slow,
fires. smouldering fires.
False alarms Prone to false alarms from Less prone to false alarms.
cooking or steam.
Cost Cheaper. More expensive.

5.1.16 Ionisation smoke detector

An ionisation smoke detector operates on the ionisation process, which uses
radioactive material to detect smoke particles. A small amount of radioactive
material between two electrically charged plates ionises the air and creates a
current between the plates. When smoke enters the chamber, it disrupts the
flow of ions, reducing the current and triggering the alarm. The ionisation
smoke detector is particularly effective at detecting fast-flaming fires that
produce small combustion particles.

158 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 Operating principle of an ionisation smoke detector

positive
+ electrode
electrical
power
source negative ion

positive ion alpha

particles
– negative
electrode

current detector
alarm

Figure 5.19: Ionisation smoke detector

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Figure 5.19 illustrates how an ionisation smoke detector works:
• Normal operation:
◦ The alpha particles emitted by the radioactive source ionise the air
molecules in the chamber.
◦ This ionisation process generates positive ions and free electrons
(negative ions).
◦ The ions are attracted to their respective electrodes, creating a small,
continuous electrical current between the positive and negative
electrodes.
◦ The current detector monitors this current flow.
• Smoke detection:
◦ When smoke enters the ionisation chamber, the smoke particles attach
to the ions.
◦ This attachment reduces the number of free ions available to carry the
current.
◦ As a result, the current flow between the electrodes decreases.
◦ The current detector senses this reduction in current flow.
◦ When the current drops below a predetermined threshold, the
detector triggers the alarm.

5.1.17 Photoelectric smoke detectors

Photoelectric smoke detectors use a light source and a light sensor. The two
smoke detectors we will discuss are the light-scattering smoke detector and
the light obscuration smoke detector.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 159

 a) Light-scattering smoke detector
When smoke enters the chamber of a photoelectric light-scattering smoke
detector, it scatters the light beam and directs it towards the sensor, which
triggers the alarm (see Figure 5.21).

source detector source detector

(a)
(a)Normal
Normalstate
state (b) (b) Smoke
Smoke
Figure 5.20: Light-scattering smoke detector

Operating principle of a light-scattering smoke detector

IN4004

6,8k/5 W 220 V

2,2 k external
2,2 M 9 8 alarm
12 10
2

LM1801
560 k 1M
4 siren
5 14 7
3,9M 13 6 1
Th1
2,7k
C1 + LDR1 LDR2 + 47k
8,2M TIC106M
100 μF 10 μF P1
1k 25 V 10k
25 V 10M

Figure 5.21: Circuit diagram of a light-scattering smoke detector

Figure 5.21 illustrates how a light-scattering smoke detector works:

• Normal condition:
◦ The light source (LED) emits a beam of light into the detection
chamber.
◦ Light-dependent resistors LDR1 and LDR2 detect changes in light
intensity. They are positioned in such a way that under normal
conditions, they do not receive direct light from the LED due to their
orientation or placement.
◦ The resistance of the LDRs remains high because they are in darkness
or low-light conditions.

160 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 ◦ The LM1801 comparator integrated circuit maintains the circuit in a
stable state and the siren remains off.
• Smoke detection:
◦ When smoke enters the detection chamber, it scatters the light emitted
by the LED.
◦ Scattered light reaches LDR1 and LDR2, reducing their resistance.
◦ The change in resistance of the LDRs causes a change in voltage across
them, which is sensed by the LM1801 comparator.
◦ The LM1801 comparator processes this change in voltage and sends a
signal to the transistor (T1).
◦ Transistor T1 activates the siren, generating an alarm sound to indicate
the presence of smoke.
◦ The circuit ensures that the alarm is triggered only when the light path
is altered by the presence of smoke.

b) Light obscuration smoke detector

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source detector source smoke detector

(a) Normal statestate

(a) Normal (b)(b)
Smoke
Smoke
Figure 5.22: Light obscuration detector

A light obscuration smoke detector includes a source LED, a detector

LED, and a sensing chamber or space. Under normal conditions, the light
emitted by the source LED is transmitted and detected by the detector LED.
However, in the presence of smoke or fire, the smoke particles either block
the light or significantly reduce its intensity (see Figure 5.22). The detector
circuit monitors this change and triggers an alarm when a specific threshold
is exceeded.

5.1.18 T
 ypes and characteristics of flame detectors
flame detector: a A flame detector is a sensor designed to detect and respond to a flame
sensor designed to or fire. When the flame detector detects a flame, it can sound an alarm,
detect and respond to a
flame or fire deactivate a gas fuel line, turn off an ignition system or activate a fire
suppression system. A flame detector responds faster and more accurately
than a smoke detector.
Industrial applications of flame detectors include oil-fired burners, oil
and gas pipelines, turbine enclosures, offshore platforms, automotive
manufacturing facilities, munitions plants and nuclear facilities.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 161

 The type of flame detector used depends on the characteristics of the flame:
• Oil flames used in burners and furnaces contain CO2 and water vapour as
well as luminescent carbon particles, which emit visible light and UV and
IR radiation.
• Coal powder flames contain non-luminous gases, such as CO2 and water
vapour, as well as hot glowing particles and carbon particles, which emit
IR radiation and visible light.
• Combustible gases emit strong UV radiation.
We will discuss the following types of flame detectors:
• Cad cell flame detector.
• Visible light flame detector.
cad cell flame
• Infrared (IR) flame detector. detector: a solid-
state photoconductive
• Ultraviolet (UV) flame detector. detector that uses light

• Flame rod detector.

intensity to sense the
presence of a flame in
an oil-fired burner
a) Cad cell flame detector primary control:
controls the input
A cad cell flame detector is a solid-state photoconductive detector that uses provided by various
parts of the system to
light intensity to sense the presence of a flame in an oil-fired burner. It is part the burner
of the primary control system of the burner. The primary control controls oil primary control:
the input provided by various parts of the system to the burner. It responds uses a cad cell sensor to
check for a flame
to the thermostat and limit control as well as the presence or absence of a
gas primary control:
flame in the burner to regulate the start-up and shutdown of the burner. An uses thermo-sensing or
oil primary control uses a cad cell sensor to check for a flame while a gas flame rectification to
ensure safe operation of
primary control uses thermo-sensing or flame rectification to ensure safe the system
operation of the system.

cad cell flame primary

detector control

lead wire
socket
120 V limit
plug-in cell
ignition
thermostat transformer
burner
bracket hot ground motor

(a)
(a) Light-sensitive
Light-sensitive plug-in photocell (b)
(b) Constant
Constantignition
ignitionwiring
wiringdiagram
diagram

Figure 5.23: Cad cell flame detector

162 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 Figure 5.23 illustrates how the cad cell flame detector works:
• The light-sensitive plug-in photocell is placed inside the burner’s air tube
to observe the flame. It connects to the primary control terminals.
• The photocell consists of a ceramic disk coated with cadmium sulfide and
a conductive grid on top. The entire cell is sealed to prevent deterioration.
Electrodes on the ceramic disk transmit an electrical signal to the
primary control.
• In darkness, cadmium sulphide has high electrical resistance. In visible
light, resistance decreases, allowing current flow.
• Initially, the primary control has high resistance across its terminals as
Note the cad cell does not detect visible light. When the cad cell senses light or
If pushing down is shorted, the relay in the primary control will not activate to start the
the reset button burner.
does not restart
the burner, do • Once the burner runs and the flame is established, the cad cell must show
not continue
attempting to
low resistance (detecting flame) to prevent the primary control from
safety lock-out.

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reset it. Persistent
attempts can lead
to oil flooding the The cad cell flame detector is highly effective for primary safety control in
firebox. If ignition oil burners. A malfunction will cause the primary safety control to increase
fails repeatedly,
the flooded firebox electrical resistance across the cad cell, leading to automatic shutdown of
poses a serious risk the burner. On shutdown, a reset button pops up on the burner that must be
of fire or explosion.
pushed down to restart the burner.

b) Visible light flame detector

A visible light flame detector detects the visible light emitted by
oil flames (see Figure 5.24). It works alongside flame safeguard
controls to supervise oil flames in commercial and industrial
burners. Under optimal conditions, it can detect most oil flames
Figure 5.24: Visible light detector up to 2 m away.
Key factors affecting the detector’s performance include the quality of the
flame signal (current or voltage) and the temperature of the flame detector
itself. Other installation-specific factors may also play a role. The detector
must have a direct line of sight to the flame. It must be installed as close to
the flame as possible within the constraints of physical arrangement and
temperature limits.
Visible light detectors are increasingly being used to replace cad cell flame
detectors. However, note that the visible light photocell must not exceed
75 °C in temperature and the faceplate temperature should not exceed
90 °C to ensure reliable operation and safety.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 163

 c) Infrared (IR) flame detector
An infrared (IR) flame detector uses a lead-sulphide photocell sensitive to infrared (IR) flame
IR radiation from burning fuels such as natural gas, oil and coal (see detector: a flame
detector that uses a
Figure 5.25). The electrical resistance of lead-sulphide decreases when lead-sulphide photocell
exposed to IR radiation. When voltage is applied across the lead-sulphide sensitive to IR radiation
refractory: a heat-
photocell, current flows if the cell is exposed to IR radiation.
resistant material used
to make furnaces and
Over 90% of flame radiation is infrared so these detectors receive enough kilns
radiation to detect both weak and intense flames. The lead-sulphide cell
cannot differentiate between IR radiation from hot refractories and flames.
Refractories are heat-resistant materials that are used to
make furnaces and kilns.
The IR detection system includes an amplifier that
responds only to the flickering of flame radiation, ignoring
the steady radiation from hot refractory. However, smoke
or fuel mist in the combustion chamber can intermittently
reflect, bend or block the hot refractory radiation, causing
fluctuations. This fluctuation can mimic the flickering of Figure 5.25: IR flame detector
flame radiation and IR radiation may remain even after the
refractory stops glowing. Therefore, ensure the IR detection system responds
only to flames.
Operating principle of an IR flame detector
+5 V
+

infrared
phototransistor

Figure 5.26: Circuit diagram for an IR flame detector

The IR flame detector in Figure 5.26 works as follows:

• The infrared phototransistor (Q1) detects IR radiation emitted by flames.
• When Q1 is exposed to IR radiation, it allows current to flow from its
collector to its emitter.
• The current flowing through Q1 creates a voltage drop across resistor R1.
• This voltage drop turns on transistor Q2, which acts as an amplifier.

164 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 • Transistor Q2 amplifies the signal, generating a voltage drop across
resistor R3.
• The voltage across R3 is applied to the base of transistor Q3 through
resistor R2, turning Q3 on.
• Transistor Q3 amplifies the signal, ensuring a strong output.
• The output voltage (Vout) is taken from the collector of Q3, connected to
capacitor C1, which smooths the output signal.
• Resistors R4 and R5 form a voltage divider network, providing feedback
and ensuring circuit stability.

d) Ultraviolet (UV) flame detector

ultraviolet (UV) flame An ultraviolet (UV) flame detector senses UV radiation from flames caused
detector: senses UV by carbon-based fuels such as natural gas, LP gas and oil. It is mounted
radiation from flames
caused by carbon-based outside the combustion chamber and produces a signal when it detects
fuels such as natural UV radiation from a flame. This signal goes to an amplifier in the flame
gas, LP gas and oil
safeguard control, activating the flame relay and ensuring system operation.

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If the flame goes out, the relay drops, shutting off the fuel supply. The
detector must be positioned as close to the flame as possible, considering
physical and temperature constraints.

e) Flame rod detector

flame rod detector: A flame rod detector is a safety device used in gas-burning appliances
a safety device used in to detect a flame (see Figure 5.28). It is also used with flame safeguard
gas-burning appliances
to detect a flame controls on industrial and commercial gas burners and oil burners with
pilot: a small gas flame gas pilots.
that serves as an ignition
source for a more Flame ionisation occurs when heat from the flame causes molecules to
powerful gas burner
collide, freeing some outer electrons and creating free electrons and positive
ions. This process allows a small current to pass through the flame although
flame conductivity is low with resistance ranging from 100 to 100 000 kΩ.
Flame current ranges from 2 to 4 mA. Placing two electrodes in a flame
and applying voltage causes a current to flow between the electrodes with
positively charged ions moving to the negatively charged rod. The flame
current is rectified to detect the presence of a flame and to avoid false signals
from high-resistance shorts to ground.
Operating principle of a flame rod detector

Figure 5.27: Flame rod

The flame rod detector in Figure 5.28 works as follows:
detector • The flame rod sensor and the burner at ground potential act as sensing
electrodes to which AC is applied.
• Current flows to ground in one direction, creating a DC signal that can
be monitored and measured.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 165

 • This signal is sent to the flame safeguard control, which shuts off the fuel
supply if the flame goes out.
• 5.1.19 Safety interlocking switches

AC current DC current

flame ground
flame rod (larger)
(smaller)
pilot/burner

ceramic
insulator

ground

Figure 5.28: Operation of a flame rod detector

A safety interlocking switch is a device designed to ensure that machinery safety interlocking
and equipment operate safely by preventing certain actions from occurring switch: a device
designed to ensure
unless specific conditions are met. The functions of interlocking switches that machinery and
are to: equipment operate
safely by preventing
• Prevent hazardous situations: These switches prevent machinery from certain actions from
occurring unless specific
starting or continuing to operate if a safety condition is not satisfied, for conditions are met
example when a guard is open or a cover is removed.
• Ensure safe operation: They ensure that machines operate only when all
safety guards are in place and all safety protocols are followed.
Types of safety interlocks include:
• Mechanical interlocks: Use physical barriers and locks to ensure safety.
For example, a machine cannot operate unless a guard is physically in
place and locked.
• Electrical interlocks: Use electrical circuits to prevent machinery from
starting unless certain conditions are met. For instance, a door switch
cuts power to a machine if the door is open.
• Electromechanical interlocks: Combine mechanical and electrical
components to ensure safety. An example is a key-operated switch that
controls power to the machine with the key only being removable when
the machine is in a safe state.
Examples of applications where interlocking switches are used include:
• Guarding systems: Ensuring that safety guards or doors are closed before
machinery can operate.

166 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 • Access control: Preventing access to hazardous areas unless specific
conditions are met, such as a machine being in a safe state.
• Process control: Ensuring that processes occur in the correct sequence
and under safe conditions.

5.1.20 P
 ositive and negative protection in
electrical industries
All the safety conditions must be met before devices and machines are used
in the production process. Positive and negative protection also falls under
the photoelectric or optoelectronic category.

a) Positive protection circuit

A positive protection circuit is an electronic circuit designed to protect
sensitive components or devices from damage by ensuring that current flows
only in a controlled manner, primarily during fault conditions. It “positively”
protects by automatically responding to over-current, over-voltage, or

Module 5
similar situations. Such circuits aim to prevent harm to devices, components,
or users.
Main types of positive protection circuits
• Overcurrent protection circuits:
◦ Purpose: They limit excessive current that can occur due to short
circuits or faults. They use fuses, circuit breakers or resettable PTC
thermistors that trip to open the circuit when current exceeds safe
levels.
◦ Example: Household fuse boxes use circuit breakers which trip
when there is excessive current to prevent wires from overheating or
catching fire.
• Overvoltage protection circuits:
◦ Purpose: They protect sensitive electronics by clamping or diverting
excess voltage to ground.
◦ Example: Surge protectors commonly used for computers and
electronic equipment contain metal oxide varistors (MOVs) that
clamp excess voltage during a power surge, protecting connected
devices.
• Reverse polarity protection circuits:
◦ Purpose: They prevent damage if power is connected with incorrect
polarity and are especially useful in DC circuits.
◦ Example: Many electronic devices use diodes to allow current flow
in one direction only. If the polarity is reversed, the diode blocks the
current and so prevents damage.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 167

 • Thermal protection circuits:
◦ Purpose: They cut off the power if a device overheats.
◦ Example: Power supplies in computers or high-power electronics may
contain thermal switches that shut down when the device overheats,
preventing damage to components.

N/C
+

control circuit
LDR
coil
protection N/O
diode R relay

common
relay contacts
–

Figure 5.29: Positive protection circuit

Figure 5.29 shows how a positive protection circuit works:

• An LDR and a relay are connected in series across a DC power source.
• The relay contacts are in the normally open (N/O) position and the
device to be controlled is switched off.
• When light falls on the LDR, its resistance decreases, causing the current
flow in the circuit to increase.
• This allows the relay coil to be energised and the N/O contacts close.
• The device or machine switches on.
Control of the circuit depends on light falling on the LDR or similar
component, for example a photodiode or phototransistor. All the components
in this circuit are connected in series and represent a logic AND function.
Practical applications of positive protection circuits
• Automotive circuits: Overcurrent protection fuses are widely used in
vehicles to prevent damage due to short circuits or electrical faults.
• Battery-powered devices: Reverse polarity protection ensures that
batteries inserted backward will not damage the device.
• Mobile chargers and laptops: Overvoltage and thermal protection in
chargers prevent overheating or excess voltage from damaging the device
or battery.

b) Negative protection circuit

A negative protection circuit, unlike a positive protection circuit, allows a
device to operate without any interruptions during minor faults or abnormal
conditions. This kind of circuit doesn’t fully shut down or “trip” the device

168 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 immediately; instead, it works to mitigate the effect of the fault while
allowing operation to continue, aiming to ensure minimal disruption.
Key types of negative protection circuits
• Soft-start circuits:
inrush current: the ◦ Purpose: These circuits gradually increase power to a device when it
maximum immediate first turns on, rather than allowing an inrush current that may damage
input current drawn by
an electrical device when sensitive components.
it is first switched on
◦ Example: Power supplies for high-power devices, like amplifiers, use
soft-start circuits to prevent surges of inrush current from causing
damage.
• Current-limiting circuits:
◦ Purpose: They regulate or limit the amount of current to a level that
prevents potential damage but does not fully interrupt power.
◦ Example: LED drivers often use current limiting to avoid excessive
current through the LEDs, which could shorten their lifespan. This

Module 5
limits current without shutting the LEDs off entirely.
• Voltage clamping circuits:
◦ Purpose: They prevent voltage spikes from reaching critical levels,
protecting components from surges but without cutting power.
◦ Example: In motor control systems, diodes are used to clamp the back
emf (electromotive force) generated when a motor stops, protecting
other components from high-voltage spikes.
• Foldback protection:
◦ Purpose: Reduces the current in case of an overload rather than
cutting it off. This keeps the device running at a lower power level
until the overload condition is corrected.
◦ Example: In some audio amplifiers, foldback protection allows
the amplifier to keep working at a reduced volume when it detects
excessive load conditions, protecting speakers from damage without
cutting sound entirely.
+ N/C
control circuit

coil N/O
LDR

protection
diode R relay
common
relay contacts
resistor

Figure 5.30: Negative protection circuit

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 169

 Figure 5.30 shows how a negative protection circuit works:
• An LDR and a resistor are connected in series with a relay coil connected
across the LDR.
• A DC power source provides power to the circuit.
• The relay contacts are in the normally closed (N/C) position.
• The device to be controlled is switched on.
• When light falls on the LDR, its resistance decreases, causing the current
flow in the circuit to increase.
• This energises the relay coil, pulling the contacts into the N/O position.
• The device or machine now switches off.
Control of the circuit depends on light falling on the LDR or similar
component. This action will also take place in the event of a power failure,
which increases the safety factor. This circuit is represented by the logic OR
function since the relay is connected across or in parallel with the LDR, not
in series.
Practical applications of negative protection circuits
• Home appliances: Many devices, like microwaves and washing
machines, incorporate soft-start circuits to avoid large current spikes
when switched on.
• Battery-powered tools: Cordless drills and similar devices often use
foldback current protection to maintain reduced operation rather than
abruptly stopping if a battery fault is detected.
• Power adapters: Many laptop adapters have current limiting to protect
against short circuits or overloads while allowing a reduced, safe level of
current until the fault clears.

5.1.21 Intrinsic safety

Intrinsic safety is a protection technique for the safe operation of electrical intrinsic safety: a
equipment in hazardous areas. This technique protects against explosions or protection technique
for the safe operation
fires by limiting the electrical and thermal energy available for the ignition of of electrical equipment
substances such as gases and fuels. It ensures that electrical devices are safe in hazardous areas
to protect against
to use in environments with flammable gases, vapours or dust by designing explosions or fires by
the equipment and wiring to release insufficient energy to cause ignition even limiting the electrical
and thermal energy
under fault conditions. The ignition of the hazardous atmosphere is prevented available for the ignition
by maintaining low electrical and thermal energy levels in the circuit. of substances such as
gases and fuels
This safety technique is commonly used in industries such as oil and
gas, mining, chemical plants, and grain handling where there is a risk of
explosive atmospheres. It is used in devices such as sensors, transmitters and
communication equipment. Key design features include:

170 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 • Using low voltage and current.
• Limiting energy storage in components such as capacitors and inductors.
• Implementing safety barriers and isolators to restrict energy transfer to
hazardous areas.
• Compliance with international standards such as IEC 60079-11.
• Certification to ensure safety compliance.
Advantages of intrinsic safety include:
• Enhanced safety by preventing ignition sources.
• Safe operation of electronic devices in hazardous environments.
• Reduced need for heavy and expensive explosion-proof enclosures.
• Maintenance and installation require careful planning and adherence
to safety protocols to ensure that the entire system, including wiring
and connections, maintains intrinsic safety integrity. Intrinsic safety is
a critical safety measure in industries dealing with potentially explosive
atmospheres, providing a reliable means to prevent accidents and ensure

Module 5
safe operations.

5.1.22 Intrinsic safety terminology

a) Hot spot

hot spot: a localised

A hot spot is a localised area in electrical equipment that can become
area in electrical much hotter than the surrounding areas. This area must be monitored and
equipment that can
become much hotter
controlled because excessive heat can ignite flammable gases, vapours or
than the surrounding dust in hazardous environments. Intrinsic safety design aims to ensure
areas
that any potential hot spots remain below the ignition temperature of the
abnormal condition:
a scenario where
surrounding atmosphere.
equipment operates
outside its normal b) Abnormal condition
parameters due to
faults, failures or
unexpected external
An abnormal condition involves a scenario where equipment operates
influences outside its normal parameters due to faults, failures or unexpected external
energy levels: the influences. Intrinsic safety standards require that equipment must not
amount of electrical and
thermal energy present
release sufficient energy to ignite hazardous atmospheres even under
in a circuit these abnormal conditions. This includes scenarios such as short circuits,
component failures or voltage spikes.

c) Energy levels
Energy levels refer to the amount of electrical and thermal energy present
in a circuit. These levels are kept very low to prevent ignition of flammable
materials. The design ensures that both the stored energy in components
such as capacitors and inductors and the energy produced during normal
and fault conditions do not reach levels that could cause ignition.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 171

 d) Loop concept when evaluating equipment
The loop concept involves considering the entire electrical circuit or system, loop concept: an
including all interconnected devices and wiring, as a single entity when intrinsic safety approach
that considers the
assessing intrinsic safety. This approach ensures that the combined energy entire electrical circuit
of all components in the loop does not exceed safe levels. It also involves or system, including all
interconnected devices
checking that any energy transferred between devices through wiring does and wiring, as a single
not pose an ignition risk. entity when assessing
intrinsic safety

e) Margin of safety under the worst possible conditions margin of safety: the
factor of safety; how
much stronger a system
A margin of safety is the factor of safety and describes how much stronger is than it needs to be for
a system is than it needs to be for an intended load. Intrinsic safety design an intended load

incorporates a margin of safety to account for the worst possible conditions,

such as maximum environmental temperatures, worst-case electrical faults
and component tolerances. This margin ensures that even under extreme
conditions, the equipment will not have sufficient energy to cause ignition.
This approach guarantees safety beyond normal operational parameters.

f) Transformer construction
Transformers are constructed to minimise the risk of sparking or overheating.
This involves using materials and designs that limit the energy transfer to safe
levels and prevent insulation breakdown. Techniques that use high-insulation
materials, proper winding separation and thermal protection features ensure
that the transformer operates safely in hazardous environments.

g) Isolation by encapsulation
Isolation by encapsulation involves enclosing electrical components in a isolation by
protective, non-reactive material such as epoxy resin. This method prevents encapsulation:
enclosing electrical
the components from coming into contact with the surrounding hazardous components in a
atmosphere, thereby eliminating the risk of ignition. Encapsulation also protective, non-reactive
material such as epoxy
protects the components from environmental factors such as moisture, dust resin
and mechanical damage. hazardous area: any
location where there
is a risk of explosion
5.1.23 Comparing hazardous area and zone due to the presence of
flammable substance
A hazardous area and a zone are terms used to classify environments where
there are potential risks of explosions due to the presence of flammable
gases, vapours or dust:
• Hazardous area: This is a general term used to describe any location where
there is a risk of explosion due to the presence of flammable substances. It
encompasses all types of environments where explosive atmospheres can
form. Hazardous areas are defined based on the types of substances present
and the likelihood of these substances creating an explosive atmosphere.

172 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 zone: a specific
• Zone: Zones are specific classifications in a hazardous area that describe
classification in a the probability and duration of the presence of explosive atmospheres
hazardous area that
describes the probability
(see Figure 5.33). The classification of zones determines the level of
and duration of the protection required for electrical equipment used in these areas. There are
presence of explosive
atmospheres
different zone systems used globally, but the most common one is based
on IEC standards:
◦ Zone 0: An area where an explosive atmosphere consisting of a
mixture of air with flammable substances in the form of gas, vapour or
mist is present continuously, for long periods or frequently.
◦ Zone 1: An area where an explosive atmosphere is likely to occur
in normal operation occasionally. This means that under normal
conditions, an explosive mixture is expected to be present occasionally.
◦ Zone 2: An area where an explosive atmosphere is not likely to occur
in normal operation, but if it does occur, it will persist for a short
period only. This means that under normal conditions, an explosive
mixture is not expected to be present or is only expected to be present

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for a short time.
Figure 5.31: Hazardous
area triangle
◦ For dust environments, zones are similarly classified but numbered
differently, for example Zone 20, Zone 21 and Zone 22.

zone 2

zone 0 zone 1

zone 1

zone 0

Figure 5.32: Zone classification

Activity 5.1
1. Compare the design and operation of electromechanical safety devices with electronic
safety devices. (4)
2. Describe the specific applications of electromechanical safety devices in various industries
and provide three examples of such devices. (5)
3. Explain the use of electronic safety devices in different industrial sectors. (2)
4. Discuss the main advantages of fitting electronic safety devices in industry. (2)

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 173

 5. List and explain at least three advantages and three disadvantages of using circuit breakers
as electronic safety devices. (6)
6. What are the primary differences between miniature circuit breakers (MCBs), moulded
case circuit breakers (MCCBs) and ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs)? Provide
typical applications for these circuit breakers. (6)
7. Describe the purpose and applications of two types of fuses as electronic safety devices. (5)
8. Define optoelectronics and describe the components of an optical relay. (4)
9. Explain the primary purpose of electronic safety devices and list at least five functions
they need to perform to qualify as safety devices. (6)
10. Discuss the two main objectives of guards and safeguarding devices in an industrial
setting.(4)
11. Identify five important factors to consider when installing any safety device in an
industrial environment. (5)
12. Describe two safety devices that are difficult for operators to bypass and explain why they
are effective. (4)
13. Describe two types of proximity switches commonly used in industrial applications. (4)
14. What are the key differences between inductive and capacitive proximity switches? (2)
15. Explain the concept of two-hand controls and why they are an effective safety measure in
industrial environments. (2)
16. Discuss the role of interlocked guards in ensuring machine safety and provide an example
of their application. (2)
17. Discuss the importance of compliance with regulatory requirements when installing safety
devices in industrial settings. (2)
18. Provide a detailed explanation of the operating principle of safety light curtains with the
aid of a neatly labelled circuit diagram. (9)
19. Explain the primary function of safety light curtains and how they enhance worker safety
in industrial settings. (2)
20. Compare and contrast the operating principles of ionisation smoke detectors and
photoelectric smoke detectors. (6)
21. Describe the process by which a flame-failure detector device operates to ensure safety in
gas burner systems. Provide a schematic diagram of a basic flame-failure detection circuit. (8)
22. Explain what intrinsic safety is and describe how it protects against explosions or fires in
hazardous areas. (5)
23. Explain the role of hazardous area classification in intrinsic safety. How are hazardous
zones categorised and why is this classification important for workplace safety? (5)
TOTAL: [100]

174 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 Unit 5.2: Intrinsic safety

5.2.1 I ntrinsic safety applied to the workplace

safety environment
Can you imagine the consequences if just a tiny spark of electrical energy is
present in an area where there is a gas leak? How then, can installations in
manufacturing or industrial environments be determined to be intrinsically
safe? Let us consider the following areas:

a) Safety
General safety principles to consider include:
• All methods will be considered to be safe if equipment is properly
installed and maintained.
• Carelessness makes safe equipment unsafe and should therefore be
avoided at all costs.

Module 5
fail-safe: causing
• The selected safety device must be fail-safe. This means that the device
machinery to revert to must not be prone to failure and any fault that occurs while it is in use
a safe condition in the
event of a breakdown or
must render the machinery inoperable.
malfunction • The machine operator must never be able to bypass any safety device for
any reason whatsoever.

b) Quality of equipment and installation

Consider the quality of equipment and installation:
• Trying to save costs by buying substandard equipment could prove to be
dangerous.
• Only equipment of the highest quality and approved by the relative
Note
According to SANS
authorities should be installed.
60079-25 4.1.20.2
an intrinsically safe
• Electrical wiring must be of the correct rating and enclosed in approved
loop can be defined conduits which must be explosion-proof.
as:
The assembly of c) Applying the loop concept
interconnected
items of electrical Intrinsic safety is best obtained by considering all the elements in a system.
apparatus, This is referred to as the loop concept. For example, a thermocouple or
described in a
descriptive system similar component on its own is safe. Connecting a voltmeter or other
document, in measuring instrument to it will still render it safe. However, connecting
which the circuits
or parts of circuits, a 220 V fan to this low-voltage DC circuit can cause serious problems if a
intended to be used short circuit occurs and an electrical spark is created. It is therefore best to
in an explosive
atmosphere, are
have a good initial design, isolate the high and low voltage circuits, and use
intrinsically safe approved components rated for a particular purpose. All components in the
circuits.
system must be fire-proof and rated according to the required standards.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 175

 d) Reducing risk in hazardous areas
The easiest way to prevent explosions is to eliminate one of the three
elements in the triangle of fire (see Figure 5.33):
•

oxy
Oxygen.

l
fue

gen
• Fuel (flammable material).
• Ignition source. ignition source
Some manufacturing sites can eliminate oxygen or flammable material. Figure 5.33: Fire triangle
However, in most cases, it is easiest to eliminate an ignition source.
Common ignition sources include electrical sparks, hot surfaces and
electromagnetic fields.
The level of risk depends on the hazardous material and the manufacturing
application that is taking place in the hazardous zone. Manufacturers must
adhere to the regulations and provide the appropriate level of protection
depending on the classification of the hazardous area.

5.2.2 Steps for determining intrinsic safety

When determining intrinsic safety, several key steps must be followed to
ensure that electrical equipment and circuits can safely operate in hazardous
environments:
• Hazardous area classification:
◦ Identify hazardous zones: Classify zones where explosive
atmospheres may occur. These zones are categorised based on the
frequency and duration of the presence of hazardous materials, for
example Zone 0, Zone 1 and Zone 2 for gases and Zone 20, Zone 21
and Zone 22 for dusts.
◦ Analyse potential hazards: Determine the types of flammable
materials present (gases, vapours, dusts) and their specific properties,
for example ignition temperature and explosive limits.
• Circuit design:
◦ Energy limitation: Design circuits to limit the electrical and thermal
energy to levels that are too low to ignite hazardous atmospheres. Use
components that store minimal energy.
◦ Component selection: Choose components that can reliably operate
within the required energy limits. Use resistors, capacitors and
inductors with appropriate ratings to ensure safety under normal and
fault conditions.
◦ Safety barriers: Incorporate safety barriers such as zener diodes,
optocouplers and galvanic isolators to prevent excess energy from
reaching hazardous areas.

176 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 • Temperature control:
◦ Limit power dissipation: Design circuits to operate at low power
levels to prevent overheating.
◦ Cooling methods: Implement cooling methods such as heat sinks,
encapsulation and coatings to manage the temperature of components
and prevent them from exceeding safe limits.
• Fault analysis and protection:
◦ Identify potential faults: Conduct a thorough analysis to identify
possible fault conditions that could lead to increased energy release.
◦ Safety components: Integrate safety components to manage energy
release during faults. Use diodes in parallel with inductors and
resistors in series with capacitors to control energy dissipation.
◦ Component duplication and rating: Ensure the reliability of safety
components by duplicating critical parts and rating them to operate
well below their maximum capacity (typically at two-thirds of their
maximum rating).

Module 5
• Isolation and separation:
creepage: the shortest ◦ Maintain clearances and creepage distances: Ensure adequate spacing
distance between two between conductive parts to prevent unintended energy transfer.
◦
conducting points
along the surface of an Galvanic isolation: Use transformers, optocouplers and other
insulating material isolation techniques to separate intrinsically safe circuits from non-
safe circuits.
• Testing and certification:
◦ Compliance with standards: Ensure that the design meets
international standards for intrinsic safety, such as IEC 60079-11.
◦ Certification: Submit the equipment for testing and certification
by recognised bodies to verify its compliance with intrinsic safety
requirements.
• Documentation and installation:
◦ Detailed documentation: Prepare comprehensive documentation
that includes design details, component specifications and safety
measures.
◦ Proper installation: Install the equipment according to the specified
guidelines, ensuring that all safety measures are in place and that the
entire system maintains intrinsic safety integrity.
• Maintenance and inspection:
◦ Regular maintenance: Schedule regular maintenance to check the
integrity of safety components and the overall system.
◦ Routine inspections: Conduct periodic inspections to ensure that all
components and connections are functioning correctly and that the
equipment continues to meet intrinsic safety standards.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 177

 5.2.3 Energy levels
Defining safe energy levels for a chemical plant is complex because ignition
depends on various factors such as the specific gas, its concentration, voltage,
current, energy storage elements, contact material, contact size and the
speed of contact movement.
When evaluating equipment for intrinsic safety, zone 2
consider all components of the entire loop. For least hazardous
example, an ordinary thermocouple alone is safe.
Adding a simple millivolt indicator still maintains zone 1
hazardous
safety. However, connecting the thermocouple
and indicator to a recorder with a 220 V AC factory zone 0
supply raises concerns. Potential issues in the most hazardous
recorder could introduce dangerous energy levels energy levels
to the indicator or thermocouple leads. This issue Figure 5.34: Energy level classification
can be mitigated with good recorder design and
construction or by placing the recorder in a safe zone and connecting it to
the measuring device via an intrinsically safe approved interface.
Therefore, no instrument is intrinsically safe unless it has a self-contained,
low-energy power source, such as a small battery or solar cell, isolated from
all other power sources. It is essential to view all loop components as capable
of creating an unsafe condition.
Table 5.3: Hazard area description

Level of Description of hazardous Explosive Zone ATEX 114 Directive IECEx standards
protection area atmosphere
Group Category Group EPL
Very high: Two Area in which an explosive
independent gas atmosphere is present Mining – 1 M1 1 Ma
faults shall not continuously, or for long
lead to ignition. periods, or frequently (more
than 10% of the time). Gas Zone 0 11 1G 11 Ga

Dust Zone 20 111 1D 111 Da

High: A single Area in which an explosive
Mining – 1 M2 1 Mb
fault shall not gas atmosphere is likely
lead to ignition. to occur occasionally in
normal operation (between Gas Zone 1 11 2G 11 Gb
0,1 and 10% of the time).
Dust Zone 21 111 2D 111 Db
Normal: Normal Area in which an explosive
functioning gas atmosphere is not
Gas Zone 2 11 3G 11 Gc
shall not lead to likely to occur in normal
ignition. operation, but, if it does
occur, will exist for a short
period only (less than 0,1% Dust Zone 22 111 3D 11 Dc
of the time).

178 Module 5 TVET FIRST

 5.2.4 S
 eries and shunt protective elements and
Zener barrier protection
a) Series protective element
Current-limiting resistors are frequently used to provide series protection
by restricting the flow of current into potentially dangerous zones, thereby
ensuring that only a safe amount of current can enter these areas (see
Figure 5.35).
VAC
R
thermocouple circuitry
R
hazardous area current-limiting resistors
R
circuitry power
indicator
supply

Module 5
R

Figure 5.35: Circuit with series protective elements

b) Shunt protective element

R Shunting the inductance with diodes,
resistors and capacitors is highly effective in
intrinsically safe mitigating the risk of inductors causing unsafe
DZ
transformer conditions (see Figure 5.36). The preferred
method involves using shunt diodes, typically
employing two or more diodes to ensure
Figure 5.36: Circuit with shunt protective elements reliability. Since a diode failure may not be
immediately apparent and could compromise
protection, robust mounting is important. This ensures there is zero
probability that all diodes could fail due to a single wiring or connection
issue, thereby maintaining continuous protection.

c) Zener barrier protection

Zener barrier: a
A specialised form of series-shunt protection gaining traction in many
device made up of an countries is known as the Zener barrier or Redding barrier. A Zener
arrangement of Zener
diodes, resistors and
barrier is a device made up of an arrangement of Zener diodes, resistors
fuses that limit the and fuses that limit the voltage, current and power to connected devices in
voltage, current and
power to connected
the hazardous area (see Figure 5.37). This barrier is designed to ensure that
devices in the hazardous when the mains supply is connected to terminal 1 in Zone 2, the voltage
area
and current at terminal 3 in Zone 0 remain at safe levels, preventing any
hazardous conditions from occurring.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 179

 1 3
+ fuse R1 R2 R3

safe DZ DZ hazardous
area area
30 V 30 V

–
2 4

Figure 5.37: Zener barrier protection

Devices intended for connection to the safe terminals (3 and 4) must be

specifically approved for use with the barrier protection device. When the
barrier is designed to limit exposure to full mains supply power, equipment
in the non-hazardous area can be selected, connected and intermingled
without needing to consider safety concerns in the field circuits.
Each field device or component must undergo individual approval with
the barrier. While barrier protection tends to be more expensive compared
to designs using energy-limiting resistors, shunt protection and other
techniques, the higher cost is justified by the increased flexibility it offers in
selecting and installing equipment on the input side of the barrier.

Activity 5.2
1. Discuss the importance of fail-safe devices in ensuring intrinsic
safety in industrial environments. Include examples of how a device
can be designed to be fail-safe. (5)
2. Describe the steps involved in designing intrinsically safe circuits.
What considerations must be considered to limit electrical and
thermal energy? (5)
3. Draw a diagram illustrating the fire triangle and explain how
intrinsic safety aims to eliminate the ignition source in hazardous
environments.(5)
4. Draw and label a block diagram showing series protective elements
and shunt protective elements in an intrinsically safe circuit. Explain
the function of each element in preventing unsafe conditions. (10)
5. Draw a labelled diagram of a Zener barrier protection circuit.
Explain how this circuit works to maintain intrinsic safety in
hazardous environments. (5)
TOTAL: [30]

180 Module 5 TVET FIRST

Summary of Module 5

Unit
5.1 Industrial safety devices

● Electromechanical safety devices: Use electromechanical parts such as switches, relays and actuators to
perform safety functions and require direct physical interaction to trigger a safety response.
● Electronic safety devices: Use electronic components such as sensors, microprocessors and software to
monitor and control safety functions and incorporate advanced technologies such as infrared, ultrasonic or
laser sensors to detect hazards without physical interaction.
● Advantages of electronic safety devices: Enhanced precision and sensitivity, automation and efficiency,
versatility and flexibility, data collection and analysis, integration with modern technologies, improved
compliance and record keeping, enhanced worker safety and morale, cost-effectiveness, scalability, real-
time alerts and remote access.
● Circuit breaker: A reusable safety device designed to protect electrical circuits from damage caused by
overloads, short circuits or other electrical faults by automatically interrupting the flow of electricity when
an abnormal condition is detected.
● Fuse: A safety device that protects electrical circuits by melting a metal wire or strip inside the fuse when an
overload or short circuit occurs. Cannot be reused.
● Optoelectronics: The study and application of electronic devices that source, detect and control light, which

Module 5
includes visible light as well as invisible forms of radiation such as ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
● Optoelectronic devices: Electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical transducers, or instruments that use
these transducers.
● Purpose of electronic safety devices: To ensure workplace safety in accordance with OHSA regulations.
● Guards: Provide physical barriers that prevent access to dangerous areas.
● Safeguarding devices: Either prevent or detect operator contact with the point of operation or stop
potential hazardous machine motion if any part of a worker’s body is within the hazardous portion of the
machine.
● Functions of a safety device: Stop the machine, restrain or remove operator’s hands, require two-hand
operation, synchronise with machine cycle, facilitate safe maintenance, ensure security and durability.
● Factors to consider when installing a safety device: Risk assessment, compatibility, effectiveness,
accessibility, integration, maintenance requirements, training, compliance, durability, emergency response.
● Safety devices that are difficult for operators to bypass: Interlocked guards and two-hand controls.
● Proximity switch: A sensor that can detect the presence of a nearby object without any physical contact.
● Inductive proximity switch: A sensor that uses the changes in an electromagnetic field to detect metallic
objects without physical contact.
● Capacitive proximity switch: A sensor that uses the changes in capacitance detect both metallic and non-
metallic objects without physical contact.
● Objectives of guards and safeguarding devices: Protect operators and protect others in the work area.
● Types of machine safeguards: Guards, safeguarding devices, automated feeding and ejection mechanisms,
machine location or distance, miscellaneous aids.
● Safety light curtain: A photoelectric presence-sensing device that stops or pauses the machine’s cycle
whenever the light field of the curtain is interrupted.
● Photoelectric effect: A phenomenon that occurs when electrically charged particles are released from a
material when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation.
● Photoelectric cell or photocell: An electron tube with a photosensitive cathode that emits electrons when
illuminated and an anode for collecting the emitted electrons.
● Punch press: A type of machine that is used to cut or shape metal sheets with dies. Uses a photoelectric
safety device to prevent the operator’s hand from being crushed while using it.
● Smoke detector: A device that senses smoke, which is usually an indicator of a fire.
● Flame-failure detector: The part of a gas burner system that ensures that the fuel supply to the gas
appliance is cut off automatically and immediately if the flame goes out or becomes unstable, stopping the
flow of gas and preventing an explosion.

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 181

 Unit
5.1 Industrial safety devices (continued)

● Ionisation smoke detector: Uses ionised air and electrical current to detect smoke and is more sensitive to
fast-flaming fires.
● Photoelectric smoke detector: Uses light scattering to detect smoke and is more sensitive to slow,
smouldering fires.
● Flame detector: A sensor designed to detect and respond to a flame or fire. When it detects a flame, it can
sound an alarm, deactivate a gas fuel line, turn off an ignition system or activate a fire suppression system.
● Cad cell flame detector: A solid-state photoconductive detector that uses light intensity to sense the
presence of a flame in an oil-fired burner.
● Visible light flame detector: Detects the visible light emitted by oil flames in burners.
● Infrared (IR) flame detector: Uses a lead-sulphide photocell sensitive to IR radiation to detect flames.
● Ultraviolet (UV) flame detector: Senses UV radiation from flames caused by carbon-based fuels such as
natural gas, LP gas and oil.
● Flame rod detector: A safety device used in gas-burning appliances to detect a flame.
● Safety interlocking switch: A device designed to ensure that machinery and equipment operate safely by
preventing certain actions from occurring unless specific conditions are met.
● Types of safety interlocks: Mechanical interlocks, electrical interlocks, electromechanical interlocks.
● Intrinsic safety: A protection technique for the safe operation of electrical equipment in hazardous areas to
protect against explosions or fires by limiting the electrical and thermal energy available for the ignition of
substances such as gases and fuels.
● Hot spot: A localised area in electrical equipment that can become much hotter than the surrounding areas.
● Abnormal condition: A scenario where equipment operates outside its normal parameters due to faults,
failures or unexpected external influences.
● Energy levels: The amount of electrical and thermal energy present in a circuit.
● Loop concept: An intrinsic safety approach that considers the entire electrical circuit or system, including all
interconnected devices and wiring, as a single entity when assessing intrinsic safety.
● Margin of safety: The factor of safety; indicates how much stronger a system is than it needs to be for an
intended load.
● Isolation by encapsulation: Enclosing electrical components in a protective, non-reactive material such as
epoxy resin.
● Hazardous area: Any location where there is a risk of explosion due to the presence of flammable
substance.
● Zone: A specific classification in a hazardous area that describes the probability and duration of the
presence of explosive atmospheres.

Unit
5.2 Intrinsic safety

● Workplace safety environment: General safety principles, quality of equipment and installation, loop
concept, reducing risk in hazardous areas by eliminating one of the three elements in the triangle of fire:
oxygen, flammable material, ignition source.
● Steps for determining intrinsic safety: Hazardous area classification, circuit design, temperature control,
fault analysis and protection, isolation and separation, testing and certification, documentation and
installation, maintenance and inspection.
● Series protective element: Using current-limiting resistors.
● Shunt protective element: Shunting the inductance with diodes, resistors and capacitors.
● Zener barrier: A device made up of an arrangement of Zener diodes, resistors and fuses that limit the
voltage, current and power to connected devices in the hazardous area.

182 Module 5 TVET FIRST

Summative assessment for Module 5
1. An industrial punch press is a common example where an electronic safety
circuit is used to ensure the safe operation of a mechanical machine.
1.1 Name two examples of electronic circuit components that can be used
in the safety circuit of a punch press to serve as transmitters. (2)
1.2 Give two examples of electronic circuit components that can be used in
the safety circuit of a punch press to serve as receivers. (2)
1.3 Using the work area of a punch as a reference, state an unsafe condition
which can be detected by an electronic safety circuit. (2)
1.4 Briefly explain the exact reaction of the safety circuit to an unsafe
condition during the operation of a punch press. (4)
2. Consider the construction of a basic photoelectric smoke detector circuit
and answer the following questions:
2.1 Give any one example of a light-sensitive transducer that can be used in
the construction of a smoke detector circuit. (2)
2.2 Give four examples of circuit components that can be used in the
construction of a smoke detector circuit to serve as mediums for
transmitting a light beam. (4)
3. An optical relay consists of a transmitter and two other components. Name
these two components. (3)
4. List three types of protective elements/circuits that can be used to ensure
intrinsic safety. (3)
5. Study Figure 5.38 and answer the following questions. Choose the correct
word or words from those given in brackets. Write only the answer next to the
question number (5.1–5.6).
5.1 The full name of the circuit diagram depicted in Figure 5.41 is (flame
enhancement detector circuit/flame failure detector circuit). (1)
5.2 The burner serves as a (positive/negative) electrode. (1)
5.3 The FET input stage must be a (high/low) impedance medium. (1)
5.4 The component known as the source-follower in the circuit is the
(FET/UJT).(1)
5.5 The component known as the thyristor in the circuit is the (FET/SCR). (1)
5.6 The component known as the unipolar device in the circuit is the
(FET/UJT).(1)

TVET FIRST Electronic safety devices 183

 +V

R1 R4 relay

hot electrode FET solenoid

UJT SCR control
R3
flame
R1 R2 C1 R4 reset
button

burner

Figure 5.38: Circuit

6. Briefly describe each of the following in relation to electronic safety:

6.1 Positive protection. (2)
6.2 Negative protection. (2)
7. Choose one term from the following list for each of the descriptions below.
Write only the answer next to the question number (7.1–7.5).
transmitter; positive protection; intrinsic safety;
negative protection; optical receiver
7.1 Examples that include a phototransistor, photodiode and photoconductor.
7.2 A light source that is used in an optical relay.
7.3 Explosion protection which prevents faults in electronic circuits from
igniting flammable atmospheres.
7.4 When a machine and its safety devices are connected in parallel mode.
7.5 When a machine and its safety devices are connected in serial mode.
(5 × 1) (5)
8. State three steps that are essential for determining intrinsic safety. (3)
TOTAL: [40]

184 Module 5 TVET FIRST

Electronic power control – SCR Module
triggering circuits
6
Overview of Module 6
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 6.1: Open- and closed-loop systems

• Name basic categories of control systems.

• Draw neatly labelled block diagrams of a closed-loop control system and an open-loop control
system and give their detailed descriptions.
• Explain the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control systems.
• Name and explain characteristics of a closed-loop system.
• Explain with the aid of a neatly labelled diagram what is meant by:
◦ Critical damping.
◦ Underdamping.
◦ Overdamping.
• Name and explain three types of damping.
• Name and explain types of closed-loop systems.
• Name and explain types of follow-up systems.
• Explain the operating principle of a servo control circuit with the aid of a labelled diagram and
by description.
• Explain the function of a feedback control system.
• Draw a neatly labelled diagram of a sequential control block diagram.
• Name basic components of a servomechanism.
• Explain the purpose of a servomechanism.
• List applications of servomechanisms.
• Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a servomechanism.
• List characteristics of numerical control.
• Explain with the aid of a labelled block diagram the operating principle of CNC machines.
• List and explain basic components of numerical control.
• Describe the following terms with reference to closed-loop control systems:
◦ Process control.
◦ Servo control.
◦ Numerical control.
◦ Sequential control.
• Explain what is meant by the term stable system.
Unit 6.2: CAD/CAM systems

• Describe the terms CAD and CAM as applied to the CAD/CAM industry.
• Describe the following terms with reference to CAD systems:
◦ Development phases.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 185

 ◦ Software packages.
◦ Practical applications.
• Name and give descriptions of each of the design procedure stages as applied to the
development of a CAD system.
• Explain the developmental phase of a CAD system by drawing a fully labelled block diagram of a
CAD system.
• Name and give a detailed description of the prerequisites for a CAM system.
• List primary functions of a communication interface.
• Compare any two methods of communication organisation of a CAM system.
• Draw a fully labelled block diagram of a typical CAD/CAM system and state the advantages of
such a system.
• List advantages of CAD/CAM systems.
• List practical applications of CAD systems.
Unit 6.3: Uninterruptable power supplies (UPSs)

• Describe the term uninterruptable power supply.

• Name two categories of uninterruptable power supplies.
• Give two main types of UPSs and explain the difference between them.
• List three basic types of continuous type industrial UPS systems.
• Describe the operating principle of the following industrial type UPSs and enhance your
descriptions with fully labelled block diagrams:
◦ Transfer type UPS.
◦ Forward system float type UPS.
◦ Reverse system float type UPS.
◦ Combined system continuous type UPS.
◦ Inverting power supply.
◦ Switch mode power supply.
• List advantages and disadvantages of transfer and continuous type industrial UPSs.
• Draw a fully labelled block diagram of a UPS suited for domestic and office use and give a
detailed description of each block.
• Determine a suitable UPS VA rating for your computer and peripheral devices.
• Explain the difference between blackouts and brownouts.
Electronic power control refers to the methods
used to control power to electronic devices in an
industrial manufacturing environment. Control
systems can be divided into two main groups:
open-loop systems and closed-loop systems.
Considering the advances made in the world of
electronics in recent years, the use of open-loop
systems has decreased and closed-loop control
systems have become the norm even though the
cost factor is greater.
Figure 6.1: Electronic circuit board assembled and cut
using a CNC machine

186 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. What is the difference between open-loop and closed-loop systems in terms of practical
applications?
2. What are the types of damping in electronic circuits?
3. What is the function of a CAD system in the manufacturing industry?

Unit 6.1: Open- and closed-loop systems

6.1.1 Categories of control systems

industrial control An industrial control system is the hardware and software with network
system: the hardware connectivity that monitors and manages the behaviour of machinery used in
and software with
network connectivity manufacturing production processes. Control systems can be divided into
that monitors and two main groups:
manages the behaviour
of machinery used
in manufacturing
• Open-loop system: Operates without feedback.
production processes • Closed-loop system: Uses feedback to ensure the output matches the
desired input.

Module 6
6.1.2 Open-loop and closed-loop control systems

a) Open-loop system
open-loop system: An open-loop system performs its function based on the input signal without
a control system comparing the actual output with the desired output. Because open-loop
that performs its
function based on the systems are simple, they are easy to design and implement. If the system is well
input signal without calibrated, it performs effectively and accurately under predefined conditions.
comparing the actual
output with the desired Key components of an open-loop system
output
control
input signal
controller actuator output
signal

no feedback or error signal circuit

Figure 6.2: Block diagram of an open-loop control system

The block diagram in Figure 6.2 illustrates the key components of an open-
loop control system:
• Controller: Determines the control action based on the input signal.
• Actuator: Converts the control signal into action to perform the desired
task.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 187

 • Output: This is the result of the task. There is no feedback or error signal
circuit connected to the controller.
Advantages and disadvantages of an open-loop system
Table 6.1 lists advantages and disadvantages of an open-loop system.
Table 6.1: Advantages and disadvantages of an open-loop system

Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple design and implementation

reduce costs.
• Without feedback, it cannot correct
errors.
• Inherently stable since there is no
feedback loop.
• Inflexible
conditions.
and cannot adapt to changing

• Easy maintenance due to fewer

components and less complexity.
• Disturbances or variations can lead to
significant errors.
• Proper calibration is essential for
effective operation.

Examples of open-loop systems

Examples of open-loop systems:
• Washing machines run on a set timer regardless of the cleanliness of
clothes.
• Microwave ovens heat for a set time without considering the food’s
temperature.
• Simple irrigation systems water for a fixed duration, ignoring soil
moisture levels.

b) Closed-loop system
A closed-loop system, or feedback control system, continuously monitors closed-loop system:
output and adjusts the control action to correct any errors. This feedback also called a feedback
control system;
mechanism makes a closed-loop system more accurate and reliable than continuously monitors
open-loop systems. It can adapt to changes and disturbances to maintain output and adjusts the
control action to correct
desired performance. any errors

Key components of a closed-loop system

power input disturbance

error
signal
setpoint controller actuator
± controlled
comparator output
feedback/error loop
transducer

Figure 6.3: Block diagram of closed-loop control system

188 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 The block diagram in Figure 6.3 illustrates the key components of a closed-
loop system:
set point: the desired • Controller: Determines the control action based on the set point and the
value in a closed-loop feedback signal.
electronic control system
• Actuator: Converts the control signal into action to perform the desired
task.
• Transducer: Measures the output.
• Feedback loop: Sends the measured output back to the controller for
comparison with the desired output.

Advantages and disadvantages of a closed-loop system

Table 6.2 lists advantages and disadvantages of a closed-loop system.
Table 6.2: Advantages and disadvantages of a closed-loop system

Advantages Disadvantages

• Highly accurate due to its ability to correct errors. • More complex and expensive due to additional
• the environment.
Reliable and can handle disturbances and changes in components such as sensors and feedback
mechanisms.

• Dynamic response ensures it quickly reaches and • Design and implementation require more expertise.
maintains the desired output. • Potential instability can occur if the feedback loop is
not properly designed.

Module 6
Examples of closed-loop systems
Examples of closed-loop systems:
• A thermostat measures the room temperature and adjusts the heater to
maintain the desired temperature.
• Automatic cruise control in a car adjusts the throttle to maintain a set
speed.
• A servo motor control system continuously adjusts its position based on
feedback to achieve precise movement.

6.1.3 D
 ifferences between open-loop and closed-
loop systems
Table 6.3 lists the differences between open-loop and closed-loop systems.
Table 6.3: Differences between open-loop and closed-loop systems

Open-loop system Closed-loop system

Feedback No feedback loop to adjust the input based on A feedback loop continuously monitors the
the output. output and adjusts the input accordingly.
Control action The control action is based on the input The control action is based on the difference
command and does not account for (error) between the desired output (set point)
disturbances or changes in the system. and the actual output, which allows for the
correction of errors and compensation for
disturbances.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 189

 Open-loop system Closed-loop system
Accuracy Less accurate and reliable because they More accurate and reliable because they
cannot correct any errors or disturbances. can correct errors and adapt to changes and
disturbances.
Complexity Simpler in design and easier to construct and More complex in design and require more
maintain. components and sophisticated algorithms.

6.1.4 Characteristics of a closed-loop system

The main characteristics of a closed-loop system are the following:
• Feedback loop: A closed-loop system continuously monitors the output
and feeds it back to the input. This feedback allows the system to compare
the actual output with the set point or desired output and make necessary
adjustments to minimise errors.
• Error detection and correction: This system can detect deviations error signal: the
between the actual and the desired output. The error signal is the difference between the
actual and the desired
difference between the actual and the desired output. It is used to adjust output in a closed-loop
the control actions to reduce or eliminate the error, which enhances the control system
system’s accuracy. dynamic response:
the ability of a closed-
• Stability: A properly designed closed-loop system is stable and can return loop system to reach the
to its desired state after a disturbance. Stability ensures that the system’s desired output swiftly
and to maintain it
output remains within acceptable limits despite changes or disruptions.
• Accuracy: A closed-loop system is highly accurate due to its ability to
correct errors in real-time. The continuous adjustment based on feedback
ensures that the system output closely matches the desired output.
• Disturbance rejection: This system can effectively reject disturbances
and maintain consistent performance even when external factors
change. The feedback mechanism allows the system to compensate for
unexpected disturbances.
• Dynamic response: A closed-loop system can respond quickly to
changes in input or disturbances. The dynamic response refers to the
system’s ability to reach the desired output swiftly and to maintain it,
which is crucial for applications requiring precise control.
• Complexity: Due to the inclusion of a feedback mechanism, sensors and
sophisticated control algorithms, a closed-loop system is more complex
than an open-loop system. This complexity requires advanced design and
implementation.
• Cost: The increased complexity and additional components make a
closed-loop system more expensive to design, implement and maintain
compared to an open-loop system.
• Robustness: A closed-loop system is robust and can perform well under
varying conditions and uncertainties. It is designed to handle parameter
variations and external disturbances without significant performance
degradation.

190 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 6.1.5 Damping
damping: the action Damping is the action of an element in a mechanical or electrical device that
of an element in a gradually reduces the degree of oscillations, vibrations or signal intensity to
mechanical or electrical
device that gradually prevent it from increasing. Different types of damping are often introduced
reduces the degree of to limit the increasing effect of controller gain. Figure 6.4 shows the
oscillations, vibrations
or signal intensity graphical representation of three types of damping.
to prevent it from
increasing
output response

underdamping

setpoint

critical damping
overdamping
critical damping:
quickest return to time
equilibrium without
oscillations Figure 6.4: Damping response curves
underdamping:
oscillatory return
to equilibrium with 6.1.6 Types of damping
gradually decreasing

Module 6
amplitude Table 6.4 describes and compares critical damping, underdamping and
overdamping: slow overdamping.
return to equilibrium
without oscillations Table 6.4: Types of damping

Damping Definition Characteristics Examples

Critical damping Occurs when the damping The system returns to Car suspension systems
force is exactly sufficient equilibrium in the shortest are designed to be
to return the system to its possible time without critically damped so that
equilibrium position as quickly overshooting. This is the they return to equilibrium
as possible without oscillating. ideal damping condition for quickly after a bump
many systems where quick without oscillating.
stabilisation is desired.
Underdamping Occurs when the damping The system overshoots the A pendulum swinging
force is less than the critical equilibrium position and in air experiences
damping force. In this case, oscillates back and forth several underdamping as it
the system oscillates with times with each oscillation oscillates with decreasing
a gradually decreasing becoming smaller over time. amplitude until it
amplitude before eventually The system takes longer to eventually comes to rest.
returning to equilibrium. return to equilibrium compared
to a critically damped system.
Overdamping Occurs when the damping The system slowly approaches A door closer that
force is greater than the critical the equilibrium position prevents the door from
damping force. The system without overshooting. While slamming shut is often
returns to equilibrium without there are no oscillations, the overdamped, causing
oscillating, but it takes longer return to equilibrium is slower the door to close slowly
to reach equilibrium compared than in a critically damped and smoothly without
to a critically damped system. system. bouncing back.

The type of damping is chosen based on the specific requirements of the

system and the desired response to disturbances.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 191

 6.1.7 Types of closed-loop systems
Closed-loop control systems can be divided into two main groups:
• Regulator feedback system.
• Follow-up system:
◦ Process control.
◦ Servomechanism.
◦ Sequential control.
◦ Numerical control (NC) or computer numerical control (CNC).

a) Regulator feedback system

With a regulator feedback closed-loop system, the set point is seldom regulator feedback
adjusted. It is set so that it maintains a constant control of the system closed-loop system: a
system that maintains a
irrespective of any changes, variances or disturbances that may occur. Some constant control of the
examples include voltage regulators in power supplies and alternators, and system with a set point
that is seldom adjusted,
thermostat control in heating systems. irrespective of any
changes, variances or
b) Follow-up system disturbances that may
occur
A follow-up closed-loop system is a system where the set point is changed or follow-up closed-loop
system: a system where
altered frequently through a feedback path. Examples include reversible and the set point is changed
non-reversible DC or AC motor drives used in industry. or altered frequently
through a feedback path

6.1.8 Types of follow-up systems process control: the

regulation of variables
in a manufacturing
a) Process control process
servomechanism:
Process control is the regulation of variables in a manufacturing process. performs position
control in a closed-loop
It aims to maintain variables such as temperature, flow rates, pressures,
system
viscosity, density and levels. These controls are critical in industries such sequential control
as chemical plants, oil refineries, food processing, blast furnace operations, system: performs a
series of operations in a
vehicle production lines and nuclear power plants. Process control systems specific order
deal with manufacturing processes that are inherently slow.

b) Servomechanism
A servomechanism performs position control in a closed-loop system. It is
designed for relatively fast operations. Examples include the elevation and
azimuth controls of a radio telescope, turret position control, pen recorder
control and stepper motors.

c) Sequential control
A sequential control system performs a series of operations in a specific
order. Examples include automatic washing machines and the control
systems of electromechanical traffic lights.

192 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 d) Numerical control (NC and CNC machines)
Numerical control (NC) and computer numerical control (CNC) refers
numerical control
(NC): the automation to the automation of manufacturing processes that require precise and
of a manufacturing repetitive execution, for example punching, turning, drilling, milling,
process that performs
a series of operations tapping and welding. The term ‘numerical control’ originates from the fact
in a specific order using that nearly all instructions, such as direction, position and cutting speeds,
tapes and punch cards
for input are defined mathematically.
computer numerical
control (CNC): the
Table 6.5 summarises the differences between NC and CNC control.
automation of a
Table 6.5: Comparing NC and CNC control
manufacturing process
that requires precise
and repetitive execution Numerical control (NC) CNC (computer numerical control)
using a keyboard for Uses punch tapes and punch cards for Use keyboards for input.
input input.
Modifying an NC program is challenging. Modifying a CNC program is easier.
NC machines are less flexible and offer CNC machines are more flexible and are
average accuracy. highly accurate.
NC machines do not have memory to store CNC machines have memory to store
instructions. instructions.
Cheaper than CNC machines. More expensive than NC machines.
Maintenance costs are low. Maintenance costs are high.

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CNC uses a set of predefined instructions or parameters to control the
sequence of manufacturing operations. The instructions are converted from
manufacturing blueprints into a symbolic program and stored on accessible
storage media such as EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory).
CNC systems use stepper motors and/or servomechanisms. A controller
or computer coordinates the machine tool through various operations
involving vertical, horizontal and lateral displacements. Modern CNC
systems often integrate multiple machine-tool operations, enhancing
efficiency and versatility in manufacturing processes.

6.1.9 Function of a feedback control system

A feedback control system maintains a desired output or set point
by continuously measuring the actual output and adjusting the input
accordingly. This process involves several key components and steps.

a) Key components
Key components of a feedback control system are the following:
• Reference input (set point): The desired value or target that the system
aims to achieve.
• Sensor: Measures the actual output of the system.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 193

 • Controller: Compares the measured output with the set point to
determine the error signal.
• Actuator: Adjusts the system based on the control signal from the
controller to reduce the error.
• Process: The system or mechanism being controlled.
• Feedback loop: The path through which the output is measured and fed
back to the controller.

Example 6.1
Key components of a room temperature control system
(thermostat)
The following are key components of a room temperature control system:
• Reference input: The desired room temperature is set, for example 22 °C.
• Sensor: A thermometer measures the actual room temperature.
• Controller: The thermostat compares the actual temperature with the
desired temperature.
• Actuator: If there is a difference (error), the thermostat sends a signal
to the heating or cooling system to adjust the temperature.
• Process: The heating or cooling system adjusts the room temperature.
• Feedback loop: The new room temperature is measured and fed back
to the thermostat, which continues to make adjustments as necessary.

b) Function of a feedback control system

A feedback control system performs the following functions:
• Measurement: The sensor continuously measures the actual output of the
system.
• Comparison: The controller compares the actual output with the set
point (reference input to determine the error, which is the difference
between the desired and actual outputs.
• Correction: Based on the error, the controller generates a control signal
to adjust the actuator.
• Adjustment: The actuator modifies the system’s input or operation to
correct the error, bringing the actual output closer to the set point.
• Feedback: The adjusted output is fed back into the system and the process
repeats, continuously correcting any deviations from the set point.

c) Benefits of a feedback control system

Benefits of a feedback control system include:
• Accuracy: Maintains the desired output accurately by continuously
correcting errors.

194 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 • Stability: Ensures stable system performance despite external
disturbances.
• Adaptability: Can adjust to changes in the system or environment.
• Efficiency: Optimises performance and reduces waste by maintaining
precise control.

6.1.10 O
 peration of a servo control circuit in a
servo mechanism
servo mechanism: an
A servo mechanism is an automatic device used to correct the performance
automatic device used to of a mechanism by means of error-sensing feedback. The term only
correct the performance
of a mechanism by
applies to systems in which the feedback and error-corrections signals
means of error-sensing control mechanical position or one of its derivatives such as velocity or
feedback
acceleration.
servo control: the
regulation of the velocity Servo control is the regulation of the velocity and position of a motor based
and position of a motor
based on a feedback on a feedback signal. Figure 6.5 shows a servo control circuit.
signal
+
input input
control potentiometer motor load
fixed DC A
voltage

Module 6
error signal output
– potentiometer

Figure 6.5: Servo control circuit of a servomechanism

The servo control circuit in Figure 6.5 works as follows:

• The input potentiometer is adjusted to the desired set point, creating a
difference signal voltage across the amplifier’s input.
• This error voltage is then amplified and drives the servo motor.
• The motor shaft, which is mechanically linked to both the load and the
output potentiometer, moves at the same angular displacement as the
motor.
• This movement generates a new voltage setting on the output
potentiometer.
• When the voltage from the output potentiometer matches the input
voltage, there is no error signal (zero error).
• At this point, the two voltages balance and cancel each other out,
resulting in no differential voltage across the amplifier’s output. This
causes the motor to stop.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 195

 6.1.11 Components of a servomechanism
All servomechanisms have the following basic components:
• Controlled device: Mechanical position is regulated in the controlled
device, which must have a means of generating the feedback signal that
represents its current position.
• Command device: This device receives information from outside the
system that represents the desired position of the controlled device. This
information is converted to a usable form and is fed to the error detector
in addition to the feedback signal.
• Error detector: Receives and compares the feedback signal representing
the actual position with the command signal representing the desired
position. Any discrepancy results in an error signal that represents
the correction required to bring the controlled device to its required
position.
• Error-signal amplifier: The error correction signal is sent the amplifier
and the amplified voltage is used to drive the servo motor.
• Servo motor: Repositions the controlled device.

6.1.12 Purpose of a servomechanism

Servomechanisms have the following functions:
• Accurate control of motion without human intervention.
• Maintenance of accuracy with load variations.
• Control of a high-power load from a low-power command signal.
• Control of an output from a remote input without the use of mechanical
linkages.

6.1.13 Applications of servomechanisms

Applications of servomechanisms include:
• Automatic machine tools.
• Satellite-tracking antennae.
• Automatic navigation systems.
• Anti-aircraft gun control systems.
• Celestial tracking systems on telescopes.
• Autofocus cameras.
• Robots.
• Constant speed control in DC motors.
• Power steering in vehicles.
• Automatic pilots on ships, aircraft and spacecraft.

196 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 6.1.14 Circuit diagram of a servomechanism
stepper motor: a DC
A stepper motor is a DC motor that moves in precise steps unlike ordinary
motor that moves in DC motors that rotate constantly in the required direction. It has multiple
precise steps
coils that are organised in groups called phases (see Figure 6.6). By
energising each phase in sequence, the motor rotates one step at a time.
Microcontroller-controlled stepping combined with feedback is used to
achieve precise positioning and/or speed control.

(a) Different types of stepper motors (b) Internal coil structure

Figure 6.6: Stepper motor

Figure 6.7 shows a circuit diagram of the servomechanism that controls a

stepper motor.

Module 6
gear to reduce shaft speed
DC supply
to motor
output shaft

DC stepper
motor P2 output potentiometer

feedback path output reference signal

VF
A
P1 input potentiometer
Vin
error detection input
amplifier reference signal

Figure 6.7: Servomechanism used to control a stepper motor

6.1.15 Sequential control

Sequential control is achieved through a series of steps taken in a prescribed
sequence or order (see Figure 6.8). The completion of one event triggers the
start of the next. No operations in the sequence can be omitted or bypassed,
but it is possible to start the sequence anywhere between the steps in the
program.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 197

 seawater level valve

input comparison process output

water water level

sensor

Figure 6.8: Block diagram of a sequential control system

Examples of sequential systems include:

• Washing machines.
• Traffic lights.
• Elevators in buildings.

6.1.16 Characteristics of numerical control

Computer numerical control (CNC) is a method used for automating
control of machine tools by using software embedded in a microcontroller,
which is attached to a particular tool. Industrial milling machines, drilling
machines, lathes, grinders and lasers are common machine tools whose
operations are automated with CNC.
Characteristics of CNC include:
• Automation: Operates machinery automatically based on
preprogrammed instructions.
• Precision: Achieves high levels of accuracy and repeatability in
manufacturing processes.
• Flexibility: Is easily adapted to different tasks by changing the program.
• Consistency: Maintains consistent quality and dimensions in mass
production.
• Complexity: Handles complex shapes and designs that are difficult to
produce manually.
• Productivity: Increases production speed and efficiency by minimising
manual intervention.
• Integration: Integrates with computer-aided design (CAD) and
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems.
• Data storage: Stores machining instructions digitally, allowing for easy
retrieval and modification.
• Feedback system: Uses sensors and feedback loops to ensure accurate
execution of tasks.
• Reduction in human error: Minimises human error by automating the
control process.

198 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 6.1.17 Operation of a CNC machine
CAD drawing

programming

input devices

MCU display
unit
data processing control loop
unit unit

velocity feedback
motion data miscellaneous

feedback
position
function

driving machine feedback

system tool system

Figure 6.9: Block diagram of a CNC machine

Module 6
Figure 6.9 illustrates the operating principle of a CNC machine:
CAD drawing: The process begins with creating a design using CAD
software. The CAD drawing contains the precise dimensions and geometry
of the part to be manufactured.
G-code: the most widely • Programming: The CAD design is then converted into a CNC program.
used CNC programming This program contains the instructions needed to guide the machine’s
language
movements and operations. Programming can involve the use of CAM
software to generate the toolpaths and G-code.
• Input devices: The CNC program is fed into the CNC machine through
input devices such as USB drives, network connections or direct interface
with the CAD/CAM system.
• MCU (machine control unit): The MCU is the brain of the CNC
machine and consists of two main components:
◦ Data processing unit: Processes the input data (CNC program) and
translates it into commands that control the machine’s movements
and operations.
◦ Control loop unit: Manages the real-time execution of the
commands, ensuring precise control over the machine’s movements.
• Display unit: Provides a user interface for monitoring and interacting
with the CNC machine, showing the status of the machine and the
ongoing operations.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 199

 • Driving system: Receives motion data from the MCU and converts it
into mechanical movements. It controls the motors and actuators that
move the machine tool.
• Machine tool: Performs the actual machining operations, such as cutting,
drilling or milling, based on the commands received from the driving
system.
• Feedback system: Provides real-time data to the MCU about the current
position and velocity of the machine tool. This includes:
◦ Position feedback: Ensures the tool is in the correct location as per
the programmed instructions.
◦ Velocity feedback: Ensures the tool is moving at the correct speed.
• Miscellaneous functions: These are additional functions controlled by
the MCU, such as coolant activation, spindle speed adjustments and tool
changes.
The entire process operates in a closed-loop system where the MCU
continuously adjusts the machine’s operations based on the feedback
received, ensuring high precision and accuracy in the manufacturing
process.

6.1.18 Basic components of numerical control

A numerical control (NC) system comprises several key components that
work together to automate and control machinery. Table 6.6 describes and
explains the basic components of numerical control.
Table 6.6: Basic components of numerical control

Component Description Explanation

Program
instructions
A sequence of commands
that dictate the actions of the
• Written in a special code, such as G-code, that specifies the
movements and operations to be performed.
machine.
• Includes information about tool paths, speeds, feeds and
other parameters required for machining.
Machine The central component that The MCU consists of two primary parts:
control unit
(MCU)
interprets the program of
instructions and converts them • Data processing unit: Processes the input data from the
program and converts it into control signals.
into actions.
• Control loop unit: Manages the execution of the control
signals, ensuring precise control over the machine’s
movements and operations.
Input devices Used to load and modify the Can be a milling machine, lathe, drilling machine or any other
program of instructions into the type of machinery. The MCU controls the machine tool to
MCU. perform precise operations on the workpiece.
Driving system Converts the control signals Includes motors, actuators and other mechanical components
from the MCU into mechanical that drive the movements of the machine tool along different
movements. axes (x, y, z).
Feedback Monitors the actual position Includes sensors and encoders that provide real-time data to
system and adjusts the movement of the MCU. This allows the system to make adjustments and
the machine tool. ensure accurate positioning and movement of the machine
tool.

200 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 Component Description Explanation
Display unit Provides a user interface for Shows the status of the machine, the current operations and
monitoring and interacting with any errors or alerts. The operator can use the display unit to
the NC system. make adjustments and control the machining process.
Tools Tools are the cutting tools Different tools are used for different types of machining
and attachments used by operations such as cutting, drilling, milling and turning. Proper
the machine tool to perform tooling is essential for achieving the desired accuracy and
operations on the workpiece. finish on the work piece

6.1.19 Terminology for closed-loop control systems

The following terms are used with reference to closed-loop control systems:
• Process control: The regulation of variables in a manufacturing process.
• Servo control: The regulation of the velocity and position of a motor
based on a feedback signal
• Numerical control: the automation of manufacturing processes using
mathematically defined instructions
• Sequential control: The performing of a series of operations in a specific
order.

6.1.20 Stable system

Module 6
stable system: a A stable system is one that returns to its equilibrium state or maintains
system that returns to its desired performance over time when subjected to a disturbance or
its equilibrium state or
maintains its desired perturbation. It resists diverging from its intended behaviour which ensures
performance over consistent and predictable operation despite external or internal changes.
time when subjected
to a disturbance or Stable systems are important in various fields, including control systems,
perturbation engineering and economics, where maintaining stability ensures reliability
and effectiveness.

Activity 6.1
1. Define and differentiate between open-loop and closed-loop control
systems.(4)
2. What are the main components of an open-loop control system? (3)
3. Explain the importance of feedback in closed-loop control systems.
How does it enhance accuracy? (4)
4. List and describe the three types of damping in control systems. (6)
5. What are the two main types of closed-loop systems? (2)
6. Identify and explain the key characteristics of closed-loop systems
and their impact on performance. (6)
7. What are servomechanisms and what is their primary purpose in
control systems? Provide two applications. (5)

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 201

 8. Describe the basic components of a numerical control (NC) system
and their functions. (6)
9. Explain the concept of a stable system in control systems. (3)
10. Discuss the significance of process control in industrial
applications.(3)
11. Draw and label a simple block diagram of an open-loop control
system.(4)
12. Draw and label a simple block diagram of a closed-loop control
system, highlighting the feedback loop. (6)
13. Illustrate and label the three types of damping response curves. (5)
14. Create a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a servomechanism,
showing the key components. (6)
15. Draw a block diagram of a CNC machine, indicating the main
components involved in its operation. (7)
TOTAL: [70]

Unit 6.2: CAD/CAM systems

6.2.1 C
 AD and CAM as applied to the CAD/CAM
industry
The development of computer-aided design (CAD) has evolved with
computer technology. Computers, with their speed, memory and advanced
features, enable rapid design of complex tasks and quick research and
development of projects that used to take years. Designers input the project
into the computer, which uses stored formulas and procedures to perform
the necessary calculations. The computer then generates a blueprint of the
final design and suggests manufacturing techniques, which are sent to the
production line for computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
The integration of CAD and CAM systems streamlines the design-
to-manufacturing workflow. Designs created in CAD software can be
transferred to CAM software where they are converted into actionable
instructions for manufacturing. This integration improves accuracy,
reduces lead times and enables more complex and precise manufacturing
processes, which speeds up and improves the quality of production.
computer-aided
design (CAD): the use
a) CAD system of computer systems to
assist in the creation,
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in modification, analysis or
the creation, modification, analysis or optimisation of a design: optimisation of a design

202 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 • Design creation: CAD software allows designers and engineers to create
detailed 2D or 3D models of products and components. These models
serve as digital blueprints that can be easily modified and optimised.
• Visualisation: CAD tools enable the visualisation of the design in a
virtual environment, providing insights into the appearance, functionality
and potential issues before physical prototypes are made.
• Simulation and analysis: CAD systems often include capabilities for
running simulations and analyses to test how the design will perform
under various conditions, such as stress, heat and load.
• Documentation: CAD software generates detailed documentation,
including drawings, schematics and specifications, which are essential for
manufacturing and quality control.

b) CAM system
computer-aided Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of software to control
manufacturing (CAM): machine tools and related machinery in the manufacturing of workpieces:
the use of software to
control machine tools • Machining instructions: CAM software translates CAD models into
and related machinery
in the manufacturing of
instructions (G-code) that control CNC machines, guiding them on how
workpieces to cut, drill, mill or shape the material to create the finished product.

Module 6
• Toolpath generation: CAM systems generate toolpaths, which are the
routes taken by cutting tools to shape the material. These paths are
optimised for efficiency and precision, reducing waste and improving
product quality.
• Simulation and verification: CAM software can simulate the machining
process, allowing operators to verify the toolpaths and detect any
potential collisions or errors before actual machining begins.
• Process automation: CAM systems automate various aspects of the
manufacturing process from tool selection and movement to material
handling, enhancing productivity and consistency.

6.2.2 CAD system terminology

a) Development phase
Developing a CAD system is a costly and technical process. However, it
significantly reduces design time and saves money. The development of a
CAD system can be divided into three development phases:
• Design procedures.
• Simulation and testing.
• Design implementation.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 203

 b) Software packages
Software distributors market and sell CAD packages that include design
programs, formulas, symbols, data, instruction manuals and procedures. These
packages cater to various design aspects or are dedicated to a specific industry.
Engineers use these programs to draft, test and simulate designs before
finalising them. New designs and developments are stored in the computer
memory, creating a database for future projects and designs.
c) Practical applications of CAD systems
Practical applications of CAD systems include:
• Product design: Creating detailed designs and prototypes for consumer
products, machinery and equipment.
• Architecture: Designing buildings, landscapes and urban planning
projects with precise measurements and detailed plans.
• Automotive industry: Developing vehicle components, assemblies and
entire car models with exact specifications and performance simulations.
• Aerospace: Designing aircraft and spacecraft parts and systems,
including structural components and aerodynamics analysis.
• Medical devices: Creating intricate designs for medical implants,
prosthetics and diagnostic equipment.
• Industrial engineering: Planning and optimising manufacturing
processes, factory layouts and equipment designs.

6.2.3 S
 tages in the design procedure stage of a
CAD system

Required Design Computer

task concept display

Use existing design

Modify existing design
Create new design

Figure 6.10: Block diagram of CAD design procedure

To start the process of designing a system for the required task, the design
engineer needs to choose which method, or combinations of methods,
will work to create the design concept. The block diagram in Figure 6.10
illustrates this design procedure:
• Use the existing design: The simplest method involves using an existing
design in the computer that is tried and tested. The engineer inputs the

204 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 new design parameters and the computer adjusts the existing design
to meet the new requirements and dimensions. Architects commonly
use this system for designing new buildings. The computer drafts the
plans based on the given specifications and calculates building costs and
material quantities.
• Modify an existing design: If an existing model is unsuitable, the
engineer can input new specifications and update certain formulas, data
or specifications to accommodate the new design. The computer then
uses its stored data to calculate new values and create a new design.
• Create a new design: For entirely new projects, the engineer may need to
start from scratch. The CAD system acts as the drawing board where new
formulas and data can be entered as needed. The system continuously
displays, updates and stores all information. Once the engineer is
satisfied, they can test the project through simulation and print the final
design. The design is then stored in the computer memory for future
reference.

6.2.4 B
 lock diagram of the developmental phase
of a CAD system

Module 6
Required Design Computer Simulate, print
task concept display and test design

Store Prototype
design

Manufacture Final
product test

Figure 6.11: Block diagram of the developmental phase of a CAD system

Figure 6.11 shows the block diagram for the full developmental phase of
the CAD system. We covered the design procedure earlier and we cover the
simulation, testing and design implementation stages below.

a) Simulation and testing

simulation: the
Simulation, analysis and testing are critical components of the product
production of a development process because they verify that a particular product meets the
computer model for the
purpose of study
necessary criteria as per the original design before going into production.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 205

 The block diagram in Figure 6.12 illustrates the simulation and testing process:
• The design concept is displayed on the
computer screen. Computer Simulate, print
display and test design
• Designers can then simulate and print
their design and create a prototype to
test it.
• If there are any changes needed,
Store Prototype
modifications can be made immediately
design
and tested again until the engineer/
designer is satisfied that design meets its
original specifications.
• The final designs can be printed and Final
stored in a computer hard drive or test
similar storage system for production
and future use. Figure 6.12: Block diagram of a simulation and testing process

b) Design implementation
Once the design has been tested and found to be in accordance with the
necessary requirements, the manufacturing process can start:
• A prototype is manufactured and checked against the CAD design.
• The results should be within the tolerances specified by the CAD design.
• If there are problems with the prototype, the design must go back to the
simulation stage to be modified, errors rectified, tested once again and
made ready for full production.

6.2.5 Prerequisites for a CAM system

Robots and computers have been available for years and CAM systems are
simply another application of this existing technology. However, integrating
a CAM system combines these technologies and presents unique challenges.
To operate a CAM system, four prerequisites are essential:
• High data transmission rate.
• Universal language.
• Communication interface.
• Communication organisation.

a) Data transmission rate

The data transmission rate is measured in bits per second and is known as baud rate: the data
the baud rate. For example, a computer transmitting 1 200 bits per second transmission rate
measured in bits per
operates at 1 200 baud. Baud rates for computers follow standard values. second
CAM systems need to support high data transmission rates with baud

206 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 rates up to 55 000 being common. Low baud rates slow system operation
significantly so a baud rate of 9 600 or higher is recommended for efficiency.
Fibre optic cable is ideal for industrial environments due to its minimal
transmission losses and propagation delays. Fibre optic cable is also resistant
to the electronic interference commonly found in factories.

b) Universal language
A CAM system needs industrial robots, numerical controllers and other
devices to communicate quickly and effectively with the host computer. A
universal language makes this possible. However, specific robot languages
have been created for individual robots and applications, which means there
are likely as many robot languages as there are robots.
There is also a variety of high- and low-level programming languages
available for computers, such as FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC (and its
variations) and Pascal. The central computer in a CAM system must connect
with other computers in the facility to manage inventory, handle accounting,
support design tasks and facilitate communication with humans.

c) Communication interface

Module 6
communication
A communication interface is a means by which two or more separate
interface: a means components of a computer system are connected together to exchange
by which two or more
separate components of
information. Interfacing the central computer with intelligent peripherals is
a computer system are complex. Because some devices are incompatible, you may need to purchase
connected together to
exchange information
or create a custom communication interface network or device. This often
involves using one or multiple interface devices, such as UART, USART, PIA,
ACIA, PPI or RS-232. Regardless of the specific device, the main functions of
an interface device include:
• Connecting computers and robot controllers with other peripheral
devices that operate at different baud rates.
• Converting parallel data to serial data and vice versa.
• Enabling synchronous or asynchronous data transmission and reception.
In many cases, computers may already have one or more of these devices
integrated. If they are not onboard, they are readily available and easy to install.
If a suitable device is unavailable for a specific computer or robot controller,
you may need to develop the circuitry required to implement the device.

d) Communication organisation
When the central computer manages factory-wide control, it communicates
with many devices and those devices must also communicate with the
central computer. Since the central computer can only ‘listen’ to one

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 207

 peripheral at a time, a structured input/output system must be established.
Methods of communication organisation include device polling and an
interrupt signalling, which we explore further below.

6.2.6 P
 rimary functions of a communication
interface
The exchange of information in a communication interface can be between:
• Software written in a particular language as discussed previously.
• Computer hardware.
• Peripheral devices.
• Humans.
• A combination of all the above.

No matter which type of interface is used, the main functions of a

communications interface are to:
• Provide a means of interconnecting (interfacing) the computer with all
other peripheral devices.
• Convert serial data to parallel data and vice versa.
• Accommodate synchronous and asynchronous data reception and
transmission.

6.2.7 M
 ethods of communication organisation of a
CAM system
A central computer system can only ‘talk’ to one device at a time. This means
that some sort of structured input/output information sharing system must
be implemented to avoid corruption of data signals. Two common methods
used for this purpose are device polling and interrupt signalling.

a) Device polling
With device polling, the central computer checks or polls each device in device polling:
turn to determine if it requires service. However, this method has certain a method of
communication where
disadvantages: the central computer

• The central computer remains tied up in a continuous polling loop,

sequentially checks
each device to see if it
limiting its ability to perform multiple operations. requires service

• The computer’s speed and performance is affected because it is constantly

checking or polling all the peripheral devices.
• Only one command or operation can be done at a time, which slows
down the entire process.
• Polling each device in sequence may lead to the neglect of emergency
situations while routine tasks are being handled.

208 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 b) Interrupt signalling
interrupt-driven
With an interrupt-driven system, each device generates an interrupt signal in
system: a method the case of an emergency or service requirement. However, because there are
of communication
where each peripheral
many devices connected to the central computer system, the types of interrupt
generates an interrupt signals must be prioritised so that the most important is attended to first.
when it needs service

6.2.8 Block diagram of a typical CAD/CAM system

Figure 6.13 illustrates a block diagram of a basic CAD/CAM system.

CAD/CAM
software

Required Design Computer Interface Peripheral

task concept display devices

Simulate, print Prototype Manufacture

and test design product

Module 6
Final
product

Figure 6.13: Block diagram of a basic CAD/CAM system

6.2.9 A
 dvantages and disadvantages of CAD/CAM
systems
Although CAD/CAM systems are expensive, the advantages of using them
outweigh the disadvantages, which are summarised in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6: Advantages and disadvantages of CAD/CAM systems

Advantages Disadvantages

• Overall manufacturing costs from design • CAD software often consumes large
inception to complete product are amounts of computer processing power.
reduced.
• This requires high-quality computer
• Design changes can be made rapidly. hardware with fast processing speeds.
• Can also be used to simulate the
behaviour of the design using software.
• CAM requires advanced manufacturing
devices which are expensive.
• Quick turnaround times can be achieved • The computers and devices needed for
with prototyping of products. CAD/CAM must be maintained regularly,
• shift basis because the entire process is which can drain available resources.
Production can continue on a 24-hour

automated.
• Cost of using highly skilled labour can be
reduced.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 209

 6.2.10 Practical applications of a CAD system
CAD/CAM hardware and software systems have applications in most
industries. Examples of industries include:
• Electrical and electronic engineering, such as circuit design, printed
circuit boards and integrated circuits.
• Mechanical and civil engineering, such as the drawing of plans.
• Architectural design.
• Motor industry.
• Education, such as technical training colleges.
• Aerospace industry.
• Textile industries.

Activity 6.2
1. Define CAD and CAM and explain their significance in the CAD/CAM industry. (6)
2. List and describe the primary functions of a CAD system. (4)
3. What are three key advantages of using CAD/CAM systems in manufacturing? (3)
4. Explain the role of simulation and testing in the development of a CAD system. (3)
5. Describe four prerequisites required for a CAM system to function effectively. (4)
6. Compare device polling and interrupt signalling as methods of communication
organisation in a CAM system. (4)
7. What is the significance of data transmission rates in CAM systems? (2)
8. Discuss the practical applications of CAD systems across various industries. (6)
9. Outline the three development phases of a CAD system and briefly describe each phase. (9)
10. What are the primary components involved in the integration of CAD and CAM systems? (4)
11. Draw and label a block diagram of a CAD system, illustrating the design procedure stages. (4)
12. Create a fully labelled block diagram of a typical CAD/CAM system and highlight its
components.(6)
13. Illustrate the simulation and testing process in a CAD system using a block diagram. (5)
14. Draw a block diagram representing the communication interface in a CAM system,
indicating its main functions. (5)
TOTAL: [65]

210 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 Unit 6.3: Uninterruptable power supplies (UPSs)

6.3.1 D
 efining an uninterruptable power supply
(UPS)
uninterruptible
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that provides emergency
power supply (UPS): power to an electrical load when the AC mains power source fails. A UPS
a device that provides
emergency power to an
unit is valuable in all major industries because it supplies power to sensitive
electrical load when the equipment, for example computer and other control systems, servers,
AC mains power source
fails
telecom installations and medical equipment, when power problems occur.
Key functions and features of a UPS include:
• Power backup: It supplies power from its internal battery when the
mains power supply is unavailable, ensuring continuous operation of
connected devices.
• Voltage regulation: A UPS can regulate voltage, protecting equipment
from power surges, spikes and drops.
• Power conditioning: It filters the electrical power to remove noise and
ensure clean power is delivered to the connected devices.
• Automatic switch: In the event of a power failure, a UPS automatically

Module 6
switches to battery power, often within milliseconds, to maintain an
uninterrupted power supply.
• Communication: Modern UPS systems often include communication
interfaces that allow them to send alerts and status updates to connected
computers or network management systems.
UPS systems are commonly used in industry, data centres, hospitals, offices
and other environments where maintaining continuous power is critical.

6.3.2 Categories of uninterruptable power supply

Uninterruptible power supplies can be categorised into two main types:
those intended for office environments and those designed for industry.

6.3.3 Main types of UPSs

The two main types of UPSs are offline or standby UPSs and online or
offline or standby double conversion UPSs.
UPS: the simplest
type of UPS with a a) Offline or standby UPS
brief switchover time;
designed for use in An offline or standby UPS is the simplest type of UPS designed for use in
small, non-critical
applications that require small, non-critical applications that require protection against momentary
protection against loss of power:
momentary loss of
power • Operation: In normal conditions, the equipment is powered directly by

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 211

 the AC mains supply and the UPS stays in standby mode. When a power
outage or significant voltage drop occurs, the UPS switches to battery
power within a few milliseconds.
• Characteristics: Simple and cost-effective, but there is a brief switchover
time when the power goes out.
• Applications: Suitable for non-critical applications such as personal
computers, small office equipment and home electronics where short
power interruptions are acceptable.

b) Online or double conversion UPS

An online or double conversion UPS uses more complex technology. It online or double
includes a rectifier and an inverter, hence the double conversion, that conversion UPS:
uses a rectifier and an
effectively isolates the load from all power supply problems: inverter that effectively
isolates the load from all
Operation: Continuously converts incoming AC power to DC and then power supply problems
back to AC, providing consistent and clean power to the equipment at all by providing continuous
protection
times. This process ensures there is no switchover time during a power inverter: an electronic
failure since the equipment is always running off the battery-inverter device that converts
direct current (DC) to
output. alternating current (AC)

• Characteristics: Offers the highest level of protection with no transfer

time, but it is more complex and expensive due to continuous operation.
• Applications: Ideal for critical applications such as data centres, medical
equipment and industrial systems where a constant and clean power
supply is essential to prevent any interruptions or power disturbances.
The primary difference between them lies in their operation and response
to power interruptions. A standby UPS provides basic protection with a
brief switchover time while a double conversion UPS offers seamless power
delivery with continuous protection.

6.3.4 Industrial UPS systems

Industrial UPSs are classified as follows:
• Transfer system.
• Continuous or float system:
◦ Forward system.
◦ Reverse system.
◦ Combination system.

Critical components of a UPS system include:

• Inverting power supply.
• Switch mode power supply.

212 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 6.3.5 Operating principles of industrial UPSs
a) Transfer UPS system (offline system)
transfer UPS system: With a transfer UPS system, the AC mains supply is connected to the load
the AC mains supply via an automatic transfer switch.
is connected to the
load via an automatic Operation of a transfer UPS system
transfer switch
synchronising signal

AC power rectifier battery battery bank

source charger

inverter
alternative DC to AC
source

transfer switch load

preferred
source AC
Figure 6.14: Block diagram of a transfer UPS system

Module 6
Figure 6.14 illustrates a block diagram of a transfer UPS system:
[*] The transfer switch is either an electromechanical device, such as a relay,
or a solid-state device, such as a silicon-controlled rectifier.
[*] In the event of a mains power failure, the inverter is switched into the
circuit and power to the load is restored.
[*] The inverter also supplies power to the rectifier and battery charging
circuitry.
One disadvantage of this system is the time delay of 4–25 ms that is required
to transfer power from AC to the inverter, making it suitable only for
applications where a delay is not critical.

b) Continuous or float UPS system (online system)

continuous or A continuous or float UPS system continuously supplies the DC voltage
float UPS system: required to drive the load and also trickle charges the battery. It provides the
continuously supplies
the DC voltage required best level of power protection for critical applications.
to drive the load and
also trickle charges the
battery

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 213

 Operation of a continuous or float UPS system
synchronising signal

AC power battery battery bank

source rectifier
charger

transfer switch inverter

DC to AC
standby
generator
load

Figure 6.15: Block diagram of a continuous or float UPS system

Figure 6.15 illustrates a block diagram of a continuous or float UPS system:

• Under normal operating conditions, the load obtains its power from the
inverter, which is connected to the rectifier, battery charger and battery
bank circuitry. This occurs regardless of whether the AC mains supply is
present or not.
• The AC mains input charges the battery bank via a rectifier and battery
charger circuit.
• A transfer switch is only necessary between the generator and rectifier
input to continue charging the batteries.
• The output from the inverter is filtered by a constant voltage or constant voltage
ferroresonant transformer to keep the output waveform as close to that or ferroresonant
transformer: a
of a sine wave as possible. transformer that uses
• A mains failure will not cause any power delay to the load. a magnetic structure
and a capacitor to limit
• The continuous or float UPS can be divided into three subcategories: currents, regulate output
voltage and perform
other power functions
Forward system.
• Reverse system.
• Combination system.

c) Forward continuous UPS system

With a forward continuous UPS system, power to the load is supplied forward continuous
UPS system: power
directly from the AC mains via the transfer switch. to the load is supplied
directly from the AC
mains via the transfer
switch

214 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 Operation of a forward continuous UPS system
synchronising signal

AC power rectifier battery

source charger battery bank

standby inverter
generator DC to AC

load
transfer switch
Figure 6.16: Block diagram of a forward continuous UPS system

Figure 6.16 illustrates a block diagram of a forward continuous UPS system:

• If the AC mains fail, power to the load then comes from the inverter
through the switching process.
• The AC mains will switch back into operation once normal power is
restored to the system.

Module 6
A disadvantage of this arrangement is that there is no isolation between the
source and load.

d) Reverse continuous UPS system

reverse continuous In a reverse continuous UPS system, the power to the load is supplied from
UPS system: the power the inverter via a transfer switch.
to the load is supplied
from the inverter via a
transfer switch
Operation of a reverse continuous UPS system
synchronising signal

AC power battery
rectifier battery bank
source charger

standby inverter
generator DC to AC
transfer switch

load

Figure 6.17: Block diagram of a reverse continuous UPS system

Figure 6.17 illustrates a block diagram of a reverse continuous UPS system.

The system will only transfer or switch to the AC mains supply in the event

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 215

 of an inverter failure. An advantage of this system is that there is isolation
between the source (inverter) and the load.

e) Combination continuous UPS system

With a combination continuous UPS system, the characteristics of the combination
forward and reverse UPS systems are combined into one system. continuous
UPS system: the
Operation of a reverse continuous UPS system characteristics of the
forward and reverse UPS
systems are combined
synchronising signal into one system

AC power battery battery bank

rectifier charger
source

transfer switch inverter

DC to AC
standby transfer switch
generator
load

Figure 6.18: Block diagram of a combination continuous UPS system

Figure 6.18 illustrates a block diagram of a combination continuous UPS

system:
• The power to the load is always available even if the AC mains or inverter
fails.
• The reverse system and standby generator give double protection in the
event of inverter failure.

f) Inverting power supply

An inverting power supply or inverter converts direct current (DC) into
alternating current (AC). This type of power supply is commonly used in
industrial settings to provide AC power from DC sources, including UPSs,
batteries and solar panels.
Operation of an inverting power supply
MOSFET step-up
battery driver transformer AC power
circuit

Figure 6.19: Block diagram of an inverting power supply

Figure 6.19 illustrates a block diagram of an inverting power supply:

• Battery supplies DC power as the initial energy source.
• MOSFET driver circuit converts DC to AC by rapidly switching the DC
voltage on and off, creating a high-frequency AC signal.

216 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 • Step-up transformer increases the voltage of this AC signal to the
desired AC output level.
• AC power output is then provided at the higher voltage for use in AC-
powered devices.
This process effectively converts low-voltage DC from the battery into
higher-voltage AC.

g) Switch mode power supply (SMPS)

switch mode power A switch mode power supply (SMPS) uses solid-state switches to convert
supply (SMPS): uses electrical power efficiently from AC to DC, DC to DC, DC to AC or AC to AC.
solid-state switches to
convert electrical power Operation of a switch mode power supply
efficiently from AC to DC,
DC to DC, DC to AC or
AC to AC transformer rectifier filter regulator

AC input regulated DC output

Figure 6.20: Block diagram of a switch mode power supply

Figure 6.20 illustrates a block diagram of a switch mode power supply:

Module 6
• Transformer adjusts the AC input to a desired voltage level, either
stepping it up or down as needed.
• Rectifier converts AC to DC, allowing the power to flow in a single
direction.
• Filter smooths the rectified DC by removing any remaining AC ripple,
resulting in a more stable DC signal.
• Regulator maintains a constant DC output by adjusting voltage as
needed, ensuring the output is stable and reliable.
This process transforms AC input into a stable, regulated DC output suitable
for electronic devices.

6.3.6 A
 dvantages and disadvantages of transfer
and continuous industrial UPSs
Table 6.7: Advantages and disadvantages of transfer UPSs

Advantages Disadvantages

• Cost-effective: Generally less expensive compared to • Switchover time: There is a brief interruption (in
continuous systems. milliseconds) when switching from mains power to
• conditions since it primarily relies on the mains power. battery
Efficiency: High efficiency under normal operating power.
• power disturbances
Power quality: Provides less protection against
• components.
Compact size: Smaller and lighter due to fewer such as spikes, sags and noise
compared to continuous systems.

• Simplicity: Easier to maintain with fewer parts that • Limited voltage regulation: May not handle
significant voltage fluctuations as effectively as
can fail.
continuous systems.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 217

 Table 6.8: Advantages and disadvantages of continuous UPSs

Advantages Disadvantages

• No switchover time: Provides continuous power

without any interruption as the inverter is always on.
• Cost: Generally more expensive due to the
complexity and continuous operation.
• Power quality: Offers superior protection against all
types of power disturbances including surges, sags,
• Efficiency: Lower efficiency compared to transfer
systems because it continuously converts power.
spikes and noise.
• Heat generation: Generates more heat due to
• capabilities ensure consistent output voltage.
Voltage regulation: Excellent voltage regulation continuous
solutions.
operation, requiring better cooling

Both types of UPS systems have their own strengths and weaknesses. The
choice between them depends on the specific requirements and priorities of
the application.

6.3.7 UPS suited for domestic and office use

Figure 6.21 illustrates a block diagram of a UPS suitable for office or
domestic use.

noise and surge load transfer

suppression switch

battery monitor and

charger control
circuit

inverter
battery
transformer

Figure 6.21: Block diagram of a UPS suitable for office or domestic use

a) Noise and surge suppression

A UPS includes advanced circuits for suppressing electromagnetic and
radio frequency interference, noise and surges to protect computer
equipment. This suppression operates continuously, regardless of whether
the UPS is turned on. The suppression circuits minimise the amplitude of
noise and surges to levels that delicate computing equipment can easily
tolerate.

218 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 b) Load transfer switch
The load transfer switch is an electrodynamic relay that quickly switches the
computer equipment (load) from the mains power to the UPS’s alternate
power source during a mains failure. Once the mains power is restored and
within safe limits, the switch reverts the load back to the mains power. Apart
from the user control switches, the transfer switch is the only moving part
in the UPS. The relay’s transfer time between power sources is significantly
faster than what modern computers or peripheral devices require.

c) Battery charger
During a mains power failure, the UPS supplies power to the equipment
using energy from a battery. The UPS’s battery charger converts the AC from
the mains power into DC that is compatible with the battery. It maintains
the battery at a constant voltage to ensure it has sufficient capacity to support
the load whenever needed. This method, known as float charging, maximises
battery lifespan and minimises internal heating. The battery charger operates
whenever the UPS is plugged in regardless of whether the UPS is turned on.

d) Battery
The battery of the UPS acts as an energy source similar to a car battery. It

Module 6
is a modern, maintenance-free, lead-acid type battery that is sealed and
leak-proof. The battery has a service life of three to six years and its lifespan
increases when kept below 30 °C. During a mains failure, the battery
provides the necessary energy to the inverter.

e) Inverter
The UPS must convert the battery’s DC into AC to ensure reliable power for
computer equipment during a mains failure. The inverter transforms the
battery’s DC into AC with solid-state devices using pulse width modulation.
This method is highly efficient and minimises battery power loss during
conversion, allowing the equipment to operate for a reasonable period before
the battery is depleted.

f) Transformer
The transformer of the UPS steps up the inverter’s output voltage to the
standard mains line voltage (220 V AC). It also provides isolation for the
UPS from potential equipment failures.

g) Monitoring and control circuit

The monitoring and control circuit is the ‘brain’ of the UPS. It detects mains
failures, such as blackouts, sags and brownouts. It synchronises the inverter’s
output frequency and phase with that of the mains, monitors low battery

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 219

 voltage conditions, directs the load transfer switch and manages all user
controls, indicators and computer interface functions.

6.3.8 C
 hoosing a suitable UPS for your applications
To determine the appropriate UPS for your needs, whether at home or in
an office environment, start by checking the labels on the rear panels of
your equipment. Here are the steps to select a UPS that meets your specific
application needs effectively:
• Identify power requirements: Look for the wattage (W) or volt-ampere
(VA) ratings on your devices. This information will help you understand
how much power the UPS needs to supply.
• Consider total load: Calculate the total power requirements by adding
the wattage or volt-amperes of all devices you plan to connect to the UPS.
• Determine runtime needs: Decide how long you need the UPS to
provide backup power during an outage. This will influence the battery
capacity you require.
• Assess connectivity needs: Check if you need specific ports (USB, serial,
network) for communication or monitoring with the UPS.
• Evaluate environment: Consider the operating environment. For
example, will the UPS be in a dusty area or need to operate in a
temperature-controlled environment?
• Select UPS type: Based on your requirements, choose between different
UPS types:
◦ Standby UPS: Suitable for basic home use.
◦ Line-interactive UPS: Offers better voltage regulation and is ideal for
small offices.
◦ Online UPS: Best for critical applications requiring constant power
without interruption.

Example 6.2
Selecting a suitable UPS VA rating for your needs Remember
Always check
Consider the following labels of electronic equipment and determine the thoroughly before
ideal UPS VA rating for your needs: connecting laser
printers to a UPS.
Computer Monitor Inkjet printer Laser printers have
much higher power
Model no COM2802 Model no MAN2842 Model no PRI164 requirements than
Serial no 463.3000 Serial no 463.3018 Serial no 5141.3018 other peripheral
devices, which could
230 V; 50 Hz; 3 A 230 V; 50 Hz; 1,5 A 220 V – 230 V; 50 Hz; 5 A trip the UPS circuit
breaker.

220 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 Computer: VA = 230 × 3​ ​ =​ ​690 VA
Monitor: VA = 230 × 1,5​  ​= 345 VA
Printer: VA = 230 × 5​ ​ =​ ​1 150 VA
Total: = 2 185 VA
Therefore, the ideal UPS purchase = 2 200 VA UPS

6.3.9 Blackouts and brownouts

Blackouts
blackout: a complete A blackout refers to a complete loss of electrical power in a specific area or
loss of electrical power to specific equipment:
in a specific area or to
specific equipment • Duration: Blackouts can last from a few minutes to several hours or longer.
• Causes: They can occur due to severe weather, equipment failure,
overload on the power grid or maintenance activities.
• Impact: During a blackout, all electrical devices stop functioning, leading
to complete power loss.

Brownouts

Module 6
brownout: a temporary
A brownout is a temporary reduction in voltage in the power supply,
reduction in voltage resulting in lower power levels:
in the power supply,
resulting in lower power • Duration: Brownouts can last from a few minutes to several hours but
levels are usually less severe than blackouts.
• Causes: They often occur during periods of high demand when the
power grid is overloaded or due to intentional utility actions to prevent a
blackout.
• Impact: While devices may continue to operate, they may perform
poorly or fail to function properly due to insufficient voltage.

Activity 6.3
1. Define an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). (2)
2. List three key functions of a UPS. (3)
3. Differentiate between a standby UPS and an online UPS in terms of operation. (6)
4. Name the two main categories of UPS systems based on their intended use. (2)
5. What is the primary disadvantage of a transfer UPS? (2)
6. Describe the forward system in continuous industrial UPS systems. (2)
7. What role does the inverter play in a UPS system? (2)
8. List two advantages of a continuous system UPS. (2)

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 221

 9. What happens during a blackout? (3)
10. How does a battery charger in a UPS maintain battery life? (3)
11. Draw and label a block diagram of a transfer UPS. (4)
12. Create a block diagram for a continuous UPS and label all components. (5)
13. Illustrate and label the block diagram of a forward system float UPS. (5)
14. Draw a block diagram of a reverse system float UPS. (5)
15. Provide a labelled diagram of a combination system continuous UPS. (4)
TOTAL: [50]

Summary of Module 6

Unit
6.1 Open- and closed-loop system

● Industrial control system: The hardware and software with network connectivity that monitors and
manages the behaviour of machinery used in manufacturing production processes.
● Open-loop system: A control system that performs its function based on the input signal without
comparing the actual output with the desired output.
● Closed-loop system: Also called a feedback control system. Continuously monitors output and adjusts the
control action to correct any errors.
● Characteristics of a closed-loop system: Feedback loop, error detection and correction, stability, accuracy,
disturbance rejection, dynamic response, complexity, cost, robustness.
● Damping: The action of an element in a mechanical or electrical device that gradually reduces the degree
of oscillations, vibrations or signal intensity to prevent it from increasing.
● Critical damping: Quickest return to equilibrium without oscillations.
● Underdamping: Oscillatory return to equilibrium with gradually decreasing amplitude.
● Overdamping: Slow return to equilibrium without oscillations.
● Types of closed-loop control systems:
◦ Regulator feedback system: A system that maintains a constant control of the system with a set point
that is seldom adjusted, irrespective of any changes, variances or disturbances that may occur.
◦ Follow-up
path.
system: A system where the set point is changed or altered frequently through a feedback

● Types of follow-up systems:

◦ Process control: The regulation of variables in a manufacturing process.
◦ Servomechanism: Performs position control in a closed-loop system.
◦ Sequential control: Performs a series of operations in a specific order.
◦ Numerical control (NC): The automation of a manufacturing process that performs a series of
operations in a specific order using tapes and punch cards for input.
◦ Computer numerical control (CNC): The automation of a manufacturing process that requires precise
and repetitive execution using a keyboard for input.
● Servo control: The regulation of the velocity and position of a motor based on a feedback signal
● Function of a feedback control system: Measurement, comparison, correction, adjustment, feedback.
● Components of a servomechanism: Controlled device, command device, error detector, error-signal
amplifier, servo motor.
● Functions of servomechanisms:
◦ Accurate control of motion without human intervention.

222 Module 6 TVET FIRST

Unit
6.1 Open- and closed-loop system (continued)

◦ Maintenance of accuracy with load variations.

◦ Control of a high-power load from a low-power command signal.
◦ Control of an output from a remote input without the use of mechanical linkages.
● Characteristics of CNC: Automation, precision, flexibility, consistency, complexity, productivity,
integration, data storage, feedback system, reduction in human error.
● Components of NC: Program instructions, MCU, input devices, driving system, feedback system, display
unit, tools.
● Stable system: A system that returns to its equilibrium state or maintains its desired performance over
time when subjected to a disturbance or perturbation.

Unit
6.2 CAD/CAM systems

● Computer-aided design (CAD): The use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification,
analysis or optimisation of a design.
● Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM): The use of software to control machine tools and related
machinery in the manufacturing of workpieces.
● Three development phases of a CAD system: Design procedures, simulation and testing, design
implementation.
● Prerequisites for a CAM system: High data transmission rate, universal language, communication
interface, communication organisation.

Module 6
● Main functions of a communications interface:
◦ Provide a means of interconnecting (interfacing) the computer with all other peripheral devices.
◦ Convert serial data to parallel data and vice versa.
◦ Accommodate synchronous and asynchronous data reception and transmission.
● Methods of communication:
◦ Device polling: A method of communication where the central computer sequentially checks each
device to see if it requires service.
◦ Interrupt-driven system: A method of communication where each peripheral generates an interrupt
when it needs service.

Unit
6.3 Uninterruptable power supplies (UPSs)

● Uninterruptible power supply (UPS): A device that provides emergency power to an electrical load when
the AC mains power source fails.
● Key functions and features of a UPS: Power backup, voltage regulation, power conditioning, automatic
switch, communication.
● Offline or standby UPS: The simplest type of UPS with a brief switchover time; designed for use in small,
non-critical applications that require protection against momentary loss of power.
● Online or double conversion UPS: Uses a rectifier and an inverter that effectively isolates the load from all
power supply problems by providing continuous protection.
● Transfer UPS system: The AC mains supply is connected to the load via an automatic transfer switch.
● Continuous or float UPS system: Continuously supplies the DC voltage required to drive the load and also
trickle charges the battery.
● Forward continuous UPS system: Power to the load is supplied directly from the AC mains via the transfer
switch.
● Reverse continuous UPS system: The power to the load is supplied from the inverter via a transfer switch.

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 223

 Unit
6.3 Uninterruptable power supplies (UPSs) (continued)

● Combination continuous UPS system: The characteristics of the forward and reverse UPS systems are
combined into one system.
● Critical components of UPS system: Inverting power supply and switch mode power supply (SMPS).
● Switch mode power supply (SMPS): Uses solid-state switches to convert electrical power efficiently from
AC to DC, DC to DC, DC to AC or AC to AC.
● UPS suited for domestic and office use includes: Noise and surge suppression, load transfer switch,
battery charger, battery, inverter, transformer, monitoring and control circuit.
● Blackout: A complete loss of electrical power in a specific area or to specific equipment.
● Brownout: a temporary reduction in voltage in the power supply, resulting in lower power levels.

Summative assessment for Module 6

1. Name two main groups into which closed-loop control systems are divided and
compare these main groups using their set point as reference. (2 × 2) (4)
2. Compare process control and servomechanisms using speed as a point of
reference.(2)
3. Figure 6.22 shows a labelled block diagram of a CAD system. However, all the labels
are incorrect. Correct the label of each block by writing only the answer next to the
question number (3.1–3.8).

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

print final manufactured prototype
design test products

3.7 3.5
design task
concept

3.8 3.6
store computer
design

Figure 6.22: Block diagram of a CAD system

 (8 × 1/2) (4)
4. Various options are given as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the
answer and write only the letter (A–D) next to the question number in (4.1– 4.4).
1. 2. 3. 4.

224 Module 6 TVET FIRST

 4.1 Which statement describes open-loop process control?
A. Senses the output.
B. Compares the output.
C. Autocorrects.
D. Does not use feedback. (1)
4.2. Which statement describes closed-loop process control?
A. Does not use feedback.
B. Uses feedback.
C. Does not use reference data.
D. Requires manual corrective operations. (1)
4.3. Which of the following systems does not form part of follow-up closed-loop
control?
A. Process control.
B. Servomechanism.
C. Regulator system.
D. Sequential control. (1)
4.4. Which of the following does not form part of the development phases of a
CAD system?
A. Prototype.
B. Design concept.
C. Computer.
D. Task. (1)
5. Draw a neat, labelled block diagram of the forward system, which is a type of a
continuous industrial UPS. (7)
6. Describe in point form and in detail four characteristic features of the open-loop
process control system. (4)
7. Draw a neat, fully labelled block diagram of a closed-loop process control system. (9)
8. Name a system that can be used to design a product in the manufacturing
environment.(1)
9. Name a system that can be used to manufacture a product in the manufacturing
environment.(1)
10. Draw a neat, labelled block diagram of a system that is used for both the designing
and manufacturing of a product in the manufacturing environment. (9)
TOTAL: [45]

TVET FIRST Electronic power control – SCR triggering circuits 225

 Module Thyristor devices and SCR speed

7 control

Overview of Module 7
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 7.1: SCR trigger devices and characteristics

• Describe the technique you would use to trigger a thyristor positively and justify why you
would recommend this specific technique.
• Describe the terms conduction and firing angle with reference to SCR devices and enhance
your descriptions with labelled sketches.
• Describe the operating principles and draw fully labelled circuit diagrams of practical SCR
triggering circuits employing a PNP transistor.
• Name and describe sources of loss in power SCR devices.
• List characteristics an SCR should possess to be used as a switch in typical power electronic
applications.
• Use the information given in a thyristor to calculate the following values:
◦ Latching current, suitable rms current, maximum value of thermal resistance, base and
junction temperature, maximum power loss.
Unit 7.2: DC line commutation

• Explain what is meant by commutation.

• List three ways of switching an SCR off in a DC supplied circuit.
• Name two general commutation methods applied to SCR circuits in industry.
• Explain the operating principle of the following thyristors by means of neatly labelled circuit
diagrams and in description:
◦ Turn-off employing a parallel capacitor.
◦ DC chopper employing parallel-capacitor commutation.
• State two resonant commutation methods and explain the difference between them.
• Explain the disadvantage of parallel-capacitance commutation and how this effect can be
minimised.
• Describe the term ‘resonant commutation’ with the aid of fully labelled circuit diagrams and
also refer to the type of damping required and its effect in each case.
Unit 7.3: Rectifier circuits and devices

• Explain what you understand by rectifier circuit.

• Describe rectifiers with reference to the main groups, functions and control characteristics.
• List advantages of both AC and DC motor speed control.
• Describe the function of a free-wheeling diode in rectifier circuits.
• Draw a neatly labelled rectifier circuit employing a commutating diode.
• Explain what happens when an SCR is triggered without the application of a gate pulse or signal.

226 Module 7 TVET FIRST

• Explain the precaution that must be taken for an SCR to be triggered safely in the usual manner,
that is by means of a gate pulse.
• Explain the major cause of loss at mains and lower frequency operation with reference to SCR and
semiconductor devices.
• Explain the term switching loss with reference to SCR devices.
• Explain whether it is possible to fit a thyristor device to an electronic circuit without the application
of a heat sink. Motivate your answer.
• Draw neatly labelled circuit diagrams of the following thyristors:
◦ Uncontrolled half-wave circuit.
◦ Controlled half-wave circuit.
◦ Uncontrolled full-wave rectifier.
◦ Half controlled full-wave rectifier.
◦ Fully controlled full-wave rectifier.
◦ Uncontrolled three-phase bridge.
◦ Half controlled three-phase bridge.
◦ Fully controlled three-phase bridge.
• Use the information given for a parallel capacitance chopper circuit to calculate the following values:
◦ The value of the capacitor, the minimum on-off time for the SCR, the load resistor.
• Use the information given for a thyristor to calculate the following values:
◦ The thermal resistance, temperature at the base, the maximum power loss, junction
temperature.
• Use the information given for a thyristor to calculate the following values:
◦ Average output voltage, average current, mean output voltage, maximum current, maximum
thyristor voltage, PIV of the SCR, the rms load voltage and rms voltage across the RL, power

Module 7
absorbed, the rms load current, the rectification efficiency, the firing angle.
Unit 7.4: Converters

• Explain what you understand by a power converter.

• List four categories of power electronic converters and give detailed description of each.
• Draw a fully labelled circuit diagram with input and output waveforms of a single phase input
single-phase output cycloconverter and give brief description of its principle of operation.
• Draw a fully labelled circuit diagram of a cycloconverter driving a single-phase load from a star
configuration three-phase supply.
• Give a detailed description of the operating principle of a single-phase bridge inverter circuit and
enhance your description with a fully labelled circuit diagram. Input and output waveforms must
also be given.
• Draw a fully labelled circuit diagram of a typical three-phase bridge inverter circuit connected in
delta configuration.
• Give the main application of thyristors and other power semiconductor devices in the electronics
industry.
• List advantages of AC motor speed control.
• Give practical applications of AC drives.
• List three types of AC drives and also draw a neatly labelled block diagram of each drive.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 227

 • List three ways in which electrical braking can be achieved.
• Describe the following electrical braking techniques and say where each would be applied in the
various electrical and related industries.
◦ Regenerative braking.
◦ Plugging braking.
◦ Dynamic braking.

The diac, triac, silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)

and the light-activated silicon-controlled
rectifier (LASCR) are just four of about eleven
different components that belong to the
thyristor group of electronic components.
These components are normally used in
power control circuits. In this module,
however, only the SCR will be discussed in
Figure 7.1: DC motor speed control using thyristor
detail. The SCR is a three-terminal, four-layer
current-controlling device made from P-type and N-type semiconductor materials.

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. Define the term thyristor
2. What are the applications of thyristors?
3. Do thyristors need a heat sink to operate and why?

Unit 7.1: SCR trigger devices and characteristics

7.1.1 T
 echnique used to trigger a thyristor
positively
To turn on or trigger a thyristor positively in the shortest time, apply a gate
current with a rapid rise time, which reaches the maximum allowable value
quickly. You can achieve this rapid rise time using a pulse technique where
the firing circuit generates a fast-rising pulse that is long enough to allow the
anode current to reach its latching value. The benefits of using a pulse are that
it dissipates much less power in the gate than
a continuous current and it allows for precise
Rload
timing of the firing moment.
R1
SCR
Figure 7.2 shows a basic firing set-up designed
to control the load voltage relative to the input
waveform. However, this simple firing set-up D1
has so many limitations that it is rarely used in
Figure 7.2: Elementary trigger arrangement
practical applications.

228 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 7.1.2 Firing and conduction angles for SCR devices
a) Defining firing and conduction angles
firing or delay angle The firing or delay angle (α) is the angle measured from the start of the
(α): the angle measured AC voltage cycle at which the SCR is triggered and begins to conduct. The
from the start of the AC
voltage cycle at which variation of the firing angle (α) affects the load power. The conduction angle
the SCR is triggered and (β) represents the remaining part of the positive half cycle of the AC supply
begins to conduct
signal during which the SCR conducts current. Therefore, the portion of
conduction angle (β):
the part of the positive the supply signal during which the SCR is forward biased consists of two
half cycle of the AC components: the firing angle (α) and the conduction angle (β).
supply signal during
which the SCR conducts
current b) Firing and conduction angles in an SCR
To understand the difference between the firing angle (α) and the
conduction angle (β) in an SCR, let’s consider a half-wave controlled rectifier
with an RL load as an example (see Figure 7.3).
VS

+Vm

π 2π 3π ωt
0
–Vm
Vout

Module 7
ωt
α π 2π + α
β
VD io
+ – io
+

+ ωt
L
VS Vout VD

R α ωt
– π
–

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Firing and conduction angle waveforms

Figure 7.3: Half-wave controlled SCR rectifier with RL load

Firing angle (α)

The firing angle is the angle at which the SCR is triggered and begins to
conduct. It is measured from the start of the AC voltage cycle. In a half-wave
rectifier, if the AC voltage cycle is 360°, the firing angle determines when in

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 229

 this cycle the SCR starts conducting. For instance, if the SCR is triggered at
90°, the firing angle (α) is 90°.

Conduction angle (β)

The conduction angle is the portion of the cycle during which the SCR
conducts current. In a half-wave controlled rectifier, the conduction angle
begins at the firing angle (α) and continues until the current through the
SCR falls to zero.
The conduction angle depends on the load and the characteristics of the
circuit, such as the time constant in an RL load. If the load is purely resistive,
the conduction angle is 180° minus the firing angle (180° – α) because the
SCR stops conducting when the AC voltage goes through zero. However, in
an RL load, the inductance can cause the current to continue flowing even
after the voltage drops to zero, extending the conduction angle beyond 180°.
By adjusting the firing angle (α), you can control the point at which the
SCR starts conducting and, consequently, the portion of the AC waveform
delivered to the load. This control mechanism allows for the regulation of
power to the load in the circuit.

7.1.3 O
 perating principle of SCR triggering circuit
using a PNP transistor
Figure 7.4 shows an SCR triggering circuit using the switching action of a
PNP transistor.

D R2
R1
C R

DZ C1 gate
S
Q D
AC supply
common to load to SCR
R
R
cathode

Figure 7.4: SCR triggering circuit using a PNP transistor

In Figure 7.4, the SCR triggering circuit with a PNP transistor works as
follows:
• The AC supply powers the circuit.
• Resistor R1 and capacitor C1 form an RC series circuit.

230 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 • Diode D and Zener diode DZ clip and regulate the voltage to provide a
stable level to the R1C1 series circuit.
• Resistor R2 reduces the voltage difference between the supply and the
Zener diode Dz.
• The voltage across capacitor C1 increases exponentially at a rate
determined by the value of R1.
• When the voltage is high enough, the NPN transistor Q turns on.
• Q’s conduction creates a pulse to trigger the SCR gate.
• The SCR conducts, controlling the load.
• The RC charging time sets the timing of the SCR gate pulse.
For applications that do not involve a fixed frequency supply, firing circuits
use oscillators to determine the start and finish times of the pulses.

7.1.4 Sources of power losses in SCRs

SCRs experience different types of power losses that affect their efficiency
and performance. Table 7.1 describes the primary sources of power losses
in SCRs.
Table 7.1: Sources of power loss in SCRs

Source of power loss Description Impact

Conduction losses Occur when the SCR is in its conducting Conduction losses increase with higher
state. The voltage drop across the SCR of current and can lead to significant
1–2 V multiplied by the current flowing heat generation that requires cooling
through it results in power dissipation. mechanisms.

Module 7
Switching losses Occur during the transition between the on Higher switching frequencies increase
(conducting) and off (non-conducting) states. switching losses, which affects the SCR’s
These losses are due to the finite time efficiency.
required for the SCR to switch states during
which both voltage and current are present.
Gate drive losses Occur due to the power required to turn the While usually small compared to conduction
SCR on. The gate current required to trigger and switching losses, gate drive losses
the SCR, along with the gate drive circuitry, still impact overall efficiency especially in
contributes to these losses. applications with frequent switching.
Leakage losses Leakage losses arise from the small current These losses are more significant in high-
that flows through the SCR even when it is voltage applications where even a small
in the off state. This leakage current is very leakage current can result in measurable
low but can still contribute to overall power power loss.
loss.
Thermal losses Thermal losses refer to the heat generated Thermal management systems, such as
in the SCR due to the above-mentioned heat sinks and cooling fans, are required to
losses. This heat must be managed to dissipate heat, adding to the overall system
prevent damage to the device and ensure complexity and cost.
reliable operation.

These losses must be considered when designing and selecting SCR

devices because they directly impact the efficiency, reliability and thermal
management requirements of the system.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 231

 7.1.5 C
 haracteristics of an SCR used as a switch in
power electronic applications
In power electronic equipment, SCRs are used as switches that can either
be open or closed. These switches should ideally have the following
characteristics:
• Unlimited voltage and current ratings.
• Instantaneous turn-on and turn-off times.
• Zero leakage current.
• No conduction or switching losses.
• No power requirement for gate firing.
• Ability to withstand current overloads and voltage transients.
• Easy protection against unintended turn-on and fault conditions.
• Low cost and ease of assembly.
In practice, different devices have specific advantages that make them more
suitable for certain applications. There can be overlaps, making the choice
of device not always straightforward. Important factors in choosing devices
for circuit applications include ratings, conduction losses, switching losses,
switching times, control strategy and cost. Table 7.2 provides important
specifications for SCRs.
The conventional thyristor is popular due to its high ratings, robustness, low
conduction losses and affordability. However, it has slow turn-on times and
cannot be turned off except by stopping the load current. For applications
connected to the mains electricity supply at 50 Hz or 60 Hz, such as
rectifiers, the conventional thyristor is preferred because it can withstand
high forward and reverse voltages.
Table 7.2: Important specifications of an SCR

Symbol Meaning Specifications

dI
​​ __
dt
 ​​ Maximum rise of on- There is a maximum rate of rise for the on-state current during turn on. If this
state current rate is exceeded, then the device can be damaged.
dV
​​ ___
dt
 ​​ Rate of change of anode When a voltage is applied across an SCR when it is off, it can go into
voltage conduction mode because the gate junction could be placed at a high enough
value to trigger the gate.
IGM Peak gate current This is the maximum level of gate current that must not be exceeded.

IGT Gate trigger current This is the current required at the gate to trigger the SCR into conduction.
TJ Junction temperature This is the maximum junction temperature allowed that must not be exceeded.

VGT Gate trigger voltage This is the voltage that needs to be applied between the gate and cathode to
enable the gate trigger current to be reached and the device to be triggered
into conduction.
VRGM Peak reverse gate This is the maximum gate voltage that can be applied across the gate/
voltage cathode junction without the possibility of damaging the device.

232 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 Symbol Meaning Specifications
VDRM Repetitive peak off-state This parameter is the maximum peak voltage that is allowed across the
voltage device and must never be exceeded.
I2t Overcurrent protection The I2t parameter indicates the fuse that is required in the circuit for protection.
IT(rms) rms on-state current This is the maximum rms current allowed through the device. It is specified
for a given temperature.
IT(AV) Average on-state This parameter is different to the rms current as it defines the average current
current rather than the rms. The rms will give the true heating effect of the current.

7.1.6 Calculations for thyristors

Formulae for SCR calculations

​  (​​​ 1 − ​e​​  ​  τ ​)​ ​​ [​​ ​Imax R]

V
​  ​​  = ​ _
−t
Latching current
_
​i = ​Imax ​ ​​ i = latching current (A)
Imax = supply current/maximum current (A)
t = time (s)
τ = time constant
_
Suitable rms
current
​​Irms
​  ​​  = ​I​ peak​​ ​ √_ θ
​  2π  ​ ​ Irms = rms current (A)
​I​  ​​  × 2π Ipeak = peak current (A)
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Ipeak mean
 ​​
θ
θ = current length (radians)
Imean = mean current (A)

Module 7
​T​  ​​  − ​T​  ​​
Maximum value ​P = ​ _ 1
R
​ TH
​  ​​
 ​​2 P = power transfer (W)
of thermal
​​ZTH
​  ​​  = ​R​ TH​​​ T1 = initial base and junction temperature (°C)
resistance
T2 = final base and junction temperature (°C)
Base and junction RTH = thermal resistance (°C/W or Ω)
temperature
ZTH = thermal impedance (°C/W or Ω)
​T​  ​​
Maximum power ​  ​​  = ​ _
​​ZTH P
rise
​ loss
​  ​​
 ​​ Trise = temperature difference (rise)
loss
Ploss = power loss in device over defined time

Example 7.1
Calculating values for SCR triggering
An SCR has a maximum gate current Imax of 50 mA and a time constant τ
of 1 ms. It has a mean current Imean of 5 A, a firing angle of ​θ = ​ _π4 ​​ radians,
a junction temperature rise of 80 °C and dissipates power P of 10 W.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 233

 Calculate the:
a) Latching current i at t = 0,5τ.
b) Maximum thermal resistance ZTH.
c) Rms current Irms.
Solution
a) Latching current i at t = 0,5τ.
​  ​​​(1 − ​e​​  ​  τ ​​)​
−t
_
i = ​Imax
​

= ​(50 × ​10​​  −3​)​​(1 − ​e​​  ​  ​)​

−​(0,5)(​​ 1×​10​​  −3)​ ​
___________  ​
1×​10​​  −3​

  = 19, 673  mA​

b) Maximum thermal resistance ZTH.

​T​  ​​
​​Z​ TH​​  = ​ _
P
rise
​ loss
​  ​​
 ​
80
= ​ _
10
 ​
= 8  Ω​

c) rms current Irms.

_
_
​  π4 ​
√
_
​  ​​  = ​I​ peak​​ ​ _
​Irms θ
​  2π √
 ​ ​ _
​​I​ rms​​  = 40 ​ ​  2π ​ ​
_
​I​  ​​  × 2π ​  π4 ​ ÷ 2π ​
= 40 ​ _ √_
​​  ​​  = ​ _
Ipeak mean
 ​
θ
5 × 2π
= ​ _  ​ ​  π4 ​  × ​ _
= 40 ​ _ √ 1
2π
 ​ ​
​  π4 ​
_
​
= 14, 142  A​
= 40  A​

Example 7.2
Calculating rms current and mean current
The manufacturer’s data sheet for a specific thyristor indicates a loss
of 500 W for a rectangular current waveform with varying duration.
In Figure 7.5, the Ipeak
current waveform is
depicted with the Imean
duration marked as ​θ​.
Determine the
θ
appropriate rms current
value at each interval by 360º
using the information
provided in Table 7.3. Figure 7.5: Current waveform showing current length

234 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 Table 7.3: Data

Mean current in ampere 124 157 193 215 235 267

Length of current in degrees 30 60 90 120 150 180

Solution
​I​  ​​  × 2π
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Ipeak mean
 ​
θ
_
​  ​​  = ​I​ peak​​ ​ _
​I​ rms √ θ
​  2π  ​ ​​

Table 7.4: Rms current

θ = 30 60 90 120 150 180

Mean current = 124 157 193 215 235 267
Peak current = 25,97 16,441 13,474 11,257 9,844 9,32
Rms current = 56,769 50,806 50,995 49,195 48,098 49,884

Example 7.3
Calculating thyristor values
A thyristor consistently loses 40 W of power and has a heat sink thermal
resistance of 0,5 °C/W. Determine the:
a) Maximum allowable heat sink thermal resistance given an ambient
temperature of 40 °C with the junction temperature capped at
120 °C.

Module 7
b) Base temperature under these conditions.
Note: Heat transfer represented by P or thermal resistance denoted
as R is directly related to the temperature difference between a hotter
and a cooler area.
Solution
a) Maximum allowable heat sink thermal resistance.
​T​  ​​  − ​T​  ​​
P = ​ _
​ 1
​R​  ​​
 ​
2
​RHS
​  ​​  = ​R​ TH​​  − ​R​ j​​
TH

​T​  ​​  − ​T​  ​​ ​ = 2 − 0, 5

​  ​​  = ​ _
RTH
​ 1
P
2
​
= 1, 5  ° C/W​
120 − 40
= ​ _ 40
 ​
= 2  ° C/W​

b) Base temperature.
​​T​ B​​  = ​T​ 1​​  + ​(P × ​RHS
​  ​​)​
= 40 + ​(2 × 1, 5)​
= 100  ° C​

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 235

 Example 7.4
Calculating maximum power loss
An SCR has a temperature rise (Trise) of 60 °C and a thermal resistance
(ZTH) of 4 °C/W. Calculate the maximum power loss (Ploss).

Solution
​T​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​​ZTH P
rise
​ loss
​  ​​
 ​
​T​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Ploss Z
rise
​ TH
​  ​​
 ​
60
= ​ _4
 ​
= 15  W​

Example 7.5
Calculating junction temperature
An SCR operates at a base temperature T2 of 30 °C with a thermal
resistance RTH of 5 Ω and dissipates power P of 8 W. Calculate the junction
temperature T1.

Solution
​T​  ​​  − ​T​  ​​
​P = ​ _
1
R
​ TH
​  ​​
 ​
2

​T1​  ​​  = P × ​RTH

​  ​​  + ​T​ 2​​
  = 8 × 5 + 30
  = 70  ° C​

Activity 7.1
1. Describe why pulse techniques are preferred over continuous gate current for triggering
SCRs.(4)
2. What advantages do the techniques described in question 1 offer in terms of power
dissipation and timing precision? (3)
3. Explain the function of a Zener diode in SCR trigger circuits and discuss how it contributes
to the stability and protection of the circuit. (3)
4. List the main sources of power loss in SCR devices and describe the impact of each type
of loss on the device’s efficiency and thermal management. (10)
5. What characteristics should an SCR have to be effectively used as a switch in power
electronic applications? Discuss at least five key characteristics and explain why they are
important.(5)

236 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 6. Draw an SCR trigger circuit using an NPN transistor. Label all key components, including
the SCR, NPN transistor, resistors, capacitors and diodes. (5)
7. Draw a waveform diagram that illustrates the firing angle (α) and conduction angle (β)
for an SCR. Describe how these angles affect the portion of the AC supply signal during
which the SCR is forward biased. (8)
8. An SCR has a maximum gate current Imax of 50 mA and a time constant τ of 1 ms.
The SCR has a mean current Imean of 6 A, a firing angle of ​θ = ​ _π4 ​​radians, a junction
temperature rise of 75 °C and dissipates power P of 12 W. Calculate the:
8.1 Latching current i at t = 0,75τ. (3)
8.2 Maximum thermal resistance ZTH.(3)
8.3 Rms current Irms.(5)
9. An SCR has a temperature rise (Trise) of 80 °C and a thermal resistance (ZTH) of 5 °C/W.
Calculate the maximum power loss (Ploss).(3)
10. An SCR operates at a base temperature T2 of 40 °C with a thermal resistance RTH of 7 Ω
and dissipates power P of 10 W. Calculate the junction temperature T1.(3)
TOTAL: [55]

Unit 7.2: DC line commutation

7.2.1 Defining commutation

Commutation is the process of switching off a thyristor by forcing the

Module 7
commutation: the
process of switching off current through it to zero. In DC line commutation, this is done by
a thyristor by forcing
the current through it
redirecting the current from the thyristor to another path using external
to zero circuitry such as capacitors or inductors. This is essential for controlling
natural commutation: power in DC circuits.
involves reducing the
current through the Thyristors are often used in applications with a DC power supply. To turn
SCR to zero by external
means off the SCR in a DC circuit, the current through the device must be reduced
to zero or below a certain threshold for a significant amount of time.
Additionally, a reverse voltage must be applied long enough to restore the
device to its non-conductive, blocking state.

7.2.2 M
 ethods of switching an SCR off in a DC-
supplied circuit
In a DC-supplied circuit, switching an SCR off can be done in three ways:
• Natural commutation: Involves reducing the current through the SCR to
zero by external means, such as interrupting the DC supply or redirecting
the current path. This method is straightforward but not always practical
in continuous operation circuits.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 237

 • Forced commutation: Uses additional circuitry to actively turn off the forced commutation:
SCR. Forced commutation can be achieved by applying a reverse voltage uses additional circuitry
to actively turn off the
across the SCR or by providing an alternate path for the current through SCR
other components, such as capacitors or auxiliary SCRs, effectively
reducing the current through the main SCR to zero.
• Gate turn-off (GTO): Although not applicable to standard SCRs, gate
turn-off thyristors (GTOs) can be turned off by applying a negative gate
current. This allows for control over both turning on and turning off
the device using gate signals, which provides greater flexibility in circuit
design.

7.2.3 C
 ommutation methods applied to SCR
circuits in industry
The two general commutation methods applied to SCR circuits in industry
are natural and forced commutation.

a) Natural commutation
Natural commutation relies on the properties of the AC power supply. In
AC circuits, the current naturally passes through zero at the end of each half
cycle. When the current drops to zero, the SCR turns off as there is no longer
enough current to maintain conduction.

Applications
Natural commutation is commonly used in AC power control applications
such as rectifiers, AC voltage regulators and phase-controlled converters. It is
particularly advantageous because it does not require additional circuitry for
commutation, making it simple and cost-effective.

b) Forced commutation
Forced commutation is used in circuits where the natural zero crossing of
the current does not occur or is not sufficient to turn off the SCR. Additional
components and circuits are designed to create a condition where the SCR is
forced to turn off. These components are:
• Capacitive commutation: Uses a capacitor to momentarily reverse the
voltage across the SCR, which extinguishes the current.
• LC commutation: Involves an inductor and capacitor (LC circuit)
to transfer current away from the SCR, thereby reducing the current
through it to zero.
• Auxiliary SCR: An auxiliary SCR is triggered to provide an alternate
current path, which turns off the main SCR.

238 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 Applications
Forced commutation is essential in DC circuits, such as inverters, choppers
and DC motor drives, where the current does not naturally drop to zero. It
allows precise control over the SCR’s operation, including turning it off at
specific times regardless of the supply waveform.

7.2.4 Operating principles of thyristors

a) Turning off a thyristor using a parallel capacitor

SCR C
VDC S

Figure 7.6: Turning off a thyristor using a parallel capacitor

Figure 7.6 shows how a thyristor is turned off using a parallel capacitor:
• ​​ V
When the thyristor is activated, the current through it equals _R
​​.
• To deactivate the thyristor, connect a charged capacitor across it by
closing switch S.
• This generates a reverse voltage across the thyristor, suppressing its

Module 7
current.
• The current reverses momentarily to deplete the stored charge in the
thyristor.
• As time passes, the capacitor’s voltage, and hence the thyristor’s voltage,
gradually becomes positive again.
• The capacitor needs to be sufficiently large to sustain this reverse voltage
for the required deactivation duration.

b) DC chopper using parallel-capacitor commutation

SCR1 SCR2
C
V

R1(load) R2

Figure 7.7: DC chopper using parallel-capacitor commutation

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 239

 To make the basic circuit in Figure 7.6 practical, you need to replace the
mechanical switch S with an electronic switch and reset the charge on
capacitor C to its original state for the next turn-off cycle. This altered circuit
is a DC chopper circuit, which can switch the battery voltage on and off to
the load.
Figure 7.7 shows a DC chopper using parallel-capacitor commutation:
• When thyristor SCR1 is activated, it connects the battery to the load R1
and allows capacitor C to charge through resistor R2.
• When thyristor SCR2 is fired, it discharges the capacitor across SCR1,
turning it off.
• SCR2 stays on with current flowing through R2 and the capacitor
recharges in the opposite direction via R1.
• Activating SCR1 again reconnects the battery to the load and turns SCR2
off by placing the capacitor across it.
The disadvantage of this circuit is the power loss in resistor R2, which
continues to carry current during the load’s off period. This loss can be
minimised by using a larger R2 relative to R1, but this increases the capacitor’s
charging time, thereby limiting how quickly the load can be switched.

7.2.5 Resonant commutation methods

Two resonant commutation methods are series resonance and parallel
resonance.

a) Series resonance commutation

Series resonance commutation uses the natural oscillating properties of a
capacitor-inductor pair to turn off the load thyristor at a specific time after
it has been turned on. This removes the need for an auxiliary or second
thyristor. For this to work, the series resonant circuit must be underdamped,
allowing the thyristor current to reverse which facilitates the turn-off
process. Figure 7.8 shows a series resonance commutation circuit.

SCR
gate
VDC L

C Rload

Figure 7.8: Series resonance commutation circuit

240 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 b) Parallel resonance commutation
With parallel resonance commutation, the capacitor
C is charged to the level of the battery voltage when
SCR
connected. Firing the thyristor connects the battery to
gate L the load and at the same time sets up an oscillation in
VDC
the LC circuit. If the oscillating current IOS is greater than
the load current IL, the thyristor current will attempt to
Rload reverse and turn-off then takes place. For the first half
cycle, the thyristor current will increase but will later be
reduced to zero during the early part of the reverse half
Figure 7.9: Parallel resonance commutation
circuit cycle of oscillation. Figure 7.9 shows a parallel resonance
commutation circuit.
The resistance (R) in the circuit must be set so that the RLC series circuit is
critically damped. If the resistance is too low, the load current could quickly
exceed the oscillating current in the LC circuit. If the resistance is too high,
the capacitor (C) will charge slowly, resulting in a long minimum off time.

7.2.6 D
 isadvantage of parallel-capacitance
commutation
The disadvantage of parallel-capacitance commutation is that RLoad carries all
the current throughout the switched-off period. Increasing the value of this
resistor can minimise this problem but the charging time of C will be longer,
affecting the switching time of the SCR.

Module 7
Activity 7.2
1. What is the fundamental principle of natural commutation in SCR
circuits?(1)
2. What are the three methods for switching off an SCR in a DC-supplied
circuit?(3)
3. Explain the concept of forced commutation and list two forced
commutation methods to turn off an SCR. (3)
4. How does the DC chopper circuit using parallel-capacitor
commutation control the turning on and off of thyristors SCR1 and
SCR2?(2)
5. Draw and label the basic set-up of a parallel resonance commutation
circuit, highlighting the key components. (5)
6. Draw a neat DC chopper circuit using parallel-capacitor
commutation and indicate the current paths when SCR1 and SCR2
are activated. (6)
TOTAL: [20]

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 241

 Unit 7.3: Rectifier circuits and devices

7.3.1 Defining a rectifier circuit

A rectifier circuit connects an AC supply to a DC load, converting an
alternating voltage into a direct voltage. The resulting direct voltage is not
pure but has an alternating ripple component mixed with the mean DC
level.
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts AC to DC. They are essential rectifier circuit:
in many electronic devices and systems. Rectifying circuits are categorised connects an AC supply to
a DC load, converting an
into two main types: half-wave and full-wave rectifiers. alternating voltage into
a direct voltage

7.3.2 M
 ain groups of rectifiers, their functions and
control characteristics
a) Main groups of rectifiers
Rectifier circuits can be classified into three main groups based on their
control categories:
• Uncontrolled rectifier: This circuit uses only diodes and produces a DC
load voltage that is fixed in magnitude relative to the AC supply voltage.
• Fully controlled rectifier: All rectifying components in this circuit are
thyristors. By controlling the phase angle at which the thyristors are
triggered, both the mean DC value of the load voltage and its polarity can
be adjusted.
• Half-controlled rectifier: This circuit uses a combination of thyristors
and diodes. This allows the adjustment of the mean DC voltage level but
prevents the reversal of the load voltage.

b) Functions of rectifiers
Rectifiers perform the following functions:
• AC to DC conversion: The primary function of rectifiers is to convert
AC voltage to DC voltage, which is required for most electronic devices
and circuits.
• Power supply: Rectifiers are used in power supplies to provide the
necessary DC voltage for electronic components and systems.
• Battery charging: They are used in battery chargers to convert AC from
the power grid to the DC needed to charge batteries.
• Signal demodulation: In communication systems, rectifiers can extract
the information signal from the carrier wave.

242 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 c) Control characteristics of rectifiers
The control characteristics of rectifiers are as follows:
• Control angle (firing angle): In controlled rectifiers, the point at which
the device is turned on during the AC cycle is known as the control angle.
Adjusting this angle changes the output voltage.
• Load regulation: This refers to the ability of a rectifier to maintain a
constant output voltage despite changes in the load.
• Line regulation: This refers to the ability of a rectifier to maintain a stable
output voltage despite variations in the input AC voltage.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of a rectifier is the ratio of the DC output power
to the AC input power. Higher efficiency means less power loss.
• Ripple factor: This measures the amount of AC ripple present in the DC
output. A lower ripple factor indicates a smoother DC output.

7.3.3 A
 dvantages of AC and DC motor speed control
The advantages of AC motor speed control are as follows:
• Energy efficiency: AC motors, especially with variable frequency drives
(VFDs), can operate efficiently over a wide range of speeds.
• Lower maintenance: AC motors require less maintenance compared to
DC motors because they have fewer moving parts and no brushes.
• Cost-effective: AC motors are less expensive and more readily available
than DC motors.

Module 7
• Reliability: AC motors are robust and reliable, often resulting in longer
operational life spans.
• Speed regulation: With the use of VFDs, AC motor speed can be precisely
controlled, which is ideal for applications requiring varying speeds.
• Overload protection: Many modern AC drives come with built-in
protection features that safeguard the motor and the drive from overload
conditions.
The advantages of DC motor speed control are as follows:
• High starting torque: DC motors provide high starting torque, which is
advantageous for applications requiring a strong initial push.
• Speed regulation: DC motors offer excellent speed control over a
wide range, making them suitable for applications where precise speed
regulation is critical.
• Simplicity: The control of DC motors is relatively simple, requiring
straightforward circuitry compared to AC motors.
• Quick response: DC motors respond quickly to changes in control

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 243

 signals, which is beneficial in applications requiring rapid acceleration or
deceleration.
• Smooth operation: DC motors operate smoothly at low speeds without
stalling, making them suitable for applications requiring consistent low-
speed operation.
• Adjustability: The speed of DC motors can be easily adjusted using
voltage variation, which is beneficial for specific applications needing
frequent speed adjustments.
Both AC and DC motor speed controls have their unique advantages.
The choice between them depends on the specific requirements of the
application, including factors such as cost, efficiency, maintenance and the
nature of the load.

7.3.4 Free-wheeling diode in a rectifier circuit

A free-wheeling diode, also known as a fly-back or commutating diode, is a free-wheeling diode:
diode used in circuits to eliminate voltage spikes that occur when an inductive a diode used in circuits
to eliminate voltage
load is suddenly switched off. In rectifier circuits, a free-wheeling diode spikes that occur when
serves several important functions, particularly in managing the behaviour of an inductive load is
suddenly switched off
inductive loads and improving the overall performance of the circuit.

a) Functions of a free-wheeling diode in a rectifier circuit

The free-wheeling diode has the following functions in a rectifier circuit:
• Protection against voltage spikes: When the current through an
inductive load, such as a motor or inductor, is interrupted, the collapsing
magnetic field generates a high-voltage spike. The free-wheeling diode
provides a path for this current to dissipate safely. This protects other
components in the circuit from potential damage.
• Maintaining continuous current flow: When the rectifier switches off,
the diode allows the current to continue circulating through the load and
itself, reducing current ripples and providing a smoother DC output.
• Improving efficiency: By allowing the current to circulate through the
load and the diode when the rectifier is not conducting, the free-wheeling
diode reduces the losses that would otherwise occur due to the abrupt
interruption of current flow. This improves the overall efficiency of the
rectifier circuit.
• Voltage regulation: The free-wheeling diode maintains the load voltage
by preventing large fluctuations. When the rectifier is not conducting, the
diode ensures that the load does not experience a sudden drop in voltage,
thereby providing a more stable output.

244 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 b) A
 pplications of free-wheeling diodes in different
types of rectifiers
Single-phase rectifiers
In single-phase rectifiers with inductive loads, the free-wheeling diode
allows the current to continue flowing through the load during the negative
half cycle of the AC input, thereby reducing voltage spikes and ensuring a
more stable DC output.

Three-phase rectifiers
In three-phase rectifiers, the free-wheeling diode performs a similar function
by providing a path for the current when the rectifier elements are not
conducting. This ensures continuous current flow through the load, reducing
ripples and improving the quality of the DC output.

c) Example of circuit operation

Consider a single-phase full-wave rectifier with an inductive load:
• During conduction: When the AC supply is in a positive half cycle, the
rectifier diodes conduct and provide current to the load.
• During non-conduction: When the AC supply transitions to the negative
half cycle, the rectifier diodes stop conducting. At this point, the free-
wheeling diode becomes forward biased and starts conducting, allowing
the current from the inductive load to circulate through it. This prevents
a sudden interruption of current and associated voltage spikes.

Module 7
7.3.5 Rectifier circuit using a commutating diode
Many circuits, especially those that are half wave or uncontrolled,
incorporate a diode across the load to become controlled as shown in
Figure 7.10. This diode is referred to as a free-wheeling, flywheel or bypass
diode, but the most accurate term is commutating diode. Its function is to
commutate, or transfer, the load current away from the rectifier whenever
the load voltage reverses.
SCR

trigger circuit
inductive load

AC bridge
supply rectifier
AC commutating
inductive load

supply diode

step-down commutating
transformer diode
step-down transformer

(a) SCR circuit (b) Diode bridge rectifier circuit

Figure 7.10: Rectifier circuit using a commutating diode

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 245

 7.3.6 T
 riggering an SCR without the application of
a gate pulse or signal
An SCR is a semiconductor device used to control power. Normally, it
remains off until it receives a gate pulse, which triggers it to conduct. When
an SCR is triggered without a gate pulse or signal, it could be due to one of
the following reasons:
• Breakdown voltage exceeded: If the voltage across the SCR terminals
(anode to cathode) exceeds its breakdown voltage (like the avalanche
breakdown voltage), it can start conducting without a gate pulse. This
is because the SCR is designed to conduct once this voltage threshold is
passed, which initiates its latching behaviour.
• Leakage current: If the leakage current through the SCR is sufficient, it
may cause it to turn on. However, this usually happens under extreme
conditions and is not common in regular operation.
• External influence: In some cases, external electromagnetic interference
or voltage spikes may unintentionally trigger the SCR.
In general, under normal conditions, an SCR requires a gate pulse to initiate
conduction.

7.3.7 Precautions taken to trigger an SCR safely

To safely trigger an SCR using a gate pulse, take the following precautions:
• Correct gate pulse timing: Ensure that the gate pulse is applied at the
appropriate time in the AC cycle or signal waveform. This timing ensures
proper operation and avoids unwanted triggering.
• Pulse width and amplitude: The gate pulse must have sufficient width
and amplitude to ensure reliable triggering. Too short or weak a pulse
may not trigger the SCR effectively while too strong a pulse could cause
unnecessary stress on the device.
• Isolate gate signal: Use proper isolation techniques to protect the
gate drive circuitry from high voltages present in the SCR circuit. Use
optocouplers or isolators to ensure that the gate signal does not interfere
with other parts of the circuit.
• Avoid over-voltage conditions: Ensure that the gate pulse voltage does
not exceed the SCR’s maximum gate voltage rating. Excessive gate voltage
can damage the SCR and lead to malfunction.
• Ensure proper gate current: The gate current should be sufficient to
trigger the SCR but it should not be excessive. The datasheet of the SCR
will specify the minimum gate current required for reliable triggering.
• Heat management: Adequately manage the heat generated in the SCR

246 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 during operation. Ensure proper heat sinking and cooling to prevent
overheating, which can affect the SCR’s performance and longevity.
• Check for proper connections: All connections, including the gate,
anode and cathode, must be secure and correctly wired. Loose or
incorrect connections can lead to unreliable triggering or failure.

7.3.8 C
 auses of loss at mains and lower frequency
operation in SCRs and semiconductor devices
In SCRs and semiconductor devices, the major cause of loss at mains (50/60
Hz) and lower frequency operation is conduction losses. These losses are
due to:
• Voltage drop: When an SCR or semiconductor device conducts, there is
a voltage drop across it called the forward voltage drop. This drop results
in power dissipation in the form of heat. At mains frequency (50/60 Hz),
the device remains in the conduction state for a significant period of the
cycle, leading to continuous power dissipation.
• Conduction resistance: The resistance of the SCR or semiconductor
device when it is conducting contributes to power loss. This resistance
can cause a significant amount of power to be lost as heat especially if the
current is high.
• Switching losses: These losses occur during the transition periods when
the device is turning on or off. Although switching losses are more
pronounced at higher frequencies, they still impact mains frequencies,

Module 7
especially if the device is switching frequently.
• Thermal losses: Prolonged conduction can lead to increased thermal
losses. The heat generated must be dissipated effectively to prevent
damage and maintain performance. At lower frequencies, the device has
longer conduction times, which can result in significant thermal stress
and associated losses.
• Hysteresis and leakage currents: SCRs and semiconductor devices can
have hysteresis and leakage currents that contribute to losses. These losses
become more noticeable in continuous operation at mains frequencies.
At mains and lower frequencies, the continuous conduction and relatively
constant current through the device mean that the losses primarily come
from the forward voltage drop and conduction resistance. This makes it
important to have effective heat management and efficient design.
switching loss: in
SCRs, the power loss
that occurs during the
7.3.9 Switching loss in SCRs
transition between the
Switching loss in SCRs is the power loss that occurs during the transition
on state (conducting)
and the off state (non- between the on state (conducting) and off state (non-conducting) of the
conducting) of the device device.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 247

 These losses are associated with the energy dissipated during the switching
events and they have two main components:
• Turn-on losses: These occur when the SCR transitions from the off
state to the on state. When a gate pulse is applied to the SCR, it begins
to conduct and there is a brief period where both the voltage across the
SCR (anode to cathode) and the current through it are significant. The
product of this voltage and current during the transition time represents
the power dissipation, contributing to the turn-on losses.
• Turn-off losses: These occur when the SCR transitions from the on state
to the off state. When the anode current falls below the holding current,
the SCR turns off. During this period, there is a brief interval where the
SCR needs to block the voltage again while the current is still reducing. The
energy dissipated during this interval contributes to the turn-off losses.
Factors contributing to switching losses include:
• Transition time: The duration of the switching event (both turn-on and
turn-off times) directly affects the magnitude of switching losses. Faster
switching devices tend to have lower switching losses.
• Current and voltage levels: Higher current and voltage levels during
switching transitions increase the power dissipated and thus the
switching losses.
• Switching frequency: Although SCRs are typically used at lower
frequencies, higher switching frequencies increase the number of
transitions per unit time, thereby increasing the total switching losses
over a given period.
Switching losses in SCR devices occur during the periods when the device
is changing states. While these losses are more significant in high-frequency
applications, they still play a role in the overall efficiency and thermal
management of SCR-based circuits even at lower frequencies. Effective
design and control strategies minimise these losses and improve the
performance of SCR applications.

7.3.10 F
 itting a thyristor to an electronic circuit
without a heat sink
It is technically possible to use a thyristor without a heat sink in low-power,
low-duty cycle applications but it is not recommended. Heat sinks provide
an effective way to manage heat dissipation, ensuring the thyristor operates
within its safe temperature range.
Fitting a thyristor such as an SCR to an electronic circuit without a heat sink
is generally not advisable for the following reasons:
• Heat generation: Thyristors generate heat during operation due to

248 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 conduction losses (forward voltage drop) and switching losses. Even at
low power levels, the heat generated can be significant.
• Thermal management: Effective thermal management ensures the
reliable operation of thyristors. Without a heat sink, the generated
heat may not be dissipated effectively, leading to increased junction
temperatures.
• Maximum junction temperature: Thyristors have a maximum junction
temperature rating of around 125–150 °C. Exceeding this temperature
can damage the device, reduce its lifespan and lead to thermal runaway.
• Power dissipation: The amount of power dissipated in the form of heat is
proportional to the current flowing through the thyristor and the forward
voltage drop. In high-current applications, this can be substantial,
requiring a heat sink to maintain safe operating temperatures.
• Ambient temperature: The operating environment’s ambient
temperature also affects the need for a heat sink. In higher ambient
temperatures, additional cooling measures, such as a heat sink, become
even more critical.
In some low-power applications, a heat sink may not be necessary if:
• The thyristor operates at low currents and voltages, resulting in minimal
heat generation.
• The thyristor is used in applications with a short duty cycle, meaning
it only conducts for brief periods and has time to cool down between
operations.

Module 7
• There is enough natural convection cooling and the device has adequate
ventilation to dissipate heat naturally.

7.3.11 Circuit diagrams of thyristors

a) Uncontrolled rectifiers
Uncontrolled half-wave rectifier
An uncontrolled half-wave rectifier uses a single diode to allow only one half
of the AC waveform to pass through, resulting in a pulsating DC output (see
Figure 7.11).

diode
Vrms Rload

Imax

Figure 7.11: Uncontrolled half-wave rectifier

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 249

 In this type of circuit, the supply voltage is high enough that the voltage drop
across the diode is negligible when it conducts. The diode’s turn-on and turn-
off times, which are only a few microseconds, are considered instantaneous
compared to the half-cycle duration of a 50 Hz or 60 Hz supply.

Uncontrolled half-wave rectifier

0, 637 ​V​  ​​
V
​ mean​  ​​  = ​ _ 2
 ​​ max

​
0, 707 ​Imax
​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​ ​Irms 2
 ​​
_
Diode PIV rating = ​V​ max​​  = ​√2 ​ ​ V​ rms​​​
​
where:
Vmean = HWR mean voltage
Vmax = maximum voltage
Irms = rms current
Imax = maximum current
PIV = peak inverse voltage
Vrms = rms voltage

Uncontrolled full-wave rectifier

The uncontrolled full-wave rectifier uses multiple diodes to allow both halves
of the AC waveform to pass, providing a smoother DC output. Examples
include:
• Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: Uses a centre-tapped transformer and
two diodes.
• Bridge rectifier: Uses four diodes in a bridge configuration to convert the
entire AC waveform to DC.
Figure 7.12 shows the simplest circuit layout of a single-phase bridge circuit
connection. This layout is common in electronic circuit designs and consists
of two half-wave circuits in series. This type of layout cannot be easily
adapted for three-phase circuits.

DA DB

Rload

DB DA

Figure 7.12: Uncontrolled full-wave rectifier

250 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 Uncontrolled full-wave rectifier
V ​  ​​  = 0, 637 ​Vmax
​ mean ​  ​​​
​

b) Controlled rectifiers
Controlled half-wave rectifier
A thyristor can be used to control a single-phase half-wave circuit as shown in
Figure 7.13. The thyristor conducts only when its voltage Vrms is positive and it
has received a gate firing pulse igate. The conduction of the thyristor is delayed
by angle α, which is measured relative to the supply voltage. A commutating
diode is present to prevent the load voltage from reversing beyond the diode’s
voltage drop, which is usually used with an inductive load.

Ig
diode
Vrms diode Rload
Imax

Figure 7.13: Controlled half-wave rectifier circuit

Controlled half-wave rectifier

​V​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean π ​​(1 + cos α)​
max

Module 7
​where  ​V​  ​​  = ​√_
2 ​ ​ V​ rms​​​
max
_
​ 2 ​ ​ I​ max​​
√
​  ​​  = ​ _
​ ​Irms 2
 ​​

Note
Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
You must know A semiconductor device that can be turned on at a specific point in the AC
these terms related
to semiconductor cycle using a gate signal. It allows control over the output voltage.
devices:
Triac
A semiconductor device similar to an SCR but can conduct in both
directions, making it suitable for AC applications.

Thyristor
A general term for SCRs and similar devices used in controlled rectification.

Fully controlled full-wave rectifier

A fully controlled full-wave rectifier uses thyristors instead of diodes (see
Figure 7.14).

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 251

 SCRA SCRB
Rload

SCRB SCRA

Figure 7.14: Fully controlled full-wave rectifier

Fully controlled full-wave rectifier

2 ​V​  ​​
V ​  ​​  = ​ _
​ mean π ​  cos α​
max

​
Half-controlled full-wave rectifier
In a half-controlled full-wave rectifier, you can regulate the average DC load
voltage using two thyristors and two diodes as shown in Figure 7.15.

SCRA SCRB

D Rload

DB AA

Figure 7.15: Half-controlled full-wave rectifier

Half-controlled full-wave rectifier

​V​  ​​
V ​  ​​  = ​ _
​ mean π ​​(1 + cos α)​​
max

​
Three-phase bridge rectifier
The three-phase bridge connection is best understood as a full-wave
connection. In this set-up, the load receives power through a three-phase
half-wave connection and the return current path flows through another
half-wave connection to one of the three supply lines. This eliminates
the need for a neutral wire. Figures 7.16 to 7.18 show uncontrolled, fully
controlled and half-controlled three-phase bridge rectifiers.

D1 D3 D5 T1 T3 T5

Rload Rload

D4 D6 D2 T4 T6 T2

Figure 7.16: Uncontrolled three-phase bridge rectifier Figure 7.17: Fully controlled three-phase bridge rectifier

252 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 Three-phase bridge rectifier
_
3 ​√2 ​ × ​Vline
​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean π ​
_
3 ​√6 ​ × ​Vphase
​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean π ​​
_
3 ​√2 ​ × ​Vline
​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean π ​  cos α​
​

T1 T3 T5

Rload

T4 T6 T2

Figure 7.18: Half-controlled three-phase bridge rectifier

Half-controlled three-phase bridge rectifier

_
3 ​√6 ​ × ​Vphase
​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean 2π
 ​​ (1 + cos α)​
_
3 ​√2 ​ × ​Vline
​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean 2π
 ​​(1 + cos α)​​

Module 7
Star connection Delta connection
​Iline
​  ​​  = ​I​ phase​​ ​Vline
​  ​​  = ​V​ phase​​
​ _ ​ _
​  ​​  = ​√3 ​ ​ V​ phase​​​
​Vline ​  ​​  = ​√3 ​ ​ I​ phase​​​
​Iline

7.3.12 C
 alculations on parallel capacitance
chopper circuits
Chopper circuit formulae

Average output voltage ​​ ON-OFF time Average load current

V​ avg​​  = D​(​Vin​  ​​  − ​V​ drop​​)​​ ​V​  ​​
T ​  ​​  = D × t​
​ ON ​  ​​  = D × ​ _
I​ avg in`
 ​​
​ ​RL​  ​​
​TOFF​  ​​  = T − ​TON
​  ​​​ ​
​
where:
D = duty cycle

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 253

 Example 7.6
Calculations for a parallel capacitance chopper circuit
Consider a DC chopper with a resistive load of 20 Ω and an input voltage
of 220 V. When the chopper is active, it experiences a voltage drop of
1,5 V and operates at a chopping frequency of 10 kHz. With a duty cycle
of 80%, calculate the:
a) Average output voltage.
b) Chopper’s on time.
Solution
a) Average output voltage.
​​V​ avg​​  = %D​(​Vin​  ​​  − ​V​ drop​​)​
= 80%​(220 − 1, 5)​
= 174, 8  V​

b) Chopper’s on time.
​​T​ ON​​  = %D × t
= %D × ​ _1 ​
f
1
= 80 %   × ​ _  ​
10 × ​10​​  3​
= 80  μs​

Example 7.7
Calculations for a parallel capacitance chopper circuit
A DC chopper has an average load current of 30 A and operates at a
chopping frequency of 250 Hz. The supply voltage is 110 V and the load
resistance is 2 Ω. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper.

Solution
​V​  ​​
​  ​​  = D × ​ _
​​Iavg in`
​R​  ​​
 ​ ​  ​​  = D × ​ _1 ​
​TON ​  ​​  = T − ​TON
​​TOFF ​  ​​
L f
1
​R​  ​​ = 0, 545 × ​ _  ​ = ​ _1 ​  − D × ​ _1 ​
​  ​​  × ​ _
D = ​Iavg L
​V​  ​​
 ​ ​
250 f f
1
in
= 2, 182  ms​ = ​ _
250
 ​  − 2, 182 × ​10​​  −3​
2
= 30 × ​ _
110
 ​ = 1, 818  ms​
= 0, 545​

254 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 7.3.13 Further thyristor calculations
Summary of thyristor formulae
Peak voltage Controlled mean voltage Controlled rms voltage
_ _
V
​ max
​  ​​ 1 + cos α
V ​  ​​  = ​√2 ​ ​ V​ rms​​​
​ max
​
​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean π ​​(1 + cos α)​​ V
​ rms
​
√
​  ​​  = ​V​ max​​ ​ ​ _ 2
 ​ ​​

Fully controlled mean Peak inverse voltage DC power

voltage _
PIV = ​Vmax
​  ​​​ P ​  ​​  = ​V​ mean​​  × ​I​ mean​​​
​ DC
3 ​√2 ​ × ​Vline
​  ​​ ​ ​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vmean π ​  cos α​
​
AC power
P ​  ​​  = ​V​ rms​​  × ​I​ rms​​​
​ AC
​
Maximum current Mean (average) current Rectifier efficiency
V
​ max
​  ​​ V
​ mean
​  ​​ ​P​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Imax R
​​ ​  ​​  = ​ _
​Imean R
​​ η = ​ _DC
​PAC
​  ​​
 ​​
​ ​ ​
Example 7.8
Calculations for a controlled half-wave rectifier
A controlled half-wave rectifier uses an SCR with an AC supply of 120 V
rms. If the firing angle α is 45°, calculate the:
a) Mean (DC) voltage.
b) rms voltage.

Module 7
Solution
a) Mean (DC) voltage.
_
Vmax
​​  ​​  = ​√2 ​ ​ V​ rms​​
_
= ​√2 ​ × 120
= 169, 706  V
​V​  ​​
​​  ​​  = ​ _
Vmean π ​​(1 + cos α)​
max

169, 706
= ​ _
π ​​(1 + cos 45)​
= 92, 216  V

b) rms voltage.
​V​  ​​
​​V​ mean​​  = ​ _
π ​​(1 + cos α)​
max

_
1 + cos α
​V​ rms​​  = ​V​ max​​ ​ ​ _√ 2
 ​ ​
_
​  1 + cos
= 169, 706 ​ _ √ 2
45
 ​ ​
= 156, 788  V​

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 255

 Example 7.9
Thyristor calculations
A fully controlled thyristor uses SCRs with an AC supply of 120 V rms and
a load resistor of 10 Ω. If the firing angle α is 30°, calculate the:
a) Average output voltage (Vmean).
b) Average current (Imean).
c) Maximum current (Imax).
d) PIV.
e) Rms load voltage (Vrms).
f) Power absorbed.
g) Rms load current (Irms).
h) Rectification efficiency.
Solution
a) Average output voltage (Vmean). b) Average current (Imean).
_
3 ​√2 ​ × ​V​  ​​ ​V​  ​​
​​V​ mean​​  = ​ _ ​​I​ mean​​  = ​ _
mean
​
π ​  cos α
line
R
_
140, 345
3 ​√2 ​ × 120
= ​ _ = ​ _  ​
π ​  cos 30 10
= 140, 345  V​ = 14, 035  A​

c) Maximum current (Imax). ​​ ​  ​​ where:

V
​ max
​  ​​ ​V​  ​​
​​I​ max​​  = ​ _ R
​  ​​  ​​  = ​ _
Vmax rms
0, 707
 ​
169, 731 120
​​ = ​ _ 10
 ​ = ​ _
0, 707
 ​
​​ = 16, 973   A​ = 169, 731  V​

d) PIV.
PIV = ​Vmax
​  ​​  = 169, 731   V​
​
e) Rms load voltage (Vrms). f) Power absorbed.
_
1 + cos α
√
​​V​ rms​​  = ​V​ max​​ ​ ​ _ 2
 ​ ​
_
P = ​Vmean
​ ​  ​​  × ​I​ mean​​
= 140, 345 × 14, 035
​  1 + cos
= 169, 731 ​ _ √2
30
 ​ ​
= 1  969, 742  W​
= 163, 948  V​

g) rms load current (Irms). h) Rectification efficiency.

V
​ rms
​  ​​
​​I​ rms​​  = ​ _ ​ ​​P​ DC​​  = ​V​ mean​​  × ​I​ mean​​
R
169, 731 = 140, 345 × 14, 035
= ​ _ 10
 ​
= 1 969, 742 W​
= 16, 973  A​

256 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 ​P​  ​​
​​P​ AC​​  = ​V​ rms​​  × ​I​ rms​​ ​η = ​ _
P
DC
​ AC
​  ​​
 ​
= 163, 948 × 16, 973 1 969, 742
= ​ _
2 782, 689
 ​ × 100
= 2 782, 689 W​
= 70, 784%​

Activity 7.3
1. Describe the three main types of rectifiers and their functions. (6)
2. What are the five control characteristics of rectifiers? (5)
3. List six advantages of AC motor speed control. (6)
4. List six advantages of DC motor speed control. (6)
5. Explain the four function of a free-wheeling diode in rectifier circuits. (4)
6. Discuss any two major causes of loss at mains and lower frequency operation with
reference to SCR and semiconductor devices. (4)
7. Explain switching loss in SCR devices and list two factors that contribute to it. (4)
8. Why is it not advisable to fit a thyristor to an electronic circuit without a heat sink? (4)
9. Name three conditions when a heat sink might not be needed for a thyristor in an
electronic circuit. (3)
10. List and explain five precautions that must be taken for an SCR to be triggered safely in
the usual manner?  (10)
11. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier. (4)

Module 7
12. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a controlled half-wave rectifier. (5)
13. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of an uncontrolled full-wave rectifier. (6)
14. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a half-controlled full-wave rectifier. (6)
15. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a fully controlled full-wave rectifier. (6)
16. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of an uncontrolled three-phase bridge rectifier. (6)
17. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a half-controlled three-phase bridge rectifier.  (6)
18. Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram of a fully controlled three-phase bridge rectifier. (6)
19. A parallel capacitance chopper circuit has a resistive load of 50 Ω, an input voltage of
230 V, a voltage drop of 2,5 V, a chopping frequency of 10 kHz and a duty cycle of 0,8.
Calculate the:
19.1 Average output voltage. (2)
19.2 Chopper’s on time. (2)
20. A DC chopper has an average load current of 10 A, a chopping frequency of 250 Hz, a
supply voltage of 115 V and a load resistance of 4 Ω. Calculate the on-off period. (6)

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 257

 21. A fully controlled thyristor circuit has SCRs, an AC supply of 220 Vrms, a load resistor
of 30 Ω and a firing angle α of 45°. Calculate the:
21.1 Average output voltage (Vmean).(3)
21.2 Average current (Imean).(3)
21.3 Maximum current (Imax).(5)
21.4 Peak inverse voltage (PIV). (1)
21.5 rms load voltage (Vrms).(3)
21.6 Power absorbed. (3)
21.7 rms load current (Irms).(3)
21.8 Rectification efficiency. (7)
TOTAL: [135]

Unit 7.4: Converters

7.4.1 Power converters

A power converter is an electronic device that transforms electrical energy power converter: an
from one form to another to match the requirements of a specific application. electronic device that
transforms electrical
These conversions can involve changes in voltage, current, frequency or type energy from one form
of current, for example AC to DC, DC to AC and so on. Power converters are to another to match
the requirements of a
used in a wide range of applications from industrial systems and renewable specific application
energy systems to consumer electronics and automotive systems.

7.4.2 Categories of power electronic converters

Power electronic converters can be categorised into four main types based
on their functionality and the type of conversion they perform. These
categories are AC-DC converters, DC-AC converters, DC-DC converters
and AC-AC converters. Table 7.5 describes each category.
Table 7.5: Power electronics converter categories

Converter Description Types Applications

AC-DC
converter
Known as a
rectifier. Can be
• Half-wave rectifier: Uses a single diode • Used where DC power is
to rectify only one half cycle of the AC required but the available power
further classified input, resulting in a pulsating DC output. source is AC:
into uncontrolled
(using diodes) • Full-wave rectifier: Uses multiple
diodes in a bridge or centre-tapped
• Power supplies for electronic
devices, eg computers and TVs.
and controlled
(using SCRs or
configuration to rectify both half cycles
of the AC input, producing a smoother • Battery-charging systems.
other controlled DC output. • DC motor drives.
rectifiers).
• Controlled rectifier: Uses a thyristor
(SCR) instead of diodes, allowing control
over the output voltage by varying the
conduction angle of the SCR.

258 Module 7 TVET FIRST

Converter Description Types Applications
DC-AC
converter
Known as an
inverter. Can
• Square wave inverter: Square-shaped
AC output. Simple and cost-effective but
• Used where AC power is needed
from a DC source:
produce various with higher harmonic distortion.
• Renewable energy systems, eg
types of AC
waveforms, • Modified sine wave inverter: solar inverters.

including square
Approximate a sine wave. Is a
compromise between complexity, cost • Uninterruptible
(UPSs).
power supplies
wave, modified and waveform quality.
sine wave and
• Pure sine wave inverter: Clean • Variable-frequency
for AC motors.
drives (VFDs)
pure sine wave.
sinusoidal AC output. Minimises
harmonic distortion.
DC-DC
converter
Changes the level
of DC voltage to
• Buck converter: Steps down the input
voltage to a lower output voltage.
• Used where voltage
regulation and efficient power
either step it down
• Boost converter: Steps up the input management is needed:
(buck) or step it up
(boost).
voltage to a higher output voltage. • Power supplies for portable

Uses high-
• Buck-boost converter: Can step up or
step down the input voltage, providing a
electronics,
smartphones.
eg laptops,

frequency versatile voltage regulation solution. • Battery-powered devices.

switching
techniques to • output voltage that can be either higher • Electric vehicles.
Cuk converter: Provides a regulated

achieve the or lower than the input voltage with

desired voltage continuous current at both input and
transformation. output.
AC-AC
converter
Modifies the
characteristics of
• Cycloconverters: Directly convert AC
power from one frequency to another.
• Used in applications requiring
precise control over AC power
AC power, such Used for low-frequency applications. delivery:
as voltage level or
frequency. • Matrix converters: Use an array of • Speed control of AC motors.
switches to convert AC power at one
frequency to AC power at another • Solid-state transformers.
Can directly
convert AC to frequency, providing bidirectional power • Frequency converters for
industrial processes.
AC without flow and high power density.
• AC

Module 7
intermediate DC voltage regulators: Adjust the
stages. output AC voltage without changing the
frequency. Used for light dimmers and
speed control of AC motors.

7.4.3 S
 ingle-phase input single-phase output
cycloconverter
a) Defining a cycloconverter
cycloconverter:
A cycloconverter is used to control AC power through a load by varying
converts AC power at the supply frequency. It converts AC power at one frequency into AC
one frequency into AC
power of an adjustable
power of an adjustable but lower frequency without any DC stage
but lower frequency between them. Its main applications include AC motor speed control and
without any DC stage
induction heating.
Cycloconverters are classified into two categories:
• Single-phase input to single-phase output.
• Three-phase input to single-phase output.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 259

 b) S
 ingle-phase input to single-phase output
cycloconverter

input waveform: frequency = f

1
output waveform: frequency = 5
A Vin Vout fundamental sine wave

AC load

B
transformer

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Waveform for a 5 Hz conduction cycle

Figure 7.19: Single-phase input to single-phase output cycloconverter

Figure 7.19 shows how the single-phase input to single-phase output

cycloconverter works:
• It has two full-wave converters connected back to back. When one
converter is operating, the other is disabled.
• This means that one pair of SCRs (A) provides the positive half cycle and
the other pair (B) provides the negative half cycle for a certain number of
cycles.
• The output frequency can be controlled by varying the gate triggering
time in each pair of SCRs.

7.4.4 C
 ycloconverter driving a single-phase load
from a three-phase star-connected supply
A three-phase star-connected input to a single-
phase output is used to provide for a reasonably
balanced load between the three phases. The SCRs
are triggered into conduction so that each phase
contributes to the positive half cycle of the load
voltage and then to that of the negative half (see load
Figure 7.20).

Figure 7.20: Three-phase input to single-phase

output cycloconverter

260 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 7.4.5 Single-phase bridge inverter
In a single-phase bridge inverter, four SCRs control the current direction
through the load. Four freewheeling diodes allow current flow during
specific portions of the switching cycle. This ensures smooth operation when
the SCRs turn off, preventing sudden interruptions and protecting the circuit
from voltage spikes due to inductive loads.

SCR1 D1 SCR3 D3
+
VDC load

– SCR4 D4 SCR2 D2

Figure 7.21: Single-phase bridge inverter

In Figure 7.21, the single-phase bridge inverter works by alternating the

direction of the DC current through the load to produce an AC output:
• First half cycle:
◦ SCR1 and SCR2 are triggered, allowing current to flow from the
positive terminal of the DC supply through SCR1, the load and SCR2
to the negative terminal.
◦

Module 7
During this period, the current flows in one direction through the load.
• Second half cycle:
◦ SCR3 and SCR4 are triggered and SCR1 and SCR2 are turned off.
◦ This causes current to flow from the positive terminal of the DC
supply through SCR3, the load (in the opposite direction) and SCR4 to
the negative terminal.
By alternating the triggering of the SCR pairs, the inverter changes the
direction of the current through the load, effectively producing an AC output.
Figure 7.22 shows the gating signal and output voltage waveforms of a
single-phase bridge inverter.

Figure 7.22: Gating signal and output voltage waveform of a single-phase bridge inverter

Single-phase bridge inverters are generally used in domestic and light

commercial applications.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 261

 7.4.6 Three-phase delta-connected bridge inverter
T1 T3 T5
D1 D3 D5

VDC

T4 T6 T2
D4 D6 D2 star or
delta

Figure 7.23: Three-phase delta-connected bridge inverter

In Figure 7.23, the three-phase delta-connected bridge inverter works as

follows:
• The DC power supply (VDC) provides the input DC voltage that will be
converted into a three-phase AC output.
• Switches (T₁ to T₆) are the main power semiconductor switches (often
IGBTs, MOSFETs or thyristors) used to control the output voltage and
current. The six switches are controlled in pairs to generate a three-phase
AC voltage from the DC input. For each phase, two switches (one in the
upper half and one in the lower half) are turned on and off in a sequence
to alternate the direction of current flow through the load.
• Freewheeling diodes (D₁ to D₆) allow current to circulate when the main
switches are off, protecting the circuit and ensuring smooth current flow.
• In delta configuration, the three load windings are connected in a closed
loop. The switching sequence controls the current flow in each phase,
providing balanced AC power to the load such as a three-phase motor.
• The three-phase AC output is generated with a 120° phase difference
between each phase.
Three-phase delta-connected bridge inverters are generally used in heavy
industrial applications.

7.4.7 A
 pplications of thyristors and power
semiconductor devices
Thyristors and other power semiconductor devices are integral to the
efficient control and conversion of electrical power across various
applications in the electronics industry. They enable precise control, high
efficiency and reliability in power management systems, making them
indispensable in modern electronic and industrial applications. Table 7.6
summarises the main applications of these devices.

262 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 Table 7.6: Applications of thyristors and power semiconductor devices

Power semiconductor device Applications

Thyristors (SCRs) • Power control in AC circuits:
o Light dimmers: Used in light dimming circuits
for residential and commercial lighting to control
brightness by varying the voltage applied to the
lamp.
o Heater controls: Used to control the power
delivered to electric heaters, allowing precise
temperature regulation.
o Motor speed controls: Used in AC motor speed
control systems to regulate the power supplied
to the motor, enabling adjustable speed.

• Controlled rectifiers: Used to convert AC to DC

with the ability to control the output voltage.
• Inverters: Used to convert DC to AC, particularly in
high-power applications.
• Solid-state relays (SSRs): Used for switching
applications, providing reliable and fast switching
without mechanical contacts.
• Phase-controlled rectifiers: Used in power supply
units for controlling the output voltage and power
factor correction.
• Cycloconverters: Used for converting AC from one
frequency to another, usually in large industrial
motor drives.
Power transistors
Bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs)
• Switching applications: Used in low- to medium-
power switching applications.
• Amplification:

Module 7
Used in audio and RF amplifiers due
to their high gain.
Metal-oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistors
• Switching power supplies: Used extensively in
switch-mode power supplies (SMPSs) due to their
(MOSFETs) high switching speed and efficiency.
• Motor drivers: Used in motor control circuits for
precise speed and torque control.
• DC-DC converters: Used in buck, boost and buck-
boost converters for efficient voltage regulation.
Insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs)
• High-power inverters: Used in high-power
inverters for industrial motor drives, electric
vehicle (EV) traction systems and renewable energy
systems.
• HVDC transmission: Used in high-voltage direct
current (HVDC) power transmission systems for
efficient long-distance power transfer.
Diodes
Rectifier diodes • Power supplies: Used in rectifier circuits to convert
AC to DC.
• Freewheeling diodes: Used in inductive load
circuits to provide a path for the inductive kickback
current, protecting switching devices.

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 263

 Diodes
Zener diodes • Voltage regulation: Used in voltage regulator
circuits to maintain a stable output voltage.
• Overvoltage protection: Used in circuits to protect
against voltage spikes.
Schottky diodes • High-speed switching: Used in high-speed
switching circuits due to their low forward voltage
drop and fast recovery time.
• Power rectification: Used in low-voltage, high-
current rectification applications.
Other power semiconductor devices
Triacs AC power control:

• Dimmer switches: Used in light dimmer circuits for

AC lighting control.
• Fan speed control: Used in household fan speed
controllers.
• Temperature control: Used in thermostatic
controls for heating systems.
Silicon-controlled switches Switching and control:
(SCSs) and gate turn-off
thyristors (GTOs) • Industrial automation: Used in industrial control
systems for switching and control applications.
• High-power converters: Used in high-power
converters for power grid applications.

7.4.8 Advantages of AC motor speed control

The two main types of AC motors are induction motors (asynchronous
motors) and synchronous motors. AC drives or variable frequency drives
(VFDs) are used to control the speed, torque, acceleration, deceleration
and rotation direction of industrial AC induction motors. These drives
save energy by adjusting the power delivered to meet the actual load
requirements. The speed is controlled by changing the frequency of the
electrical supply to the motor.
AC motor speed control has the following advantages:
• Compact design.
• High efficiency at a relatively low cost.
• High torque.
• Light weight.
• Minimum maintenance.
• Wide operating power range.

7.4.9 Applications of AC drives

Applications of AC drives include:
• Industrial pumps. • HVAC systems.

264 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 • Conveyor systems. • Fans and blowers.
• Elevators and escalators. • Textile machinery.
• Water and wastewater treatment. • Crane and hoist systems.
• Automotive industry. • Renewable energy systems.

7.4.10 Types of AC drives

Three types of AC drives are the frequency-controlled AC drive, the constant
voltage control AC drive and the constant current control AC drive.

a) Frequency-controlled AC drive
The frequency-controlled AC drive is the most common motor speed
control for three-phase motors (see Figure 7.24). The synchronous speed and
the speed of the motor can be controlled by varying the supply frequency
from the inverter to the motor.
DC link converter

controller
supply rectifier inverter motor

trigger current limit feedback trigger

circuit circuit

speed error voltage oscillator

adjust amplifier

Module 7
link-voltage level

Figure 7.24: Block diagram of a frequency-controlled AC drive

b) Constant voltage control AC drive

DC link converter
three-phase controller
inverter motor
supply rectifier

trigger trigger
circuit circuit

speed error voltage voltage-controlled

adjust amplifier oscillator
current limit

Figure 7.25: Block diagram of a voltage-controlled AC drive

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 265

 Figure 7.25 shows the block diagram of a constant voltage control AC drive:
• Three-phase AC power is applied to the AC/DC rectifier.
• The rectifier provides an adjustable DC source through an LC filter to the
DC/AC inverter.
• A voltage regulator controls the required value to the inverter.
• The output from the inverter is a stepped AC voltage with a variable
frequency.
• This voltage is then applied to the three-phase AC motor to achieve speed
control.

c) Constant current control AC drive

DC link converter

supply controller inverter motor

rectifier

trigger current limit feedback trigger

circuit circuit
speed
adjust error voltage
amplifier link-voltage level
voltage/frequency
shaping network

Figure 7.26: Block diagram of a constant current control AC drive

Figure 7.26 shows the block diagram of a constant current control AC drive:
• Three-phase AC power is applied to the AC/DC rectifier.
• This rectifier provides an adjustable DC source through an LC filter to the
DC/AC inverter.
• A current regulator controls the required value to the inverter.
• The output from the inverter is a stepped AC voltage with a variable
frequency.
• This voltage is then applied to the three-phase AC motor to achieve speed
control.

7.4.11 Methods to achieve electrical braking

Electrical braking can be accomplished through three methods:
• Plugging: This technique involves reversing the armature connections
to the power supply through a resistor, causing the motor to rotate in the
opposite direction. It is used in traction applications and high-speed drives.
• Regenerative braking: This method is used when energy conservation
is important, such as in battery-powered vehicles. By disconnecting the

266 Module 7 TVET FIRST

 motor’s power supply, the motor acts as a generator, returning the energy
to the DC source.
• Dynamic braking: This method is used where a quick deceleration
is necessary and regenerative braking is not feasible. When the stop
button is pressed, a contactor connects a fixed resistor across the motor’s
armature while simultaneously disconnecting the armature supply (or
rectifier circuit) either mechanically or electronically. The fixed resistor
causes a linear decrease in braking torque with speed as the motor
generates a voltage proportional to its rotational speed.

Activity 7.4
1. Explain what a power converter is and list four main types of power
electronic converters. (6)
2. Describe the functionality and applications of an AC-DC converter.
Include a detailed description of different types of AC-DC
converters.(9)
3. Draw and label a circuit diagram of a single-phase input to single-
phase output cycloconverter. Explain how it operates. (9)
4. Explain the concept of regenerative braking and its applications.
Include a discussion on how energy is preserved using this
method.(5)
5. What is a single-phase bridge inverter? Draw a neat block diagram
and describe its main applications. (7)

Module 7
6. Draw a circuit diagram of a three-phase bridge inverter connected
in a delta configuration. (6)
7. List four applications of thyristors in the electronics industry.
Provide at least two applications for each device mentioned. (8)
8. Discuss the advantages of AC motor speed control and explain
why it is beneficial in industrial applications. (7)
9. Describe three types of AC drives and draw a block diagram for
each type. (21)
10. Explain the three methods of electrical braking and describe the
specific applications where each method is used. (12)
TOTAL: [90]

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 267

 Summary of Module 7

Unit
7.1 SCR trigger devices and characteristics

● To trigger a thyristor: A gate current with a rapid

rise time is applied, which is achieved using a
◦ Ability to withstand current overloads and
voltage transients.
pulse technique.
● Firing or delay angle (α): The angle measured
◦ Easy protection against unintended turn-on
and fault conditions.
from the start of the AC voltage cycle at which the
SCR is triggered and begins to conduct. ◦ Low cost and ease of assembly.
● Formulae for SCR calculations:
● Conduction angle (β): The part of the positive half
cycle of the AC supply signal during which the SCR ◦ Latching current:
​  (​​​ 1 − e​ ​​  ​  τ ​)​ ​​
−t
_
conducts current. ​i = ​Imax
● Sources of power losses in SCRs: Conduction, ◦ Suitable rms_current:
√
switching, gate drive, leakage and thermal losses. θ ​Imean
​  ​​× 2π
​  ​​ = ​Ipeak
​​Irms ​  ​​​ _ ​  ​​ = _
​ 2π ​ ​; I​peak ​  θ ​​
● Characteristics of an SCR used as a switch:
◦ Unlimited voltage and current ratings. ◦ Maximum value of thermal resistance; base
and junction temperature:
◦ Instantaneous turn-on and turn-off times. ​T1​  ​​− ​T2​  ​​
◦ Zero leakage current. ​P = _
​  ​R​   ​​​​ ; ​​Z​ TH​​ = ​RTH
​  ​​​

◦ No conduction or switching losses. ◦ Maximum

TH

power loss:

◦ No power requirement for gate firing. ​T​  ​​

​  ​​ = _
​​ZTH
rise
​ ​P​   ​​​​
loss

Unit
7.2 DC line commutation

● Commutation: The process of switching off a ● Natural commutation: Involves reducing the
thyristor by forcing the current through it to zero. current through the SCR to zero by external
● DC line commutation: Done by redirecting the means.
current from the thyristor to another path using ● Forced commutation: Uses additional circuitry
external circuitry such as capacitors or inductors to actively turn off the SCR such as capacitive
to control power in DC circuits. commutation, LC commutation or an auxiliary SCR.
● Methods of DC line commutation: Natural ● Resonant commutation methods: Series
commutation, forced commutation, gate turn-off. resonance and parallel resonance.

Unit
7.3
Rectifier circuits and devices

● Rectifier circuit: Connects an AC supply to a DC load, converting an alternating voltage into a direct voltage.
● Main groups of rectifiers:
◦ Uncontrolled rectifier: Uses only diodes and produces a DC load voltage that is fixed in magnitude
relative to the AC supply voltage.
◦ Fully controlled rectifier: Uses thyristors and controls the phase angle at which thyristors are triggered,
both the mean DC value of the load voltage and its polarity can be adjusted.
◦ Half-controlled rectifier: Uses a combination of thyristors and diodes. This allows the adjustment of the
mean DC voltage level but prevents the reversal of the load voltage.
● Functions of rectifiers: AC to DC conversion, power supply, battery charging, signal demodulation.
● Control characteristics of rectifiers: Control angle (firing angle), load regulation, line regulation, efficiency,
ripple factor.
● Free-wheeling diode: A diode used in circuits to eliminate voltage spikes that occur when an inductive
load is suddenly switched off.

268 Module 7 TVET FIRST

Unit
7.3
Rectifier circuits and devices (continued)

● Functions of a free-wheeling diode in a rectifier circuit: Protection against voltage spikes, maintaining
continuous current flow, improving efficiency, voltage regulation.
● Precautions to trigger an SCR safely: Correct gate pulse timing, pulse width and amplitude, isolate gate
signal, avoid over-voltage conditions, ensure proper gate current, heat management, check for proper
connections.
● Conduction losses in SCRs due to: Voltage drop, conduction resistance, switching losses, thermal losses,
hysteresis and leakage currents.
● Switching loss: In SCRs, the power loss that occurs during the transition between the on state
(conducting) and the off state (non-conducting) of the device.
● Uncontrolled half-wave rectifier:
0, 637 ​Vmax
​  ​​ 0, 707 I​max
​  ​​ _
​  ​​ = ​ _
​​Vmean ​  ​​ = ​ _
2 ​​; ​​Irms 2 ​​; D ​ iode PIV rating = V ​  ​​ = √
​ max ​ 2 ​​Vrms
​  ​​​
● Uncontrolled full-wave rectifier:
​​Vmean
​  ​​ = 0, 637 ​Vmax
​  ​​​
● Controlled half-wave rectifier: _
​Vmax
​  ​​ _ √​ 2 ​​Imax
​  ​​
​  ​​ = _
​​Vmean ​  π ​​(1 + cos α)​where V ​  ​​ = √
​ max ​ 2 ​​Vrms ​  ​​ = ​ _
​  ​​​; ​​Irms 2 ​​
● Fully controlled full-wave rectifier:
2 ​Vmax
​  ​​
​  ​​ = ​ _
​​Vmean π ​cos α​
● Half-controlled full-wave rectifier:
​Vmax
​  ​​
​  ​​ = _
​​Vmean ​  π ​​(1 + cos α)​​
● Three-phase bridge rectifier:
_ _ _
3√​ 2 ​× ​Vline
​  ​​ 3√ ​ 6 ​× ​Vphase
​  ​​ 3 √​ 2 ​× ​Vline
​  ​​
​  ​​ = ​ _
​​Vmean π  ​ ; V
​ ​ 
mean
​​ = ___________
​  π  ​​ ; V​ 
​​ mean
​​ = _
​  π ​cos α​
● Half-controlled three-phase bridge rectifier
_ _

Module 7
3√ ​ 6 ​× ​Vphase
​  ​​ 3 √​ 2 ​× ​Vline
​  ​​
___________ (1 + cos α)​; ​Vmean _ ( )
​  ​​ = ​ 
​​Vmean 2π  ​​ ​  ​​ = ​  2π ​​ 1 + cos α ​​
● Chopper circuit:
◦ Average output voltage: ◦ ON-OFF time ◦ Average load
​V​  ​​
current:
​  ​​ = D​(​Vin​  ​​− ​Vdrop
​​Vavg ​  ​​)​​ ​​TON
​  ​​ = D × t​ ​  ​​ = D × _
​​Iavg
in`
​ ​R​   ​​​​
L
​  ​​ = T − ​TON
​​TOFF ​  ​​​

Summary of thyristor formulae

Peak voltage
_ Controlled mean voltage Controlled rms voltage
_
V ​  ​​ = √
​ max ​ 2 ​​Vrms
​  ​​​
√
​ max
V ​  ​​ 1 + cos α
​ ​  ​​ = _
​Vmean ​  π ​​(1 + cos α)​​ ​  ​​ = ​Vmax
​Vrms ​  ​​​ _
​  2 ​ ​​
​ ​
Peak inverse voltage DC power
Fully controlled mean voltage PIV = ​Vmax
​  ​​​ ​ DC
P ​  ​​ = ​Vmean
​  ​​× ​Imean
​  ​​​
_
3 √​ 2 ​× ​Vline
​  ​​ ​ ​
_
​Vmean
​  ​​ = ​  π ​cos α​
​ AC power
​  ​​ = ​Vrms
​ AC
P ​  ​​× ​Irms
​  ​​​
​

Maximum current Mean (average) current Rectifier efficiency

​Vmax
​  ​​ ​Vmean
​  ​​ ​PDC
​  ​​
​  ​​ = _
​Imax ​  R ​​ ​  ​​ = _
​Imean ​  R ​​ η = _
​ P​ ​   ​​​​
AC
​ ​ ​

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 269

 Unit
7.4 Converters

● Power converter: An electronic device that transforms electrical energy from one form to another to
match the requirements of a specific application.
● Categories of power converters:
◦ AC-DC converters / rectifiers: Half-wave, full-wave and controlled.
◦ DC-AC converters / inverters: Square, modified sine wave, pure sine wave.
◦ DC-DC converters: Buck, boost, buck-boost, cuk.
◦ AC-AC converters: cycloconverters, matric converters. AC voltage regulators.
● Cycloconverter: Converts AC power at one frequency into AC power of an adjustable but lower frequency
without any DC stage.
● Categories of cycloconverters: Single-phase input to single-phase output, three-phase input to single-
phase output.
● Types of AC drives: Frequency-controlled AC drive, constant voltage control AC drive, constant current
control AC drive.
● Methods for electrical braking: Plugging, regenerative braking, dynamic braking.

Summative assessment for Module 7

1. R
efer to Figure 7.27 and the given data to answer the questions.

Ig

Vsupply D1 Rload

Imax

Figure 7.27: Circuit diagram

Data: Irms = 11,66 A; Vrms = 264 V; α = 45°

1.1 Give the full name of the circuit in Figure 7.27. (1)
1.2 State two conditions that are simultaneously required for the thyristor in the
circuit to conduct. (2)
1.3 Name D1 and give its function. (2)
1.4 State the full name and give a brief description of the angle α in the circuit. (2)
1.5 Calculate the:
1.5.1 Mean output voltage. (4)
1.5.2 PIV rating for the diode. (1)
1.5.3 Maximum current rating. (4)

270 Module 7 TVET FIRST

2. Refer to Figure 7.28 and the given data and answer the following questions

T1 T3 T5
Rload

D D D

Figure 7.28: Circuit diagram

Data: SCR volt drop = 1,5 V each; α = 90º; phase voltage = 180 V
2.1 Give the full name of the circuit in Figure 7.28. (1)
2.2 Name the phase connection in Figure 7.28. (1)
2.3 Calculate the mean load voltage. (6)
2.4 Calculate a suitable PIV rating for the thyristors. (4)
3. Name two types of AC drives. (2)
4. State the name(s) of rectifying components used in the following rectifier circuits:
4.1 Fully controlled rectifier. (1)
4.2 Half-controlled rectifier. (1)
4.3 Uncontrolled rectifier. (1)
5. The following data is supplied for a controlled half-wave rectifier circuit which
uses a commutating diode:
• AC
supply = 220 V • Delay angle = 45° • Irms = 9,717 A
Calculate the:
5.1 Maximum current. (4)
5.2 PIV.(3)
5.3 Mean output voltage. (3)
6. A single-phase controlled half-wave rectifier circuit uses a commutating diode.
The following data is extracted from the circuit analysis:
• AC
supply = 180 V • Delay angle = 45° • Irms = 7,95 A
Calculate the:
6.1 Thyristor PIV rating.  (4)
6.2 Mean output voltage.  (4)
6.3 Maximum current rating. (4)
TOTAL: [55]

TVET FIRST Thyristor devices and SCR speed control 271

 Module

8
Programmable logic controllers

Overview of Module 8
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 8.1: Basics of PLCs

• Describe the term programmable logic controller.

• List the advantages of using PLCs.
• Describe the following terms:
◦ Hard wiring, soft wiring, relay logic, ladder diagram, central processor unit, watchdog
timer, scan, scan speed and time, CMOS RAM, EPROM, power supplies, noise, bit, counter,
element, end, compare, diagnostic, edit, halt, force, latch coil, jump coil, ladder, logic
element, run, rung, timer, search, scan speed, message, expansion controllers, basic
controller, overhead time.
• List features of a PLC.
• Draw a neatly labelled block diagram of a PLC and briefly describe the function of each block.
• Explain the difference between the following terms as used in PLCs:
◦ Hard and soft wiring.
◦ Relay and ladder logic.
• List basic components of a PLC.
• List and explain types of computer memory that are in use today.
• Explain the causes of transients in electronic circuits.
• Name elements in a transient circuit that can undergo changes as as result of disturbances.
Unit 8.2: Fail-safe design

• Explain what you understand by fail-safe design.

• List essential features of fail-safe PLCs.
• Draw two neatly labelled diagrams one illustrating a circuit diagram that does not satisfy
the requirements of a fail-safe design and the other one showing how you would connect
switches to maintain a fail-safe circuit.
• Explain the term problem solving.
• List and explain the problem-solving process as it is done in the industry.
Unit 8.3: Programming the PLC

• Mention industries where PLCs are used and state the function of the PLC in each case.
• Draw labelled ladder diagrams of the following and describe each rung of the ladder diagram:
◦ OR, NAND, NOR logic gates using three input contacts.
◦ Traffic light control using green, amber and red lights.
• Draw ladder logic symbols for the following:
◦ NO contact, NC contact, connection, output coil, timer, internal relay (no input), internal
relay (output), one-shot contact, end statement.

272 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 • Interpret the results of the following simple ladder logic diagrams using the truth table:
◦ AND, OR, NAND and NOR.
• Interpret simple ladder logic diagrams / Give detailed description of the principle of operation of
the ladder logic.
• Design, using ladder logic diagrams, the solution to certain problems.

Industrial automation is achieved using

computers and robots to control industrial
processes without significant human
intervention. Almost all modern manufacturing
operations, large and small, use programmable
logic controllers (PLCs) to achieve automation.
Figure 8.1 shows an example of a PLC unit.
These devices are robust in construction and
can tolerate operating in harsh manufacturing
environments with vibrations, temperature
changes and humidity. Figure 8.1: PLC unit

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. What is the function of a PLC?
2. How does the manufacturing industry use PLCs?
3. What is your understanding of logic gates?

Unit 8.1: Basics of PLCs

8.1.1 D
 efining a programmable logic controller (PLC)

Module 8
programmable logic A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a microprocessor-based computer
controller (PLC): a that is used for the automation of electromechanical processes, such as the
microprocessor-based
computer that is used control of machinery in almost all modern manufacturing. It is different
for the automation from desktop or office-based computers in that it is designed mainly for
of electromechanical
processes multiple input and output arrangements.
electromechanical: a
mechanical device that
A PLC accepts data from various input devices, for example push-button
is electrically operated switches, proximity switches, various types of sensors, limit switches and
proximity switch: timers. It then executes instructions as determined by a computer program
a switch that opens
or closes an electrical stored in its memory. Output information is sent to field devices, for example
circuit when it comes conveyor belts, motors, speed controllers and fluid tanks, to achieve the
within a certain
predetermined distance result required in the manufacturing process.
of an object
PLCs are designed for a wide range of requirements and include small,
medium and large controllers. A PLC has three main components: a basic

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 273

 unit, an expansion unit and a programmer. Together, they provide a wide
range of features to suit almost any application.
While PLCs are also known as programmable controllers (PCs), the term
PLC is preferred to avoid confusion with personal computers.

8.1.2 Advantages of using PLCs

Table 8.1 lists some of the advantages and disadvantages of PLCs.
Table 8.1: Advantages and disadvantages of PLCs

Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be controlled remotely. • Initial hard wiring of peripheral devices to the PLC can
• Changes to the program can be made easily even be expensive and time consuming.
while production is in progress. • Initial and on-going training to use the unit is costly.
• Designed to withstand vibrations, extreme • Initial cost of installation is high.
temperatures, humidity and noise.
• Requires constant upgrades to keep up with modern
• Fast response time. manufacturing methods.
• Has interfacing for inputs and outputs inside the
controller.
• Maintenance is easy.
• Physical size is small.
• Production process is always visible on a monitor.
• Programming is relatively easy.
• Troubleshooting and fault finding is simple.
• Flexible and can be used for almost any application.
• Efficient and reliable.
8.1.3 Terminology used with PLCs
Table 8.2 provides brief descriptions of the terms used with PLCs.
Table 8.2: Terms used with PLCs

Term Description
Hard wiring Physical connections made with wires between components in a circuit.
Soft wiring Programming connections in software, which replace physical wires.
Relay logic A control system that uses relays to perform logic operations.
Ladder diagram A schematic representation of a control process that resembles a ladder and is used in PLCs.
Central processing The main processing unit in a PLC that executes control instructions.
unit (CPU)
Watchdog timer A safety mechanism that resets the system if it fails to operate within a set time.
Scan The process where the PLC reads inputs, executes logic and updates outputs.
Scan speed and time The speed and time it takes for a PLC to complete one full scan cycle.
CMOS RAM Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor random-access memory. Memory in a PLC
that stores programs and retains data with minimal power.
EPROM Electrically programmable read-only memory used to store programs that can be rewritten.
Power supplies Components that provide the necessary electrical power to a PLC system.
Noise Unwanted electrical interference that can disrupt signal transmission in a PLC.

274 Module 8 TVET FIRST

Bit The smallest unit of data, which represents a binary value of 0 or 1.
Counter A PLC function that counts events or operations.
Element A fundamental component of a control system, such as a contact or coil.
End The instruction or marker indicating the conclusion of a program in a PLC.
Compare A function that checks the relationship between values.
Diagnostic Tools or functions used to detect and troubleshoot issues in a PLC system.
Edit The process of modifying a PLC program.
Halt An instruction that stops the execution of a PLC program.
Force A command that overrides normal operations to set an input or output to a specific state.
Latch coil A coil that remains in its last state until explicitly reset.
Jump coil A control element that skips over parts of a program.
Ladder A ladder diagram used when programming PLCs.
Logic element The basic building blocks of logic functions in a PLC, such as AND, OR and NOT.
Run The mode in which a PLC executes its programmed instructions.
Rung A single horizontal line in a ladder diagram representing a circuit path.
Timer A function that delays actions or measures time intervals in a PLC.
Search The function used to locate specific elements or instructions in a PLC program.
Scan speed The rate at which the PLC completes its scanning process.
Message Communication sent from a PLC to another device or system.
Expansion controllers Additional units added to a PLC to increase its I/O (input/output) capabilities.
Basic controller The fundamental unit of a PLC, which contains the CPU and essential functions.
Overhead time The time required by a PLC to perform tasks other than executing the control program,
such as communication and diagnostics.

8.1.4 Features of a PLC

A PLC has several basic features:
• It has an LCD display.

Module 8
• Components include timers, counters, master control, jump, one-shot,
step sequence, flip-flops and more.
• The program allows users to input, run and monitor programs.
• Programs can be stored in RAM with battery back-up or on PROM
(programmable read-only memory) local or remote modules.
• It supports from eight to over 512 I/O units.
• It provides full integration with PC compatibility.
PROM come in two versions: EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory) and UV-erasable PROM. EEPROM is flexible and allows
easy erasure and rewriting in the controller. It is ideal for situations where
frequent program modifications are needed during development.
Explanations of key features of a PLC:
• Modular design: PLCs have a modular design that allows users to add or

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 275

 remove components, such as I/O modules, processors and communication
interfaces, based on specific needs.
• I/O capabilities: PLCs can handle various input and output signals, both
digital and analogue, which allow them to interface with sensors, actuators
and other devices.
• Programming flexibility: PLCs can be programmed using different
languages, such as ladder logic, structured text, function block diagrams
and sequential function charts, offering flexibility when designing control
systems.
• Real-time operation: PLCs operate in real-time, meaning they can
respond to inputs and change outputs almost instantaneously. This makes
them suitable for time-critical applications.
• High reliability and durability: Designed to operate in industrial
environments, PLCs are robust, reliable and capable of withstanding harsh
conditions such as temperature extremes, humidity and electrical noise.
• Expandable memory: PLCs have expandable memory options to store
more complex programs and large amounts of data.
• Communication capabilities: Modern PLCs support various
communication protocols, for example the Ethernet, Modbus and Profibus,
which enables them to connect with other PLCs, computers and control
systems.
• Scalability: PLCs can be scaled to fit small, medium or large applications
from simple processes to complex automated systems.
• Diagnostics and troubleshooting tools: PLCs offer built-in diagnostics
to monitor system health, detect faults and aid in troubleshooting, which
helps reduce downtime.
• Security features: PLCs include security measures such as password
protection, encryption, and user authentication to prevent unauthorised
access to the control system.
• High-speed processing: PLCs are capable of high-speed processing, which
is crucial for applications requiring quick responses, such as motion control
or high-speed sorting.
• Energy efficiency: PLCs are designed to operate with low power
consumption, making them energy efficient.
• Integration with HMI: PLCs can be integrated with HMI (human-
machine interface) devices, allowing operators to monitor and control
processes in real-time.
• Redundancy options: For critical applications, PLCs can be configured
with redundant processors and power supplies to ensure continuous
operation even in case of a failure.

276 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 8.1.5 B
 lock diagram of a PLC and the function of
each block

PLC
expansion
RAM battery
socket

input
hand-held μ module
PROM field
programmer processor
module output devices
unit
module

power supply unit

Figure 8.2: Block diagram of a PLC

The block diagram in Figure 8.2 represents the structure of a PLC:

• Expansion socket: Allows for additional modules or memory to be
added to the PLC, enhancing its capabilities or storage capacity.
• RAM: Used for storing the PLC’s operating data and temporary variables
during operation. This memory is volatile, meaning it is erased when the
power is turned off.
• Battery: Provides back-up power to maintain the contents of RAM when
the main power supply is off, ensuring that crucial data is not lost.
• PROM module: Stores the user program permanently. Unlike RAM, data
in PROM is retained even when the power is off.
• Hand-held programmer unit: An external device used for entering and

Module 8
modifying the PLC’s program. It allows the user to interact with and
configure the PLC.
• Microprocessor (µ processor): The brain of the PLC, it processes the
input data based on the stored program and controls the output modules
accordingly.
• Power supply unit: Supplies the necessary power to all the PLC
components, converting AC to the required DC voltage.
• Input module: Interfaces with external field devices such as sensors,
converting their signals into a form that the microprocessor can
process.
• Output module: Interfaces with external actuators or output devices
such as motors or lamps, executing the actions determined by the
microprocessor.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 277

 • Field devices: The external components, for example sensors, switches and
actuators, that interact with the real world. The input and output modules
communicate with these devices to perform the required operations.

8.1.6 H
 ard wiring and relay logic versus soft
wiring and ladder logic
a) Hard wiring and relay logic
Before PLCs were invented, many automated tasks were performed using
relays, contactors and other electromechanical devices. Circuit diagrams had
to be designed and drawn, electrical components specified and installed,
and wiring diagrams created. Electricians would then wire the necessary
components together to perform a specific task. Thousands of relays
would be necessary to automate a simple factory process. This method of
connecting various components together to achieve a particular result is relay logic: the original
called relay logic. method of automating
manufacturing
When you wire relays and contactors individually to address common control tasks where relays,
contactors and other
issues, it is called hard wiring. This traditional control method, where each electromechanical
solid-state component in the system is connected (wired) individually and devices were wired
together to perform a
which uses relay and contactor controls, is known as a hard-wired control specific task
system. In this system, the wiring itself acts as the program. hard wiring: the use
of wiring to connect
When you examine a wiring diagram of these relay and contactor controls, relays and contactors
along with their associated conductors, you are studying a relay logic in a hard-wired control
system
diagram (see Figure 8.3). hard-wired control
system: the traditional
power negative control method
supply rail relay coil supply rail
where each solid-
push button switch de-energised state component in
normally open (NO) the system is wired
CR1
individually and the
wiring itself acts as the
push button switch program
normally closed (NC) L1 relay logic diagram:
a wiring diagram of
normally open a hard-wired control
contacts (NO) lamp off system

L2

normally closed
contacts (NC) lamp on
L3

rungs

Figure 8.3: Relay logic diagram

278 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 b) Soft wiring and ladder logic

soft wiring: the

Soft wiring is the development of a program to replicate the functions of
development of a a hard-wired control system. Ladder logic is a graphical programming
program to replicate
the functions of a hard-
language used in modern PLCs. Ladder logic programming closely
wired control system resembles the diagrams used in relay logic. The only difference is that instead
ladder logic: a of using hard-wired control, software programs are now used.
graphical programming
language used in Once the program has been developed, debugged and printed, the result is a
modern PLCs
completed and functional ladder logic. However, since input terminals and
output devices must still be physically connected to the PLC and other field
devices, hard wiring remains necessary although to a lesser extent.

8.1.7 Basic components of a PLC

Table 8.3 lists the components that make up the internal structure or
architecture of a typical PLC unit.
Table 8.3: Components of a PLC

Component Description
Power supply Provides the DC power to operate the PLC. It is usually 24 V.
CPU (central processing unit) Stores and runs the PLC software programs. It also interfaces with the
coprocessor modules, the I/O modules and the peripheral devices, and runs
diagnostics. It is the ‘brain’ of the PLC.
Coprocessor module A programmable unit that is connected to the main CPU and is used to expand
the capability and functionality of a PLC.
I/O modules Inputs from various transducers, for example proximity sensors, are fed into
the input modules. The program output from the PLC is then sent to the related
field devices, for example conveyor belts, motors and hydraulic presses.
RAM This is the most common type of memory used for storing data. RAM is a fast,
low-power device where data can be easily read and written to. It is regarded as
(Sometimes referred to as CMOS volatile because all data is lost when power to the CPU is lost. Battery back-up is
RAM) normally used to avoid this problem.

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EPROM Also a fast, low-power device. Data is not lost when power is lost so it is non-
volatile memory.
EEPROM Also non-volatile memory but can be electrically programmed and electrically
erased. It is also a fast, low-power device.
Electrical noise reduction Transients, electromagnetic interference, inductive kickback and AC line spikes
circuitry are present in any industrial environment. For a PLC unit to function properly,
it must not be affected by electrical noise. Optical isolation is used at the I/O
modules to protect the CPU from unwanted interference.
Watchdog timer Ensures that any internal fault conditions (software and hardware) do not cause
the CPU to enter an endless loop. The timer is in the CPU itself and ensures
reliable operation of the PLC.

Sundry components Include input and output sockets, alarm devices, expansion sockets, LED
diagnostic indicators, power supply sockets, cables and racks for additional
modules.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 279

 8.1.8 Computer memories in use today
Table 8.4 summarises the main types of computer memory used today.
Table 8.4: Main types of computer memory

Type of computer Function Types

memory
RAM A type of volatile memory that temporarily
stores data that the CPU needs while
• DRAM (dynamic RAM): The most common
type of RAM used in the main memory of
performing tasks. It allows for quick read computers. It requires constant refreshing
and write access to a storage medium that to maintain the data.
the CPU can use to run active processes and
programs. • SRAM (static RAM): Faster and more
reliable than DRAM, but more expensive.
Used in cache memory in CPUs.
ROM Non-volatile memory that stores essential
instructions for booting up the computer and
• PROM: Can be programmed once after
manufacture.
performing basic I/O tasks. The data stored
in ROM cannot be modified or can only be • EPROM: Can be erased and reprogrammed
using UV light.
modified with difficulty.
• EEPROM: Can be erased and
reprogrammed electrically, allowing for
updates to firmware.
Cache memory A small-sized type of volatile memory
located close to the CPU. It stores frequently
• L1 cache: Smallest and fastest, and
integrated in the CPU.
accessed data and instructions to speed up
processing by reducing the time to access • L2 cache: Larger than L1. Can be located in
the CPU or on a separate chip.
data from the main RAM.
• L3 cache: Even larger and shared among
multiple CPU cores.
Virtual memory A technique that allows the use of disk
storage to extend the available RAM. When
physical RAM is insufficient, the operating
system moves data to and from the hard
drive or SSD, creating an illusion of a larger
memory space. It allows computers to handle
larger applications and multitasking more
effectively but is slower than physical RAM.
Flash memory Non-volatile memory used in storage devices
such as USB drives, SSDs (solid-state drives)
• NAND flash: Used in SSDs and USB drives,
and is optimised for large data storage.
and memory cards. It retains data without
power so it is ideal for portable storage and • NOR flash: Used in simpler systems such as
firmware storage, allowing faster reads.
embedded systems.
SSD storage A type of storage device that uses NAND-
based flash memory to store data
• SATA SSD: Connects using the SATA (serial
advanced technology attachment) interface,
persistently. Unlike traditional hard drives, offering moderate speed improvements
SSDs have no moving parts, offering faster over traditional HDDs.
access speeds and higher reliability.
• NVMe (non-volatile memory express)
SSD: Connects using a high-speed interface
called PCIe (peripheral component
interconnect express), offering significantly
faster data transfer rates.
Optane memory A type of non-volatile memory developed
by Intel that bridges the gap between RAM
and storage, providing faster data access
and improved system responsiveness. Often
used to accelerate traditional hard drives by
caching frequently accessed data.

280 Module 8 TVET FIRST

Type of computer Function Types
memory
VRAM (video
RAM)
A special type of RAM used by GPUs (graphics
processing units) to store image data that
• GDDR (graphics double data rate):
Commonly used in gaming and professional
the computer displays. VRAM is optimised graphics cards.
for fast read and write operations to support
high-resolution, high-performance video • HBM (high bandwidth memory): Offers
higher speeds and bandwidth, and is used
rendering. in high-end GPUs.

8.1.9 Causes of transients in electronic circuits

Transients in electronic circuits are sudden, short-lived changes in voltage
or current, which can cause disruptions or damage to the components. They
can occur for various reasons, which we discuss below.

a) Switching operations
• Cause: When an electronic device is turned on or off, or when switching
occurs between different parts of a circuit, the abrupt changes in current
flow can induce transients. This is especially common in inductive loads,
such as motors or transformers, where the collapsing magnetic field
generates a voltage spike when the current is suddenly interrupted.
• Example: Turning off a relay can cause a high-voltage spike due to the
inductance of the coil.

b) Lightning strikes
• Cause: A lightning strike near power lines or electronic systems can
induce a large surge of energy, creating a transient in the circuit. The high
voltage and current from the strike can travel through the power lines or
ground, affecting connected electronic devices.
• Example: A nearby lightning strike can induce a surge in the power supply,

Module 8
leading to a transient that damages sensitive electronic equipment.

c) Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

• Cause: Electromagnetic interference from nearby electronic devices,
radio transmitters or power lines can induce transients in a circuit.
These can be coupled into the circuit via conductive paths or radiated
electromagnetic fields.
• Example: A nearby high-power transmitter can induce transient voltages
in a poorly shielded circuit.

d) Load changes
• Cause: Sudden changes in the load on a power supply or circuit can
cause transients. For example, if a large inductive load is suddenly
connected or disconnected, the sudden change in current can cause a
transient voltage spike.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 281

 • Example: A large motor starting up or shutting down can cause a dip or
spike in the power line, leading to a transient.

e) Fault conditions
• Cause: Electrical faults, such as short circuits, ground faults or arcing,
can create transients. The sudden change in current flow due to a fault
can generate spikes or dips in voltage.
• Example: A short circuit in a power line can cause a large current spike,
leading to a transient in the circuit.

f) Capacitor charging and discharging

• Cause: When capacitors are charged or discharged rapidly, the sudden
change in voltage can create transients. This is especially common when
large capacitors are involved as they can store and release significant
amounts of energy quickly.
• Example: A capacitor in a power supply circuit discharging suddenly can
cause a transient voltage spike.

g) Inductive kickback
• Cause: When current through an inductor is suddenly interrupted, the
collapsing magnetic field can induce a high voltage, known as inductive
kickback, across the inductor. This voltage spike is a common cause of
transients.
• Example: When a relay coil is de-energised, the inductive kickback can
generate a high-voltage transient that may damage other components.

h) Power supply instabilities

• Cause: Fluctuations or interruptions in the power supply can cause
transients in connected electronic circuits. These instabilities can result
from power surges, brownouts or interruptions in the power grid.
• Example: A power surge caused by a grid switching operation can
introduce a transient into the power supply of an electronic device.

i) Electrostatic discharge (ESD)

• Cause: Electrostatic discharge occurs when a charged object comes into
contact with a grounded or less charged object, causing a rapid transfer of
charge. This sudden discharge can create transients in sensitive electronic
circuits.
• Example: Touching a circuit board with a static-charged hand can induce
a transient that damages delicate components.
These transients can lead to a range of issues, from minor disturbances to
catastrophic failures in electronic circuits so designers often implement

282 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 protective measures such as surge suppressors, transient voltage suppressors
(TVSs) and proper grounding to mitigate their effect.

8.1.10 E
 lements in transient circuits that undergo
changes because of disturbances
In a transient circuit, elements that can undergo changes due to disturbances
include:
• Capacitors: They store and release electrical energy. Changes in voltage
or current can alter the charge and discharge behaviour, leading to
transient responses.
• Inductors: They store energy in a magnetic field. Changes in current can
affect the magnetic field, leading to voltage changes across the inductor
and transient responses.
• Resistors: Although resistors are considered to have stable resistance,
their performance can be affected by temperature changes or other
disturbances, impacting the circuit’s transient behaviour.
• Sources (voltage/current): Any disturbances or variations in the source
voltage or current can induce transients throughout the circuit.
• Switches and relays: When these elements change states (open or close),
they can create or interrupt current flow, leading to transient effects.
• Semiconductors (diodes, transistors): These components can
experience changes in behaviour due to voltage or current changes,
leading to transients

Activity 8.1
1. Explain each of the following concepts using your own words and then briefly outline how

Module 8
they are similar or different:
• Hard wiring and relay logic.
• Soft wiring and ladder logic. (10)
2. Give a detailed explanation of the term ‘programmable logic control’.  (3)
3. Describe what a PLC consist of by means of a detailed description. (4)
4. Draw a fully labelled block diagram of a PLC and give the function of each block. (15)
5. List and explain three advantages and three disadvantages of using a PLC in industrial
automation.(6)
6. List and explain four types of computer memory that are in use in industries. (8)
7. List and give detailed descriptions of the components that make up a PLC. (18)
8. List and explain five causes of transients in electronic circuits. (10)
9. Name the elements in a transient circuit that can undergo changes as a result of
disturbance.  (6)
TOTAL: [80]

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 283

 Unit 8.2: Fail-safe design

8.2.1 Defining a fail-safe design

A fail-safe design is an engineering approach where a system is designed to fail-safe design: an
remain safe or to minimise harm even when it fails or encounters an error. engineering approach
where a system is
The primary objective is to ensure that, in the event of a malfunction, the designed to remain safe
system either shuts down in a controlled manner or transitions to a state that or to minimise harm
even when it fails or
prevents damage, injury or further failure. encounters an error

Key characteristics of a fail-safe design include:

• Automatic transition to a safe state: If the system detects a fault, it
automatically switches to a mode that is least likely to cause harm. For
example, in an electrical circuit, a fuse will blow to prevent further
damage when a short circuit occurs.
• Redundancy: Critical components may have back-ups or redundant
systems in place. If one component fails, the back-up takes over to
maintain safe operation.
• Predictable failures: The design anticipates how components might fail
and ensures that these failures do not lead to catastrophic outcomes. For
instance, in a fail-safe braking system, brakes are applied if the system
loses power or hydraulic pressure.
• Minimised risk: The design prioritises minimising the risk to people, the
environment and property. In railway signalling systems, for instance, a
fail-safe design ensures that signals default to a stop position if there is
any fault in the system.

8.2.2 Essential features of a fail-safe PLC

A fail-safe PLC is designed to ensure that industrial processes remain safe
even in the event of a fault or failure. The essential features of a fail-safe
PLC are:
• Redundant systems: Fail-safe PLCs often include redundant CPUs,
power supplies and communication channels to ensure continuous
operation even if one component fails.
• Safety-certified hardware and software: Fail-safe PLCs use hardware
and software that meet safety standards (such as IEC 61508 or ISO 13849)
to ensure reliability in critical applications.
• Automatic fault detection and diagnosis: Fail-safe PLCs have built-in
mechanisms to detect, diagnose and respond to faults automatically. This
may include continuous self-checks, monitoring of inputs and outputs,
and detection of communication errors.

284 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 • Fail-safe I/O modules: Inputs and outputs are designed to default to a
safe state in case of a failure, such as turning off or disabling an actuator,
or maintaining a valve in a closed position.
• Safe state configuration: The PLC can be programmed to move to a
predefined safe state in case of a critical error, ensuring that the process
does not pose a risk to people, equipment or the environment.
• Safe communication protocols: Fail-safe PLCs use specialised
communication protocols designed for safety, such as PROFINET
with PROFIsafe, to ensure that data integrity is maintained and that
commands are reliably transmitted and received.
• Integrated safety functions: Many fail-safe PLCs come with integrated
safety functions such as emergency stop (E-stop) monitoring, safety
interlocks and two-hand control monitoring, which help to manage
safety-critical operations.
• User-friendly safety configuration tools: These PLCs often provide tools
for easily configuring and programming safety functions, including safety
logic blocks, safety matrices and diagnostic tools that simplify the design
and validation of safety applications.
• High availability and reliability: Fail-safe PLCs are designed to be highly
reliable with features such as hot-swappable components and minimal
downtime, ensuring continuous and safe operation of critical processes.
• Compliance with safety standards: They comply with international
safety standards and guidelines, ensuring that they meet the required
safety integrity levels (SIL) for different industrial applications.

8.2.3 Fail-safe design circuits

Engineers can construct logic circuits using electromechanical relays or

Module 8
solid-state gates in various ways to achieve the same functions. While there
is no single ‘correct’ approach to designing a complex logic circuit, some
methods are generally more effective than others.
In control systems, prioritising safety is crucial. When multiple design
options are available for a digital control circuit, the design that offers greater
safety advantages is the better choice. We will explain this using Example 8.1.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 285

 Example 8.1
Fail-safe design in a fire alarm system
Aim: When implementing a fire alarm system using relay logic, the goal is to have the alarm siren
activate if any one of several latching switches throughout the facility is triggered.
Non-fail-safe design
You may think that the relay logic is as L1 L2
simple as using normally-open switch
switch 1 siren
contacts and wiring them all in parallel as
shown in Figure 8.4. This way, when any
one switch is actuated, it would complete switch 2
the circuit, energising the alarm siren.
switch 3
In this scenario, the fire alarm system
is designed to implement the OR logic
switch 4
function using four switch inputs. The
logic is simple: any of the four latching
switches can activate the alarm siren if Figure 8.4: OR logic function implemented with four switch inputs
actuated. While the circuit could be
expanded to include more switches, we will keep it simple by focusing on these four.
This set-up seems straightforward with minimal potential for issues. However, in electrical
circuits, failures such as open switch contacts, broken wires, open relay coils or blown fuses are
more likely to occur than other types of failures. Because of this, we need to design the circuit to
be as resilient as possible to such failures.
Consider a situation where the wire L1 L2
connection for Switch 2 fails to open as switch 1 siren
shown in Figure 8.5. If the wire connection
for Switch 2 were to fail, that switch would switch 2
no longer be able to trigger the siren
when activated. This is a problem in a fire open wire connection
switch 3
alarm system because, unless the system
is regularly tested, the fault could go
switch 4
unnoticed until someone attempts to use
the switch in an emergency.
Figure 8.5: OR logic function with open wire connection
Fail-safe design
To avoid this, the system can be re-engineered so that any open failure triggers the alarm. This
approach ensures that a wiring fault causes a false alarm, which is better than a switch silently
failing and being unresponsive during an emergency.
The switches should be rewired so that an open contact triggers the alarm instead of a closed one.
This requires configuring the switches as normally closed and wiring them in series. This series circuit
would then power a relay coil, which controls a normally-closed contact that activates the siren.

286 Module 8 TVET FIRST

In this configuration, if any switch or connection fails open, the relay coil would lose power, causing
the normally-closed contact to close and sound the alarm. This set-up ensures that the system is
fail-safe as any failure would be immediately noticeable through the activation of the alarm.
L1 L2

CR1
switch 1 switch 3

switch 2 switch 4
CR1 siren

Figure 8.6: Re-engineered fire alarm system using the AND logic function

In the re-engineered fire alarm system in Figure 8.6:

• The normal operating state has all switches unactuated, which keeps relay CR1 energised.
When CR1 is energised, its contact (CR1) remains open, preventing the siren from being
powered.
• However, if any switch is actuated, it causes relay CR1 to de-energise. This de-energisation
closes the CR1 contact, which then powers the siren and sounds the alarm.
• In addition, if there is a break in the wiring anywhere in the top rung of the circuit, the relay
will also de-energise, leading to the alarm sounding. This feature means that any wiring fault
will immediately trigger the alarm, alerting workers to the issue.
When workers realise that the alarm is false, they will know that something in the alarm system
has failed and needs repair. Although this circuit is more complex due to the addition of the
control relay and there is still a possibility of a silent failure if a connection in the bottom rung
breaks, the design is safer overall. It prioritises safety by making the system more responsive to

Module 8
failures, which makes it a better choice than the original, simpler circuit.

8.2.4 Problem solving

In the context of fail-safe design, problem solving refers to the process of
identifying, analysing and addressing potential issues or failures in a system
to ensure that it remains safe and operational under all conditions, including
when faults occur.

8.2.5 Problem-solving process in industry

Key aspects of problem solving in fail-safe design include:
• Identification of potential failures: Engineers proactively identify possible
failure modes in the system. This involves considering how components
may fail, such as through electrical faults, mechanical wear or software
errors.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 287

 • Analysis of failure impact: Once potential failures are identified, the
next step is to analyse their impact on the system. This involves assessing
the severity of the failure, how it might propagate through the system and
what the consequences might be for safety and functionality.
• Design of mitigation strategies: To address the identified failures,
engineers develop strategies to mitigate their impact. In a fail-safe design,
this often involves creating redundancies, implementing automatic
shutdown mechanisms or designing the system to default to a safe state in
the event of a failure.
• Testing and validation: Engineers test the system under various
conditions, including simulated failures, to ensure that the fail-safe
mechanisms work as intended. This step is crucial for validating that the
problem-solving strategies effectively maintain safety.
• Continuous improvement: Problem solving in fail-safe design is an
ongoing process. As systems evolve, new potential failures may emerge,
requiring continual reassessment and refinement of fail-safe mechanisms.
Problem solving in fail-safe design is about anticipating what could go
wrong, determining how to minimise the risks associated with those failures,
and implementing solutions that ensure the system remains safe even when
something does go wrong.

Activity 8.2
1. Define a fail-safe design. What is its primary objective in engineering? (2)
2. Explain the importance of automatic transition to a safe state in a fail-safe design. (2)
3. Describe the role of redundancy in fail-safe designs and give an example of how it is
implemented.(3)
4. What is meant by predictable failures in fail-safe design? How does it contribute to
system safety? (2)
5. Discuss the significance of minimised risk in fail-safe design with an example from a
specific industry. (3)
6. List and describe three essential features of a fail-safe programmable logic controller
(PLC).(6)
7. Explain how fail-safe I/O modules function in a fail-safe PLC. What is their role during
a failure? (4)
8. Compare the safety of an OR logic circuit versus an AND logic circuit with the aid of
ladder diagram. (8)
9. List and explain five key features of a fail-safe PLC. (10)
10. Outline the problem-solving process as it is typically done in the industry, particularly
in the context of fail-safe design. (10)
TOTAL: [50]

288 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 Unit 8.3: Programming the PLC

8.3.1 I ndustries using PLCs and the function of the

PLC in each case
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are widely used in various industries
to automate and control complex processes. Table 8.5 shows some examples
of industries where PLCs are commonly used with their specific functions.
Table 8.5: Industries where PLCs are commonly used

Industry Function
Manufacturing PLCs control automated production lines, machinery and equipment. They manage
processes such as assembly, material handling, robotic operations and packaging. PLCs
ensure precise control and synchronisation of the entire production process, improving
efficiency and reducing the likelihood of human error.
Automotive PLCs are used to control the assembly of vehicles, including welding and painting, and
installing components such as engines and transmissions. They ensure that each stage of
the assembly line operates smoothly and in sync, maintaining high production speeds and
consistent quality.
Food and beverages PLCs control processes such as mixing, baking, bottling and packaging. They regulate
temperature, pressure and timing to ensure products are processed under the correct
conditions. PLCs also help to maintain hygiene standards by controlling clean-in-place (CIP)
systems and other sanitation processes.
Oil and gas PLCs manage drilling rigs, refineries and pipeline operations. They control the flow of oil
and gas, monitor pressure levels and ensure the safe operation of valves and pumps. PLCs
are crucial for maintaining safety in hazardous environments where precise control and
monitoring are essential.
Water treatment PLCs control the filtration, purification and distribution processes. They monitor water
quality parameters such as pH, turbidity and chemical levels, and adjust the treatment
processes accordingly to ensure safe and clean water supply.
Pharmaceutical PLCs control the production of medicines, including mixing, granulation, tablet pressing and
packaging. They ensure that processes adhere to strict regulatory standards for accuracy,
cleanliness and consistency, which are critical in producing safe and effective medications

Module 8
Chemical PLCs manage the control of chemical reactions, and mixing, heating and cooling processes.
They maintain precise control over reaction times, temperatures and pressures, ensuring
consistent product quality and safe operation of reactors and other equipment.
Mining PLCs control machinery such as conveyors, crushers and mills used in the extraction
and processing of minerals. They optimise the efficiency of material handling processes,
monitor equipment status and ensure safe operations in challenging environments.
Textiles PLCs control machinery involved in spinning, weaving, dyeing and finishing fabrics. They
manage the speed and tension of looms, regulate dyeing processes and synchronise
different stages of production to ensure consistent fabric quality.
Power generation PLCs are used to control and monitor turbines, generators and other critical systems.
They regulate the flow of fuel, manage the synchronisation of generators with the grid and
ensure the safe operation of power generation equipment, helping to maintain a stable
and reliable electricity supply.

8.3.2 Ladder logic symbols

Ladder logic diagrams are constructed by combining different graphical
elements called symbols. One of the characteristics of ladder logic symbols is
that they resemble electrical symbols. Ladder logic was originally created for

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 289

 technicians, electricians and people with an electrical background who are
familiar with electrical diagrams and schematics. The ladder logic symbols that
are used in ladder logic programming have been derived from traditional relay
logic control circuits. Table 8.6 lists most of the commonly used symbols.
Table 8.6: Symbols used in ladder logic programming

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

Normally open Normally closed Auxiliary relay
contact (NO) contact (NC) AR
End statement Set Lamp
END S L
L1, L2, L3
Reset Output coil Connection
R ;
One-shot contact Timer Internal relay (no
T R0 input)

Control relay Counter Internal relay

CR C R0 (output)
(relay coil)

8.3.3 Ladder diagrams

a) OR, NAND and NOR logic gates using three input
contacts
Ladder logic was among the first programming methods introduced for
PLCs and has since become the primary programming method. Ladder logic
is a graphical language that uses electrical logic symbols. The term ‘ladder
logic’ or ‘ladder diagram’ comes from the fact that programs written in this
language look like ladders, with two vertical ‘rails’ and several ‘rungs’
connecting them.
The ladder diagram in Figure 8.7 network 1 X0 X1
follows these rules: 1
• The vertical lines represent
power Y0
the power rails or energised rail power
input output rail
conductors. network 2
• Ladder logic diagrams are read X2 X3
Y1
from left to right and top to 2
bottom. rung
links
• Links are used to connect
X4
symbols in a network.
• Rungs are sometimes called END
networks.
Figure 8.7: Ladder diagram

290 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 • A network may contain several control elements but only one output coil.
• Each rung is numbered sequentially starting at 1. The numbers are in
decimal form and cannot be skipped. There is no limit to the number of
rungs.
• The end of a ladder diagram is indicated by the symbol END.

b) Traffic light control using green, amber and red lights

Start Button IN Green

I0.0 Q Q0.0
Rung 0 TM0
Type: TP
TB: 1 s
Preset: 20
Start Button IN Yellow
IN Q0.1
I0.0 TM1 Q TM2 Q
Rung 1
Type: TON Type: TP
TB: 1 s TB: 1 s
Preset: 20 Preset: 5
Start Button Red
IN IN Q0.2
I0.0 TM3 Q TM4 Q
Rung 2
Type: TON Type: TP
TB: 1 s TB: 1 s
Preset: 25 Preset: 15

Figure 8.8: Ladder diagram for traffic control

Figure 8.8 illustrates a ladder diagram for traffic control:

• In Rung 0:
◦ The normally open contact for the Start Button (I0.0) is used to

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activate the Green output (Q0.0).
◦ A TP Timer is applied to keep the Green output (Q0.0) on for a
limited duration.
• In Rung 1:
◦ The normally open contact for the Start Button (I0.0) is used to
activate the Yellow output (Q0.1).
◦ A TON Timer is used to delay the activation of the Yellow output
(Q0.1) for a certain period.
◦ A TP Timer is applied to keep the Yellow output (Q0.1) on for a
limited duration.
• In Rung 2:
◦ The normally open contact for the Start Button (I0.0) is used to
activate the Red output (Q0.2).

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 291

 ◦ A TON Timer is used to delay the activation of the Red output (Q0.2)
for a certain period.
◦ A TP Timer is applied to keep the Red output (Q0.2) on for a limited
duration.

8.3.4 I nterpreting results of simple ladder logic

diagrams using truth tables
To determine what occurs in a ladder diagram, you can create a truth table
that lists all the possible combinations that would cause the output to be
either true (ON) or false (OFF). These truth tables are similar to those you
used when learning about digital logic gates.

a) AND
A B
C

END

Figure 8.9: AND gate ladder diagram

Table 8.7: AND gate truth table

Input A Input B Output C

OFF OFF OFF
OFF ON OFF
ON OFF OFF
ON ON ON

In the ladder diagram in Figure 8.9, the coil will be energised when both
inputs A and B are closed (ON). This table is identical to the truth table
for an AND gate. Therefore, this ladder diagram effectively represents the
function of an AND gate.

b) OR
A
C

END

Figure 8.10: OR gate ladder diagram

292 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 Table 8.8: OR gate Truth table

Input A Input B Output C

OFF OFF OFF
OFF ON ON
ON OFF ON
ON ON ON

In the ladder diagram in Figure 8.10, the coil will be energised when either
input A or input B is closed (ON). This corresponds exactly to the truth table
for an OR gate. Therefore, this ladder diagram represents the function of an
OR gate.

c) NAND
A
C

END

Figure 8.11: NAND gate ladder diagram

Table 8.9: NAND gate Truth table

Input A Input B Output C

OFF OFF ON
OFF ON OFF
ON OFF OFF
ON ON ON

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In the ladder diagram in Figure 8.11, the coil will be energised if either contact
is OFF. It will only deactivate if both contacts are actuated simultaneously.
Therefore, this ladder diagram represents the function of a NAND gate.

d) NOR
In a ladder diagram for a NOR gate, the logic works as follows:
• Inputs (A and B): Two switches are placed in series.
• Output (C): The output is only energized if both inputs are OFF (open
switches).
If either switch (A or B) closes, the circuit path breaks, and the output (Y)
remains OFF. This setup matches NOR gate logic, where the output is only
ON when both inputs are OFF.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 293

 A B
C

END

Figure 8.12: NOR gate ladder diagram

Table 8.10: NOR gate Truth table

Input A Input B Output C

OFF OFF ON
OFF ON OFF
ON OFF OFF
ON ON ON

8.3.5 I nterpretation of simple ladder logic diagrams

Table 8.11: Logic functions

Logic function Ladder diagram Truth table

AND gate
X1 X2 Y1
X1 X2 Y1 0 0 0
CR 0 1 0
closing X1 AND 1 0 0
X2 will energise 1 1 1
the relay coil Y1

Figure 8.13: AND gate

OR gate
X1 X2 Y1
X1 Y1 0 0 0
CR 0 1 1
closing X1 OR 1 0 1
X2
X2 will energise 1 1 1
the relay coil Y1

Figure 8.14: OR gate

EX-OR gate
A B Input A Input B Output
C C
OFF OFF ON
OFF ON OFF
A B
ON OFF OFF
ON ON ON
END

Figure 8.15: EX-OR gate

294 Module 8 TVET FIRST

NOT gate
X1 Y1
X1 Y1 0 1
CR 1 0

relay coil will only

be energised if
normally closed
contact X1 is opened

Figure 8.16: NOT gate

NAND gate
X1 X2 Y1
X1 Y1 0 0 1
CR 0 1 1

relay coil will only 1 0 1

X2
be energised if 1 1 0
either normally
closed contacts X1
or X2 are opened

Figure 8.17: NAND gate

NOR gate
X1 X2 Y1
X1 X2 Y1 0 0 1
CR 0 1 0

relay coil Y1 will 1 0 0

only be energised if 1 1 0
both normally closed
contacts are opened

Figure 8.18: NOR gate

Module 8
8.3.6 U
 sing ladder logic diagrams to design
solutions for problems
The following examples will help you better understand how ladder logic
diagrams are drawn. These are by no means the only way to construct the
diagrams and it is important to try other ways of drawing the examples
using fewer rungs where possible. The only criteria are that they are
electrically and logically correct. For the examples shown below, the letter
X is used to denote an input address and the letter Y to denote an output
address.

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 295

 Example 8.2
Designing a control system using ladder logic programming
Design a simple three-light traffic control system using ladder logic
programming. The following time sequences must be used: RED light on
for 50 seconds, GREEN light on for 60 seconds and AMBER light on for
10 seconds. Use any logic elements that you consider necessary.

Solution
• Activating X1 STARTS the process. X2 is included to STOP or switch
off the circuit.
• CR1 with address Y1 as well as timer T1 is now energised and the
GREEN light comes on for 60 seconds.
• After 60 seconds, NC contact T1 on the first rung opens, switching off
the GREEN light.
• T1 also starts timer T2 on the second rung as well as energising CR2
with address Y2 and the AMBER light comes on.
• The same process carries on with T3 switching on the RED light,
switching off the AMBER light and activating X1, which starts the
process once again.
X1 X2 T1 Y1
CR1
start stop timer GREEN light
contact
T1
timer 1
T1 T2 Y2
CR2
AMBER light
T2
timer 2
T2 T3 Y3
CR3
RED light
T3
T3 X1 timer 3

END

Figure 8.19: Ladder logic diagram of a traffic light controller

296 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 Example 8.3
Writing a PLC program using ladder logic
Write a PLC program using ladder logic that will allow a three-phase
motor to start in STAR configuration, run for 30 seconds and then switch
to DELTA. A period of 6 seconds must lapse between the change over
from STAR to DELTA to prevent a short circuit. The main contactor must
be able to isolate both the STAR and DELTA contactors if an emergency
should arise. Briefly describe each rung of the program.

Solution
• Activating X0 starts the process. X1 is the emergency stop. CR0 with
address Y0 (MAIN contactor) is energised and latched across X0.
• T0 is also energised and after a period of 30 seconds switches on the
STAR contactor CR1 with address Y1 via timer contact T0.
• TIMER T1 is also energised when the STAR contactor is energised.
After a time period of 6 seconds, the STAR contactor is de-energised
via NC contact T1 which opens.
• T1 now energises CR2 with address Y2 and the DELTA contactor
switches on.
X0 X1 Y0
CR0
start stop MAIN contactor
Y0
T0
latch ON delay timer (30 s)

Module 8
T0 T2 Y1
CR1
STAR contactor

T1
timer (6 s)
T1 Y2
CR2
DELTA contactor

END

Figure 8.20: Ladder logic diagram of a start-delta motor starter

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 297

 Example 8.4
Writing a ladder logic diagram using only SET/RESET functions
A liquid mixing tank comprises the following components:
• PUMP A pumps a certain liquid into the tank.
• PUMP B pumps another liquid into the tank.
• A MIXER attached to a motor mixes both liquids for 30 seconds.
• A LOWER-LEVEL switch (tank empty).
• A HIGHER-LEVEL switch (tank full).
• An OUTPUT VALVE that allows the mixed liquid to leave the tank
Write a ladder logic diagram using only SET/RESET functions to achieve the following:
• When the tank is empty, a START switch must energise both pumps to start pumping their
respective liquids into the tank.
• When the tank is full, the tank full or HIGHER-LEVEL switch (HLS) must be activated.
• Both pumps must now STOP pumping liquid.
• The MIXER must now be energised to mix both liquids for a period of 20 seconds and then
stop.
• Once this is complete, The OUTPUT VALVE must open to allow the mixed liquids to exit the
tank.
• When the tank is empty, the LOWER-LEVEL switch (LLS) must be activated to start the
process once again.
• An EMERGENCY STOP SWITCH must be incorporated to stop the process in case the need
arises.
Solution
• When the LOWER-LEVEL switch (tank empty) X0 is activated, SR1 flip-flop is SET (S) and Q
(output) goes HIGH, energising Pump 1 and Pump 2 (Y0 and Y1).
• Both pumps will stop pumping liquid into the tank when the HIGHER-LEVEL switch X1 is
activated.
• The RESET button of the flip-flop SR1, which is connected to X1, is now activated and output
Q goes LOW, switching off Y0 and Y1.
• Once the pumps shut down, the mixer must come on for 20 seconds.
• A timer T0 is added to the program and is activated when the HIGHER-LEVEL switch is
energised. The Set function (S) of the timer T0 is switched on by X1 causing Q, the output
function of the timer, to go high.
• Q of timer T0 is connected to Y2 the mixer and it is now energised causing both liquids to be
mixed for 20 seconds.

298 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 SR1 pump 1
X0 Y0
S Q CR
LOWER LEVEL
switch Y1
X1
R CR
HIGH LEVEL pump 2
switch
X2

STOP switch
T0 (timer)
X1 Y2
HLS
S Q CR
mixer
time set 30 seconds
Y3
R
valve

X2

STOP switch
SR2
X1 Y2 Y3
S Q CR
HLS mixer valve
X0
R
LLS

Module 8
X2

STOP switch
END
SR = SET/RESET flip-flop

Figure 8.21: Ladder logic diagram of a liquid tank mixer

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 299

 Activity 8.3
1. Identify five industries where PLCs are used and explain the specific function of the PLC
in each case.  (10)
2. Draw labelled ladder diagrams for the following logic gates and describe the function of
each rung in the diagram:
2.1 OR, NAND and NOR logic gates using three input contacts. (10)
2.2 A traffic light control system using green, amber, and red lights. (15)
3. Analyse the following simple ladder logic diagrams by interpreting their results using a
truth table: AND, OR, NAND and NOR logic gates. (16)
4. Explain in detail the operating principles of ladder logic diagrams by interpreting simple
ladder logic examples.  (18)
5. Design a simple three-light traffic control system using ladder logic programming. The
following time sequences must be used. RED light on for 50 seconds, GREEN light on for
60 seconds and AMBER light on for 10 seconds. Use any logic elements that you consider
necessary.(10)
6. Create a ladder logic diagram where pressing a push button turns on a motor, and the
motor remains on even after the button is released. To turn the motor off, a second push
button is pressed. (6)
TOTAL: [85]

Summary of Module 8

Unit
8.1 Basics of PLCs

● Programmable logic controller (PLC): A microprocessor-based computer that is used for the automation
of electromechanical processes.
● Key features of a PLC: Modular design, I/O capabilities, programming flexibility, real-time operation, high
reliability and durability, expandable memory, communication capabilities, scalability, diagnostics and
troubleshooting tools, security features, high-speed processing, energy efficiency, integration with HMI,
redundancy options.
● Block diagram of a PLC: Expansion socket, RAM, battery, PROM module, hand-held programmer unit,
microprocessor, power supply unit, input module, output module, field devices.
● Relay logic: The original method of automating manufacturing tasks where relays, contactors and other
electromechanical devices were wired together to perform a specific task.
● Hard wiring: The use of wiring to connect relays and contactors in a hard-wired control system.
● Hard-wired control system: The traditional control method where each solid-state component in the
system is wired individually and the wiring itself acts as the program.
● Relay logic diagram: A wiring diagram of a hard-wired control system.
● Soft wiring: The development of a program to replicate the functions of a hard-wired control system.
● Ladder logic: A graphical programming language used in modern PLCs.
● Basic components of a PLC: Power supply, CPU, coprocessor module, I/O modules, RAM, EPROM,
EEPROM, electrical noise reduction circuitry, watchdog timer.

300 Module 8 TVET FIRST

Unit
8.1 Basics of PLCs (continued)

● Main types of computer memory: RAM, ROM, cache memory, virtual memory, flash memory, SSD storage,
optane memory, VRAM.
● Causes of transients in electronic circuits: Switching operations, lightning strikes, electromagnetic
interference (EMI), load changes, fault conditions, capacitor charging and discharging, inductive kickback,
power supply instabilities, electrostatic discharge (ESD).
● Elements in transient circuits: Capacitors, inductors, resistors, sources (voltage/current), switches and
relays, semiconductors.

Unit
8.2 Fail-safe design

● Fail-safe design: An engineering approach where a system is designed to remain safe or to minimise
harm even when it fails or encounters an error.
● Key characteristics of a fail-safe design: Automatic transition to a safe state, redundancy, predictable
failures, minimised risk.
● Essential features of a fail-safe PLC: Redundant systems, safety-certified hardware and software,
automatic fault detection and diagnosis, fail-safe I/O modules, safe state configuration, safe
communication protocols, integrated safety functions, user-friendly safety configuration tools, high
availability and reliability, compliance with safety standards.
● Problem-solving process in industry: Identification of potential failures, analysis of failure impact, design
of mitigation strategies, testing and validation, continuous improvement.

Unit
8.3 Programming the PLC

● Industries using PLCs: Manufacturing, automotive, food and beverages, oil and gas, water treatment,
pharmaceutical, chemical, mining, power generation.
● Ladder logic diagrams: Constructed by combining different graphical elements called symbols that
resemble electrical symbols.
● Ladder logic: Primary programming method for PLCs. A graphical language that uses electrical logic symbols.
● Logic functions: See Table 8.11.

Module 8
Summative assessment for Module 8
1. Refer to Figure 8.22 and indicate whether
1 2 3
the following statements are true or false
by writing only ‘True’ or ‘False’ next to the
4
question number (1.1–1.5).
5 7 8

9
END

Figure 8.22: Ladder logic circuit

TVET FIRST Programmable logic controllers 301

 1.1 Rung 1 describes a series circuit. (1)
1.2 Rung 2 describes a parallel circuit.  (1)
1.3 The output coil in rung 1 is an inverted coil.  (1)
1.4 The output coil in rung 2 is a direct coil.  (1)
1.5 Figure 8.36 is a gate logic diagram.  (1)
2. Draw a neat, labelled block diagram of a PLC. (5)
3. A lamp is to be operated by two switches simultaneously. The lamp must only
switch on when both switches are on. For all other combinations of the switches,
the lamp must be off. Draw a labelled ladder diagram so that it will achieve the
desired results. (3)
4. A lamp is to be operated by two switches simultaneously. The lamp must switch
on when one or both the switches are on. For all other combinations of the
switches, the lamp must be off. Draw a labelled ladder diagram so that it will
achieve the desired results. (3)
5. Using a ladder logic diagram, design a circuit that will control the opening of a
lid for a jewellery safekeeping box for home use using two switches A and B. The
lid to the safe box must only open when switch A is in the on position and
switch B is in the off position otherwise the lid must remain closed. (4)
6. The safety of the contents of the safe box in question 5 has been compromised.
Now design a new control protocol, still using a ladder logic diagram, where the
lid of the jewellery safekeeping box will open only when both switches A and B
are in the off position. (4)
7. Define the following terms used in PLC terminology:
7.1 Edit.(2)
7.2 Rung.(2)
7.3 Message.(2)
8. Draw a labelled ladder diagram of a logic gate that meets the following criteria:
• Two inputs.
• If the two inputs are at the same logic states, the output is active.
• If the two inputs are at different logic states, the output is inactive. (7)
9. Name three necessary building blocks of a PLC. (3)
TOTAL: [40]

302 Module 8 TVET FIRST

 Module

9
Robotics

Overview of Module 9
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Unit 9.1: Robotics

• List subcategories of electronics under the hood of any robot.

• Explain the purpose of dual H-bridge motor driver L293D IC.
• List advantages of L293D IC.
• Draw L293D IC showing all the pins.
• Explain the functions of all L293D IC pins.
• Draw the truth table of an L293D IC.
• Explain the purpose of a sensor in robotics.
• Explain the purpose of motion controllers in robotics.
• Draw the block diagram of a motion control system.
• Explain all the different parts of a motion control system.
• Explain the functions of all different parts of a motion control system.

Robotics is a branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, computer science, hydraulics and pneumatics. Robotics deals with the design,
construction, operation and use of robots for the control of industrial and domestic applications.

Figure 9.1: Articulated robotic arms in an assembly line

Starter activity

Discuss the following in class:

1. What is the primary function of a sensor in a robotic system?
2. Name two types of motors commonly used in robotics.
3. What does the term ‘autonomous’ mean in the context of robotics?

TVET FIRST Robotics 303

 Unit 9.1: Robotics

9.1.1 Subcategories of electronics in a robot

A robot is a machine that can do tasks that are normally done by human
beings. Robots interact with the physical world using various sensors
(transducers), actuators, microcontrollers and computer systems. They are
programmable machines that are used to handle, assemble and process tasks
in various sectors which include:
• Industry.
• Manufacturing.
• Medicine.
• Agriculture.
• Research and development in various fields.
• Domestic applications.
Robots can also carry out actions autonomously depending on how they are autonomously:
programmed. An example of an industrial application is robotic welding in the ability to operate
or perform actions
the automotive sector. Robots are used in undersea research at depths where independently without
people cannot survive. Some domestic applications include lawn mowing, external control or direct
human intervention
vacuum cleaning and window cleaning.

Subcategories of electronics in a robot include:

• Sensors: For detecting environmental conditions. Examples of sensors
include cameras, LIDAR and proximity sensors.
• Actuators: For movement and manipulation, including motors and
servos.
• Control units: Such as microcontrollers and PLCs, which process data
and execute commands.
• Power management systems: For distributing and managing electrical
power, including batteries and voltage regulators.
• Communication interfaces: For data exchange, such as serial ports, the
Ethernet and wireless modules.
• Feedback systems: For monitoring and adjusting operations. Examples
include encoders and gyroscopes.

9.1.2 Dual H-bridge motor driver L293D IC

A motor driver, also known as a control motor, is an interface that controls motor driver: also
and manages the operation of an electric motor. Motor driver ICs are mainly known as a control
motor; an interface that
used in autonomous robotics. controls and manages
the operation of an
electric motor

304 Module 9 TVET FIRST

 All movements of robotic end effectors, for example the movement of arms,
wrists and elbows, require motors to operate. Microcontrollers that control
the actions of the robot operate at low voltages and require a small amount
of current to operate while the motors require relatively higher voltages
and current to operate. The microcontroller cannot supply enough current
directly to the motors. This makes it necessary to have an interface between
the microcontroller and motor to supply the higher voltage and current to
operate these motors. The L293D motor driver IC is ideally suited for this
purpose.
The L293D is a dual-channel H-bridge motor driver that can drive a
pair of DC motors or a single stepper motor. This means it can drive
two DC motors individually which makes it ideal for building a two-
wheeled robotic platform. The direction of rotation of a DC motor can
be controlled by changing the polarity of its input voltage. A common
technique for doing this is to use an H-bridge, which is modelled as four
H-bridge: an electronic switches on the corners of an H with a motor in the centre. Figure 9.2
circuit that switches the shows an L293D on a breadboard and Figure 9.3 shows the basic circuit
polarity of a voltage
applied to a load diagram of an H-bridge.

Figure 9.2: L293D

Switch 1 Switch 3
direction of current

Module 9
+ –
DC voltage motor
–
Switch 2 Switch 4

Figure 9.3: H-bridge motor driver

In the H-bridge motor driver in Figure 9.3:

• The arrow on the left points to the direction of current flow.

TVET FIRST Robotics 305

 • When switches S1 and S4 are closed and switches S2 and S3 are open,
current will flow through S1 and S4, causing the motor to rotate in a
clockwise direction. This is because the rotation of the motor depends on
the connection of switches with the terminals of the motor.
• When S3 and S2 are closed and S1 and S4 are open, current flows in the
opposite direction and the motor rotates in an anticlockwise direction.
• Any other condition of the switches will cause the motor to stall and no
rotation takes place.
Switch 1 can be compared to pin 1 (Enable A) of the L293D, switch 4 to pin 2
(In1), switch 3 to pin 1 (Enable A) and switch 2 to pin 7 (In2). This is for one
motor only. If another motor is connected to the L293D, then pins 9, 10 and
15 will apply respectively.

9.1.3 Advantages of the L293D IC

The L293D IC has the following advantages:
• It is ideally suited to drive DC motors and stepper motors.
• It can be used to drive any inductive load such as a relay or solenoid.
• It can be used to switch power transistors.
• It has a supply voltage range of 4,5 V to 36 V and can handle a current of
1,2 A, which is a large current capacity.
• It has overvoltage protection.

9.1.4 Pin connections of the L293D IC

The L293D IC has a total of 16 pins that connect it to the outside world.
Figure 9.4 shows the pin out.
ENA 1 16 VS (VCC2)
IN1 2 15 IN4
OUT1 3 14 OUT4
L293D

GND 4 13 GND
GND 5 12 GND
Scan here to see
OUT2 6 11 OUT3 Figure 9.4 in
colour
IN2 7 10 IN3
VS (VCC2) 8 9 ENB

Figure 9.4: L293D IC

306 Module 9 TVET FIRST

 9.1.5 Functions of L293D IC pins
Table 9.1 lists the functions of the sixteen pins of the L293D IC.
Table 9.1: Function of pins on an L293D IC

Pin number Pin function

Pin 1: Enable A Controls the speed of motor A (voltage range 0 to 5 V).
Pin 2: Input 1 When this pin is HIGH or logic 1, output 1 becomes HIGH. Current
will flow through output 1, controlling the direction of motor A in a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
Pin 3: Output 1 Connected to one terminal of motor A.
Pin 4: Ground Connected to the circuit’s ground.
Pin 5: Ground Connected to the circuit’s ground.
Pin 6: Output 2 Connected to the other terminal of motor A.
Pin 7: Input 2 When this pin is HIGH or logic 1, output 2 becomes HIGH. Current
will flow through output 2, controlling the direction of motor A in a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
Pin 8: VS (VCC2) Gives power to the internal H-bridge of the IC to drive the DC
motors. You can connect an input voltage anywhere between 4,5
to 36 V to this pin. This is the voltage required to run the motor. It
can be greater than the IC voltage VSS (VCC1). If we are driving 12 V DC
motors, for example, then ensure that this pin is supplied with 12 V.
Pin 9: Enable B Controls the speed of motor B (voltage range 0 to 5 V).
Pin 10: Input 3 When this pin is HIGH or logic 1, output 3 becomes HIGH. Current
will flow through output 3, controlling the direction of motor B in a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
Pin 11: Output 3 Connected to one terminal of motor B.
Pin 12: Ground Connected to the circuit’s ground.
Pin 13: Ground Connected to the circuit’s ground.
Pin 14: Output 4 Connected to the other terminal of motor B.
Pin 15: Input 4 When this pin is HIGH or logic 1, output 4 becomes HIGH. Current
will flow through output 4, controlling the direction of motor B in a
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
Pin 16: VSS (VCC1) Provides power to the IC (normally a regulated 5 V supply voltage).
This voltage is used to drive the internal logic circuitry of the L293D.
Notes for ground pins 4, 5, 12 and 13
These pins are common ground pins. All four GND pins are internally connected and are

Module 9
used to dissipate the heat generated under high-load conditions.
Notes for output pins 3, 6, 11 and 14
The L293D motor driver’s output channels for motors A and B are brought out to pins
OUT1 and OUT2, and OUT3 and OUT4 respectively. You can connect two DC motors to
these pins.
Notes for input pins 2, 7, 10 and 15
The L293D has two direction control pins for each channel. The IN1 and IN2 pins control
the spinning direction of motor A while IN3 and IN4 control the spinning direction of
motor B.
Notes for pins enable A and B (pins 1 and 9)
Pulling these pins HIGH (5 V) will cause the motors to spin while pulling them LOW (0 V)
will stop them. The speed of the motors can be controlled with pulse width modulation
(PWM).

TVET FIRST Robotics 307

 9.1.6 Truth table for an L293D IC
Table 9.2 shows the truth table for the various states of the L293D IC. This
truth table represents the states for motor A connected to the left bank of the
L293D (Enable A; inputs 1 and 2; outputs 1 and 2). The right bank (Enable B;
inputs 3 and 4; outputs 3 and 4) operates in the same way for motor B.
Table 9.2: Truth table for L293D motor A connected to left bank

Input 1 Input 2 Enable A Result

Note
0 0 0 Motor is in the stop mode. Logic level 1 = HIGH
0 1 1 Anticlockwise rotation of motor. = ON = 5 V
Logic level 0 = LOW
1 0 1 Clockwise rotation of motor.
= OFF = 0 V
1 1 1 Motor is in the stop mode. Speed is
1 1 50% duty cycle Anticlockwise rotation at half speed. determined by
the mark/space
1 0 50% duty cycle Clockwise rotation at half speed. ratio (ON/OFF
time) of the pulse
width modulated
9.1.7 Purpose of a sensor in robotics waveform applied
to Enable A pin 1.
A sensor in robotics gathers information about the robot’s environment or
its own condition. This data helps the robot make decisions and perform
tasks accurately. For instance, sensors can measure distance, detect obstacles
or monitor temperature. By interpreting sensor data, the robot can navigate
its surroundings, interact with objects and perform tasks effectively.

9.1.8 Purpose of motion controllers in robotics

Motion controllers enable articulated arms to rotate and slide their joints
and mobile robots to move through locomotion and steering (see Figure
9.5). This controlled motion enables these complex tasks with any end
effector required on the robot.

Figure 9.5: Articulated robotic arm

308 Module 9 TVET FIRST

 9.1.9 Block diagram of a motion control system
The block diagram in Figure 9.6 shows the components of the motion
control system and how they relate to each other.

application 4,5–36 V
software power supply

5V micro- motor driver motor robot action

power supply controller L293D

user sensor feedback

interface

Figure 9.6: Block diagram of a motion control system

9.1.10 Components of a motion control system

Table 9.3 provides an explanation of each component in a motion control
system.
Table 9.3: Components is a motion control system

Component Explanation
Microcontroller A maximum of 5 V is required to supply power to the microcontroller circuitry.
power supply 5 V
DC motor power This voltage is required to supply power to the DC motors and can vary between 4, 5 V
supply 4, 5 to 36 V and 36 V depending on the type of motor being used.
Microcontroller Controls the various functions that are required. It operates by using the instructions
determined by the software and the input signals from the user interface.
Application software Microcontrollers and processors rely on different application software programs to
function. Examples used in modern robotic systems include programs such as C, C ++,
Visual Basic and Python to name just a few.
User interface A computer keyboard, handheld device or any other device used to input information to

Module 9
the microcontroller.
Motor driver IC L293D The driver mechanism between the microcontroller and the motor that provides sufficient
power.
Motor The DC motor or motors that control the action of the robotic arms, such as the actuators
and end effectors.
Robot action The end result or action that the robot is required to perform.
Feedback The speed or direction of the motor must be precise for the robot to achieve the desired
result. Any deviation will alter the outcome. Error correction is required when there is a
deviation. The feedback circuit is included to monitor deviations and send a signal to the
controller to make corrections.
Sensor A transducer is used between the feedback and microcontroller to make changes when
needed.

TVET FIRST Robotics 309

 9.1.11 F
 unctions of the components of a motion
control system
Table 9.4 describes the functions of the components of a motion control
system
Table 9.4: Functions of the components of a motion control system

Parts Function
Power supply The power supply:

• Provides the necessary electrical energy to the system.

• Must match the voltage, current and power requirements of the motor and driver.
• Must be stable and reliable for consistent system performance as fluctuations can lead
to motor instability or damage to components.
Microcontroller The microcontroller is the CPU of the motion control system:

• Itsignals
interprets user commands, processes feedback from sensors and generates control
for the motor driver.

• Itactions
ensures that the system follows the desired motion profile by adjusting the motor’s
in real time.

• Itother
handles tasks such as trajectory planning, error correction and synchronisation with
system components.
Communication These interfaces allow the microcontroller to communicate with other devices, systems
interfaces or networks. They enable the integration of the motion control system into larger
automation systems or factory networks. Common communication protocols include:

• Ethernet: For high-speed communication over local area networks (LANs).

• CAN (controller area network) bus: Common in automotive and industrial
applications for reliable communication.

• Serial communication (RS232/RS485): Used for simpler, point-to-point connections.

Communication interfaces enable data exchange and remote monitoring and control,
enhancing the system’s flexibility and integration capabilities.
User interface The user interface:

• Allows operators to interact with the motion control system by inputting commands,
monitoring system performance and adjusting settings.

• Can range from simple buttons and knobs to sophisticated computer-based interfaces.
Can also provide alerts or diagnostics to inform users of any issues in the system.
Motor driver The motor driver serves as the interface between the microcontroller and the motor:

• Itelectrical
converts the low-power control signals from the microcontroller into high-power
signals that can drive the motor.

• It manages the current, voltage and sometimes the speed or torque of the motor.
• Itcontrol.
may include features such as overcurrent protection, thermal protection and speed

Motor The motor is the actuator responsible for converting electrical energy into mechanical
motion. Different types of motors are used depending on the application:

• Stepper motor: Moves in discrete steps and is ideal for precise positioning without
feedback.

• Servo motor: Offers precise control over position, speed and torque, often with
feedback.

310 Module 9 TVET FIRST

 Parts Function
Feedback device The feedback device monitors the motor’s performance and sends data back to the
microcontroller. This information includes position, speed or torque, depending on the
type of feedback device:
• Encoder: Measures position and sometimes speed, providing digital or analogue
signals to the microcontroller.
• Resolver: Provides analogue signals representing position and is often used in harsh
environments.
• Tachometer: Measures rotational speed and sends this information to the controller.
Feedback enables the microcontroller to correct any deviations from the desired motion,
ensuring accuracy and stability in the system.
Mechanical These components transmit the motion generated by the motor to the load. Examples
components include:
• Gears: Change the speed and torque of the motion.
• Belts and pulleys: Transfer motion over a distance.
• Linear actuators: Convert rotational motion into linear motion.
• Bearings: Reduce friction and support rotational or linear motion.
These parts ensure that the movement is smooth, accurate and suitable for the
application.

Activity 9.1
1. Define a robot and list at least three sectors where robots are used.
Provide one specific example of a robot’s application in any of these
sectors.(5)
2. Explain the function of the L293D IC in a robotic system. Describe
how the direction of a motor’s rotation is controlled using the
H-bridge concept. (8)
3. Describe the purpose of sensors in robotics and provide two
examples of sensors used in robots, explaining their roles. (7)
4. List and briefly describe the six subcategories of electronics found in
a robot. (12)
5. List four advantages of using the L293D IC in robotics.  (4)
6. Explain the functions of the following components of a motion

Module 9
control system: microcontroller, motor driver, motor and feedback
device.(10)
7. Discuss the role of communication interfaces in a motion control
system and name two common communication protocols used. (4)
TOTAL: [50]

TVET FIRST Robotics 311

 Summary of Module 9

Unit
9.1 Robotics

● Robot: a programmable machine used to handle,

assemble and process tasks in various sectors.
◦ Power supply provides the necessary electrical
energy to the system.
● Subcategories of electronics in a robot: Sensors,
actuators, control units, power management
◦ Microcontroller
control system.
is the CPU of the motion

systems, communication interfaces, feedback

systems. ◦ Communication interfaces allow the
microcontroller to communicate with other
● Motor driver or control motor: An interface that devices, systems or networks
controls and manages the operation of an electric
motor. ◦ User interface allows operators to interact
with the motion control system by inputting
● L293D: A dual-channel H-bridge motor driver that commands, monitoring system performance
can drive a pair of DC motors or a single stepper and adjusting settings.
motor.
● H-bridge: An electronic circuit that switches the
◦ Motor driver serves as the interface between
the microcontroller and the motor.
polarity of a voltage applied to a load.
● Sensor in robotics: Gathers information about the
◦ Motor is the actuator responsible for converting
electrical energy into mechanical motion.
robot’s environment or its own condition.
● Components of a motion control system:
◦ Feedback device monitors the motor’s
performance and sends data back to the
Microcontroller power supply 5 V, DC motor microcontroller.
power supply 4, 5 to 36 V, microcontroller,
application software, user interface, motor driver ◦ Mechanical components transmit the motion
generated by the motor to the load
IC L293D, motor, feedback, sensor.
● Functions of the components of a motion control
system:

Summative assessment for Module 9

1. Draw and label a block diagram of a motion control system. (8)
2. Explain the role of the power supply in a motion control system. Describe the
voltage requirements for both the microcontroller and the DC motors. (6)
3. What is the function of a microcontroller in a robotic system? Provide an
example of an application where a microcontroller is essential. (6)
4. Draw and explain the truth table for the L293D IC. Describe what happens to
the motor under different input conditions. (10)
5. Describe the purpose of feedback in a motion control system and explain how
an encoder works as a feedback device. (6)
6. List and explain the functions of four different pins on the L293D IC. (8)
7. Describe the advantages of using pulse width modulation (PWM) to control
motor speed in a motion control system. (4)
8. Draw a basic diagram of an H-bridge circuit and explain how it controls the
direction of a DC motor. (8)
TOTAL: [50]

312 Module 9 TVET FIRST

 Module
Practice exam

Time: 3 hours
Marks: 100
Drawing instruments and non-programmable calculators may be used.
Instructions and information
1. Answer all the questions.
2. Read all the questions carefully.
3. Number the answers according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.
4. Start each question on a new page.
5. Only use a black or a blue pen.
6. Write neatly and legibly.

QUESTION 1
1.1 An RC circuit consists of a 10 kΩ resistor in series with an uncharged
100 µF capacitor and is powered by a 15 V DC supply. Prove by means
of calculations at time intervals of one time constant that during the
fifth time:
1.1.1 The capacitor voltage rises to VS.(4)
1.1.2 The voltage across the resistor drops to 0 V. (2)
1.1.3 The charging current is reduced to 0 A. (2)
1.2 Give the names of each of the following:
1.2.1 The mathematical laws that govern the analysis of transient
RLC circuits. (1)
1.2.2 The electronics laws on which the equations of transient RLC
circuits are based. (1)
[10]

QUESTION 2
Practice
exam

2.1 Analyse the data given below and calculate the value of the unknown RF.
Show all the steps in the calculations.
DATA
Type of circuit: Op-amp multiplier circuit
Interface voltage range: 1 V to 5 V
Metering resistor: 750 Ω

TVET FIRST Practice exam 313

 Transducer output voltage: 0,75 mV per 10 °C
Temperature range of furnace: 37,5 °C to 375 °C (5)
2.2 Indicate whether the following statements are true or false by writing
only ‘True’ or ‘False’ next to the question number (2.2.1–2.2.5).
 (5 × 1) (5)
2.2.1 The feedback component to an integrator op-amp circuit is a
resistor.
2.2.2 A capacitor is used as a feedback component in a differentiator
op-amp circuit.
2.2.3 The output signal from an analogue comparator op-amp circuit is
in digital format.
2.2.4 During offsetting, digital techniques are used for shifting the
reference signal.
2.2.5 The output signal from an attenuator circuit is much bigger in
value that the input signal.
[10]

QUESTION 3
3.1 Give four engineering-related practical applications of ultrasonic
energy.(4)
3.2 Choose a term from Column B that matches a description in Column A.
Write the letter (A–D) next to the question number (3.2.1–3.2.4).
Column A Column B
3.2.1 Energy waves produced by the oscillation or A. Electromagnetic spectrum
acceleration of an electric charge.
B. Soft X-rays
3.2.2 Range/array of waves of extremely high
frequency and short wavelengths to extremely C. Electromagnetic radiation
low frequency and long wavelengths. D. Hard X-rays
3.3.3 Electromagnetic waves with longer wavelengths.
3.2.4 Electromagnetic waves with shorter wavelengths.

(4 × 1) (4)
3.3 Draw a neat, labelled circuit diagram of a semiconductor detector. (5)
3.4 Name two gas-filled particle detectors. (2)
[15]

QUESTION 4
4.1 Give one term for each of the following descriptions by writing it next to
the question number (4.1.1–4.1.5).
4.1.1 An instrument that is used to determine the thickness or
variation thereof of a material.

314 Practice exam TVET FIRST

 4.1.2 A deflection system that is based on the reflection of sound waves
in a medium.
4.1.3 A deflection system that is based on the reflection of radio waves
in the air.
4.1.4 An ultrasonic thickness-gauging method that is suited for straight
beam castings.
4.1.5 An ultrasonic thickness-gauging method that is suited for
thickness measurement where the two sides of the casting are
smooth and parallel. (5 × 1) (5)
4.2 Name, in any order, five main elements of the block diagram of a basic
metal detector unit. (5)
[10]

QUESTION 5
5.1 Study Figure 1 and answer the questions that follow. Choose the correct
word or words from those given in brackets. Write only the answer next
to the question number (5.1.1–5.1.6).
+V

R1 R4 relay

hot electrode FET solenoid

UJT SCR control
R3
flame
R1 R2 C1 R4 reset
button

burner

Figure 1

5.1.1 The full name of the circuit diagram depicted in FIGURE 1

is (flame enhancement detector circuit/flame failure detector
circuit).
Practice

5.1.2 The burner serves as a (positive/negative) electrode.

exam

5.1.3 The FET input stage must be a (high/low) impedance medium.

5.1.4 The component known as the source-follower in the circuit is the
(FET/UJT).
5.1.5 The component known as the thyristor in the circuit is the (FET/
SCR).

TVET FIRST Practice exam 315

 5.1.6 The component known as the unipolar device in the circuit is the
(FET/UJT). (6 × 1) (6)
5.2 Briefly describe each of the following in relation to electronic safety:
5.2.1 Positive protection.
5.2.2 Negative protection.  (2 × 2) (4)
[10]

QUESTION 6
Industrial automation is used widely in modern manufacturing.
6.1 Name a system that can be used to design a product in the
manufacturing environment. (1)
6.2 Name a system that can be used to manufacture a product in the
manufacturing environment. (1)
6.3 Draw a neat, labelled block diagram of a system that is used for both
the designing and manufacturing of a product in the manufacturing
environment.(8)
[10]

QUESTION 7
7.1 State the name(s) of rectifying components used in the following
rectifier circuits:
7.1.1 Fully controlled rectifier.
7.1.2 Half controlled rectifier.
7.1.3 Uncontrolled rectifier. (3 × 1) (3)
7.2 The following data is supplied for a certain controlled half-wave rectifier
circuit which employs a commutating diode:
• AC supply = 220 V
• Delay angle = 45°
• Irms = 9,717 A

Calculate the following thyristor ratings:

7.2.1 Maximum current.  (4)
7.2.2 PIV. (4)
7.2.3 Mean output voltage. (4)
[15]

316 Practice exam TVET FIRST

 QUESTION 8
8.1 Draw a labelled ladder diagram of a logic gate that meets the criteria:
• Two inputs.
• If the two inputs are at the same logic states, the output is active.
• If the two inputs are at different logic states the output is inactive.
(7)
8.2 Name three necessary building blocks of a PLC. (3)
[10]

QUESTION 9
9.1 Explain the purpose of a dual H-bridge motor driver L293D IC. (2)
9.2 Draw a basic diagram of an H-bridge circuit and explain how it controls
the direction of a DC motor. (8)
[10]
TOTAL: [100]

Practice
exam

TVET FIRST Practice exam 317

 Module
Formula sheet
​P​  ​​
Any applicable formula may ​VDC
​  ​​  = 0, 637 ​Vm​  ​​​ ​Ap​  ​​  = 10log​ _
P
out
​ in​  ​​
 ​​
be used.
​Vr(rms)
​  ​​  = 0,385 ​Vm​  ​​​ ​V​  ​​
​Av​  ​​  = 20log​ _
( ​R1​  ​​ ​R2​  ​​ ​Rn​  ​​ )
​​  ​R1​   ​ = ​
_ ​  1  ​  + ​ _
_ 1
 ​  + . . . ​ _1
 ​ ​​ V
out
​ in​  ​​
 ​​
T
​​ ​PIV = ​Vm​  ​​  or 2 ​Vm​  ​​​ ​I​  ​​
​ 1​  ​​ ​R2​  ​​
R ​Ai​  ​​  = 20log​ _ out
I​ in​  ​​
 ​​
​V​  ​​(p − p)
​ T​  ​​  = ​ _
R ​R1​  ​​  + ​R​ 2​​
 ​​ ​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vr(rms) r
_ ​​
2​√3 ​ ​V​  ​​
R
​ 2​  ​​ ​VT​  ​​ Static voltage gain = _
​​  ​Vout​   ​​​​
​Vr​  ​​(p − p)
​ 2​  ​​  = ​ _
V ​R1​  ​​  + ​R​ 2​​
 ​  × ​ _1
 ​​ ​  ​​  = ​V​ m​​  − ​ _
​VDC  ​​
in
2 Δ​V​  ​​
______________
​Vr(rms)
​  ​​
Dynamic voltage gain = _
​​  Δ​Vout
​  ​​
 ​​
​Z = ​√​R
  ​​  2​  + ​( ​XL​  ​​  − ​X​ C​​  )​​  2​ ​​
​r = ​ _
in
​VDC
​  ​​
 ​​ Δ​Vin​  ​​ Δ​Vbe ​  ​​
R
​cosθ° = ​ _ ​​ ​​  ​​​​hie​  ​​  = ​ _
Δ​Vin​  ​​
 ​  = ​ _
Δ​Ice​  ​​
 ​​
Z ​V​  ​​
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vr(rms) DC
_ ​​
​P = ​I​​  ​  R​ 2 ​RL​  ​​2√
​ 3 ​FC
​Vce​  ​​  = constant​
​V​​  ​ 2
I​ DC
​  ​​
​ = ​ _
P R
​​ ​  ​​  = ​V​ m_
​VDC ​​​  2FC ​​ Δ​V​  ​​ Δ​V​  ​​
​hre​  ​​  = ​ _ in
Δ​Vout
​  ​​
 ​  = ​ _ be
Δ​Vce​  ​​
 ​​
​P = VI cos θ​ ​I​  ​​
​r = ​ _
DC
_ ​​ ​Ib​  ​​  = constant​
​P = VI​ ​VDC
​  ​​2​√3 ​FC
​V​r​  ​  ​​​​ Δ​I​  ​​ Δ​I​  ​​
1_
​Fr​  ​​  = ​ _ _ ​XC​  ​​ ​hfe​  ​​  = ​ _ out
 ​  = ​ _ c
 ​​
 ​​ ​Vrʹ(rms)
​  ​​  = ​  _ ​  × ​ _
1
 ​​ rms
Δ​Iin​  ​​ Δ​Ib​  ​​
2π ​√LC ​ ​√​R​​  2​ + ​X​  2C ​ ​​ 
​XL​  ​​
_ ​Vce​  ​​  =   constant​
​V​  ​​
Q _ _ ​ ​ CL ​ ​​
1 _
​ = ​ R ​​ or ​​  R ​  √ ​V ​ʹ​  DC​​  = ​ _ L
​R​  ​​
 ​  × ​ _
DC
 ​​ Δ​I​  ​​ Δ​I​  ​​
_____________ R
​ L​  ​​  + ​R​ S​​ 1 ​hoe​  ​​  = ​ _ out
Δ​Vout
​  ​​
 ​  = ​ _ c
Δ​Vce​  ​​
 ​​
​IT​  ​​  = ​√​I  
​  2R ​ ​  + ​( ​IC​  ​​  − ​I​ L​​  )​​  2​ ​​ ​Vr(rms)
​  ​​
1 ​Vrʹ(rms)
​  ​​  = ​ _ ​​ ​Ib​  ​​  =   constant​
​Z = ​ ________________ ​(2πf)​​  ​LC
2
  _________________  ​​ ​Rf​  ​​
​ ​​(​  R1 )
√ ( C ​XL​  ​​ )
2
1 2
_
   ​  ​X1​   ​ ​​ − ​ _
​ ​​​  ​  + ​​ _  ​ ​​​  ​ ​ ​Vbe ​  ​​ ​  ​​  = ​ _
​Vout  ​ × ​Vin​  ​​​
​Rin​  ​​  = ​ _​Ib​  ​​
 ​​ R
​ in​  ​​
N
​ ​  ​​ ​V1​  ​​ ​I2​  ​​
​  ​​  = − ​(_ ​R​  ​​ )
_
​​  ​N1​   ​ ​​ = ​ _  ​  = ​ _  ​​ ​Rf​  ​​​V1​  ​​ ​Rf​  ​​​V2​  ​​ ​Vn​  ​​​Rf​  ​​
V
​ 2​  ​​ I​ 1​  ​​ ​Vce​  ​​ ​Vout ​  ​R​   ​ ​​ + ​ _  ​  + ... ​ _  ​ ​​
2
​  ​​  = ​ _
​Rout ​Ic​  ​​
 ​​ ​R​  ​​1 2 n
​  ​​  = 0, 707 ​Vm​  ​​​
​Vrms
​  ​​  = ​(1 + ​ _
​R​  ​​ ) in
​V​  ​​ ​Rf​  ​​
​i = ​Is​  ​​​(​e​​  ​  kT​ −
​
1)​​
gv
_
​RC​  ​​  = ​ _ CC
 ​​ ​Vout  ​ ​​V​  ​​​
I​ C​  ​​ in

kT d​v​  ​​
​R = ​ _
qi
​​ ​  ​​  = ​R​ 1​​C ​ _i ​ ​
​Vout ​  ​​  = − ​ _
​Vout 1
 ​​V​  ​​(t)dt​
dt C​Rin​  ​​ in
​VNL​  ​​  − ​V​ FL​​ ​I​  ​​
​VR = ​ _ ​VFL​  ​​
 ​​ Static current gain = _
​​  ​Iout​   ​​​​ Boltzmann’s constant
in
= 1,38 × 10–23 J/k
​  ​​  = 0, 637 ​Vm​  ​​​
​​Vavg Δ​I​  ​​
Dynamic current gain = _
​​  Δ​Iout
​  ​​
 ​​ Electron charge = 1,6 × 10–19 C
​f = ​ _1t ​​ in

​VCC
​  ​​  = ​V​ RC​​  + ​V​ ce​​​
​Vin​  ​​
​  ​ _
Rate of change = − C ​Rin​  ​​
 ​​ ​Vce​  ​​  = ​V​ CC​​  − ​V​ RC​​​
​VDC
​  ​​  = 0, 318 ​Vm​  ​​​ pl
​R = ​ _
a ​​

318 Module 9 TVET FIRST

 Module
Glossary

abnormal condition: a scenario where equipment casting: an object made by pouring molten metal or other
operates outside its normal parameters due to faults, material into a mould
failures or unexpected external influences
cavitation: the formation of small bubbles in the low-
abrasion: the process of scraping or wearing something pressure regions in a liquid when the liquid has been
away accelerated to high velocities
acoustic (sound) energy: the energy in sound waves that characteristic radiation: excess electromagnetic energy
travels as vibrations through a medium such as air or water released in the form of X-rays as a result of K-shell emission
active transducer: an electronic device that converts one circuit breaker: a safety device designed to protect electrical
form of energy into another without using an external power circuits from damage caused by overloads, short circuits or
source other electrical faults by automatically interrupting the flow of
electricity when an abnormal condition is detected
actuator: a device that receives the electrical signal
produced by a sensor and converts it into physical output closed-loop system: also called a feedback control system;
continuously monitors output and adjusts the control action
atomic number: the number of protons found in one atom
to correct any errors
of an element
combination continuous UPS system: the
attenuation: decreasing the voltage, current, power or
characteristics of the forward and reverse UPS systems are
amplitude level of a signal so that the conditioned signal is
combined into one system
within the accepted usable range
communication interface: a means by which two or more
automated optical inspection (AOI): uses cameras and
separate components of a computer system are connected
image processing software to visually inspect PCBs and other
together to exchange information
products; captures high-resolution images and compares
them against a predefined template or set of standards commutation: the process of switching off a thyristor by
forcing the current through it to zero
automated X-ray inspection (AXI): uses X-rays to inspect
the internal structure of a product comparator: an electronic circuit that uses an operational
amplifier’s high gain in its open-loop state with no feedback
automatic inspection system: uses electronic circuitry
resistor to compare one analogue voltage level with another
and preprogrammed parameters to inspect, test, sort
and produce a digital output signal
and grade production items to ensure that they meet
specifications compression or longitudinal wave: a wave where the
displacement of the medium is parallel to the propagation
autonomously: the ability to operate or perform actions
of the wave
independently without external control or direct human
intervention computer numerical control (CNC): the automation of a
manufacturing process that requires precise and repetitive
back emf: an emf or voltage appearing in an inductive
execution using a keyboard for input
circuit in such a direction that it opposes any change of
current computer-aided design (CAD): the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis or
ball grid array (BGA): a type of surface-mount packaging
optimisation of a design
used for integrated circuits
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM): the use of
baud rate: the data transmission rate measured in bits per
software to control machine tools and related machinery in
second
the manufacturing of workpieces
blackout: a complete loss of electrical power in a specific
conduction angle (β): the part of the positive half cycle of
area or to specific equipment
the AC supply signal during which the SCR conducts current
brownout: a temporary reduction in voltage in the power
constant voltage or ferroresonant transformer: a
Glossary

supply, resulting in lower power levels

transformer that uses a magnetic structure and a capacitor
bypass: avoid or circumvent a safety system to limit currents, regulate output voltage and perform other
cad cell flame detector: a solid-state photoconductive power functions
detector that uses light intensity to sense the presence of a continuous or float UPS system: continuously supplies
flame in an oil-fired burner the DC voltage required to drive the load and also trickle
capacitive proximity switch: a sensor that uses the charges the battery
changes in capacitance detect both metallic and non- couplant: a liquid used in ultrasonic testing to facilitate
metallic objects without physical contact the transfer of sound energy from the transducer to the test
material by displacing air

TVET FIRST Glossary 319

 creepage: the shortest distance between two conducting fail-safe design: an engineering approach where a system
points along the surface of an insulating material is designed to remain safe or to minimise harm even when it
fails or encounters an error
critical damping: quickest return to equilibrium without
oscillations final period: the period when the capacitor voltage VC
becomes almost the same as the source voltage and current
cycloconverter: converts AC power at one frequency into
stops flowing
AC power of an adjustable but lower frequency without any
DC stage finite: greater than zero, but limited in size
damping: a loss of energy in an oscillating system or firing or delay angle (α): the angle measured from the
circuit which brings about a reduction in the amplitude start of the AC voltage cycle at which the SCR is triggered and
of oscillations; occurs in mechanical or electrical systems begins to conduct
due to frictional or other resistive forces; the action of an
flame detector: a sensor designed to detect and respond
element in a mechanical or electrical device that gradually
to a flame or fire
reduces the degree of oscillations, vibrations or signal
intensity to prevent it from increasing flame rod detector: a safety device used in gas-burning
appliances to detect a flame
data acquisition system: obtains information from
transducers that measure physical conditions and converts flame-failure detector: the part of a gas burner system
the data into digital signals for processing and analysis that ensures that the fuel supply to the gas appliance is cut
off automatically and immediately if the flame goes out or
device polling: a method of communication where the
becomes unstable, stopping the flow of gas and preventing
central computer sequentially checks each device to see if it
an explosion
requires service
fluorescence: the property of some atoms and molecules
die: a device for cutting or moulding metal into a particular
to absorb light at a particular wavelength and to then emit
shape
light of a longer wavelength
dielectric voltage withstand test or hipot test: a test
follow-up closed-loop system: a system where the set
that stresses a product’s insulation far beyond normal use
point is changed or altered frequently through a feedback
conditions
path
differentiator: an operational amplifier circuit that
forced commutation: uses additional circuitry to actively
performs differentiation and produces a voltage output
turn off the SCR
which is directly proportional to the rate of change of the
input voltage with respect to time forward continuous UPS system: power to the load is
supplied directly from the AC mains via the transfer switch
driver: provides output signals at voltage or current levels
suitable for operating multiple loads free-wheeling diode: a diode used in circuits to eliminate
voltage spikes that occur when an inductive load is suddenly
dynamic response: the ability of a closed-loop system to
switched off
reach the desired output swiftly and to maintain it
fringing field: a phenomenon in which the magnetic flux
dynode: an intermediate electrode in a photomultiplier
flowing in a magnetic core spreads or fringes out into the
tube that emits additional electrons
surrounding medium
efficiency of X-ray production: the ratio of the total
fuse: a safety device that protects electrical circuits by
X-ray radiant energy emitted as X-ray radiation to the
melting a metal wire or strip inside the fuse when an
total electron energy deposited in the target by electrons
overload or short circuit occurs
accelerated from the filament
gas primary control: uses thermo-sensing or flame
electromagnetic radiation: radiation that propagates
rectification to ensure safe operation of the system
in waves or particles across various wavelengths and
frequencies, forming the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum G-code: the most widely used CNC programming language
electrostatically: relating to static electricity Go-NoGo inspection system: a binary test with only two
outcomes: pass or fail; checks a component against specific
emitted power (Pr): the rate at which energy is released as
criteria, specifications or tolerances
radiation; also called emitted ray power, dissipated power
or X-ray power guards: provide physical barriers that prevent access to
dangerous areas
end point: a definite point in time when a process is
complete hard wiring: the use of wiring to connect relays and
contactors in a hard-wired control system
energy levels: the amount of electrical and thermal energy
present in a circuit hard-wired control system: the traditional control
method where each solid-state component in the system is
error signal: the difference between the actual and the
wired individually and the wiring itself acts as the program
desired output in a closed-loop control system
hazardous area: any location where there is a risk of
fail-safe: causing machinery to revert to a safe condition in
explosion due to the presence of flammable substance
the event of a breakdown or malfunction

320 Glossary TVET FIRST

H-bridge: an electronic circuit that switches the polarity of a isolation by encapsulation: enclosing electrical
voltage applied to a load components in a protective, non-reactive material such as
epoxy resin
High-Go-Low inspection system: uses three categories
to test items: high items returned for reworking; go items kinetic energy: energy which a body possesses by virtue of
accepted; low items rejected being in motion
hot spot: a localised area in electrical equipment that can K-shell emission: occurs when a fast-moving electron
become much hotter than the surrounding areas collides with a K-shell electron and ejects the electron from
the K-shell, leaving behind a hole
ignition coil: a device consisting of two magnetically
coupled induction coils in a car’s ignition system; the input ladder logic: a graphical programming language used in
coil has low voltage pulses applied to it and this causes high modern PLCs
voltages to be generated by the output coil
linearisation: a way of improving signals that do not show
incident radiation: radiation falling on an object a linear relationship to the actual measurement to increase
efficiency and maximise output power
inductive proximity switch: a sensor that uses the
changes in an electromagnetic field to detect metallic objects linearly: vertically up and down
without physical contact
logarithmic decrement: the natural log of the ratio of
industrial control system: the hardware and software the amplitudes of any two successive peaks of the damped
with network connectivity that monitors and manages the oscillatory signal
behaviour of machinery used in manufacturing production
loop concept: an intrinsic safety approach that considers
processes
the entire electrical circuit or system, including all
inert gas: a gas that is not chemically reactive interconnected devices and wiring, as a single entity when
assessing intrinsic safety
infrared (IR) flame detector: a flame detector that uses a
lead-sulphide photocell sensitive to IR radiation magnetostriction: the change in dimensions of a
ferromagnetic material when exposed to an oscillating
initial period: the period when the switch is off, current
magnetic field
and voltage across the capacitor and resistor are zero and
the time period is zero margin of safety: the factor of safety; how much stronger
a system is than it needs to be for an intended load
inrush current: the maximum, instantaneous input current
drawn by an electrical device when it is first switched on medium: a gas, liquid or solid
insulation resistance (IR) test or Megger test: a test micropore: a tiny pore
that ensures that the insulation between isolated conductors
motor driver: also known as a control motor; an interface
maintains a resistance that limits leakage current to an
that controls and manages the operation of an electric
acceptable level when high voltage is applied
motor
integrator: an operational amplifier circuit that performs
natural commutation: involves reducing the current
the mathematical operation of integration; the output
through the SCR to zero by external means
voltage is proportional to the integral of the input voltage
natural frequency (fn): the frequency at which a system
interface: a circuit which enables the transfer of data from
tends to oscillate in the absence of any driving excitation
one electrical system to another
nodal line: the line in the core that remains at rest while
interlocked guard: a physical barrier connected to the
the other parts vibrate
machine’s control system that automatically stops or
prevents the machine from operating when the guard is non-destructive testing (NDT): involves testing materials
opened or removed and objects for defects or flaws that are not visible to the
naked eye without permanently altering or damaging them
interrupt-driven system: a method of communication
in any way
where each peripheral generates an interrupt when it needs
service non-inverting amplifier: input voltage signal (Vin) is
applied to the non-inverting (+) input terminal so that the
intrinsic safety: a protection technique for the safe
output gain becomes positive in comparison to the inverting
operation of electrical equipment in hazardous areas to
amplifier and the resulting output signal is in phase with the
protect against explosions or fires by limiting the electrical
input signal
and thermal energy available for the ignition of substances
such as gases and fuels non-ionising radiation: radiation that lacks sufficient
energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms or
inverting amplifier: a circuit with an output voltage that
molecules, thus not causing ionisation
changes in the opposite direction to the input voltage so it is
out of phase by 180° numerical control (NC): the automation of a
Glossary

manufacturing process that performs a series of

ionising radiation: radiation with enough energy to
operations in a specific order using tapes and punch
remove electrons from atoms or molecules, creating
cards for input
ions

TVET FIRST Glossary 321

 offline or standby UPS: the simplest type of UPS with a primary control: controls the input provided by various
brief switchover time; designed for use in small, non-critical parts of the system to the burner
applications that require protection against momentary loss
process control: the regulation of variables in a
of power
manufacturing process
offsetting: uses analogue techniques to shift a signal’s
programmable logic controller (PLC): a microprocessor-
reference level by a predictable amount
based computer that is used for the automation of
oil primary control: uses a cad cell sensor to check for a electromechanical processes
flame
proximity switch: a sensor that can detect the presence of
online or double conversion UPS: uses a rectifier and a nearby object without any physical contact; a switch that
an inverter that effectively isolates the load from all power opens or closes an electrical circuit when it comes within a
supply problems by providing continuous protection certain predetermined distance of an object
open-loop system: a control system that performs its punch press: a type of machine that is used to cut or shape
function based on the input signal without comparing the metal sheets with dies
actual output with the desired output
radiation: energy that travels either as high-speed particles
optoelectronic devices: electrical-to-optical or optical- or as electromagnetic waves known as photons
to-electrical transducers, or instruments that use these
radiation detector: a device designed to detect and
transducers
measure ionising radiation
optoelectronics: the study and application of electronic
radioactivity or radioactive decay: the process by which
devices that source, detect and control light, which includes
the unstable nucleus of an atom loses energy in the form of
visible light as well as invisible forms of radiation such as
particles or electromagnetic waves
ultraviolet and infrared radiation
receiver: accepts inputs with high input impedance to
overdamping: slow return to equilibrium without
minimise signal loading
oscillations
rectifier circuit: connects an AC supply to a DC load,
oxide: a compound of oxygen and another chemical
converting an alternating voltage into a direct voltage
element
refractory: a heat-resistant material used to make furnaces
passive transducer: an electronic device that requires an
and kilns
external power source to convert one form of energy into
another regulator feedback closed-loop system: a system
that maintains a constant control of the system with a set
photocathode: an element in a photoelectric cell that
point that is seldom adjusted, irrespective of any changes,
emits electrons when light hits it, thus enabling the flow of
variances or disturbances that may occur
current through the device
relay logic: the original method of automating
photoelectric cell or photocell: an electron tube
manufacturing tasks where relays, contactors and other
with a photosensitive cathode that emits electrons when
electromechanical devices were wired together to perform a
illuminated and an anode for collecting the emitted
specific task
electrons
relay logic diagram: a wiring diagram of a hard-wired
photoelectric effect: a phenomenon that occurs when
control system
electrically charged particles are released from a material
when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation resonance: the tendency of a system to oscillate or vibrate
with greater amplitude at a particular frequency than at
photon: bundle of light energy
other frequencies
piezoelectricity: the generation of a voltage by crystals
resonant frequency (fr): the frequency at which a lossless
that become electrically polarised when under mechanical
system oscillates
stress
reverse continuous UPS system: the power to the load is
pilot: a small gas flame that serves as an ignition source for
supplied from the inverter via a transfer switch
a more powerful gas burner
ringing: the oscillatory behaviour that occurs when an RLC
pneumatic actuator: a mechanical device that uses
circuit is underdamped
compressed air acting on a piston inside a cylinder to move
a load along a linear path safeguarding devices: either prevent or detect operator
contact with the point of operation or stop potential
polyenergetic: composed of photons that have a range of
hazardous machine motion if any part of a worker’s body is
energies
within the hazardous portion of the machine
power converter: an electronic device that transforms
safety interlocking switch: a device designed to
electrical energy from one form to another to match the
ensure that machinery and equipment operate safely by
requirements of a specific application
preventing certain actions from occurring unless specific
power deposition (Pd): the rate of energy deposition in the conditions are met
target

322 Glossary TVET FIRST

safety light curtain: a photoelectric presence-sensing transducer: a device that converts one form of energy into
device that stops or pauses the machine’s cycle whenever the another; used to sense and measure physical phenomena
light field of the curtain is interrupted and transform them into electrical signals or other usable
forms of energy
scintillate: give off light
transfer UPS system: the AC mains supply is connected to
sensor: a device that detects a physical quantity and
the load via an automatic transfer switch
produces an electrical signal; has no other component
except itself transient: a brief interval in which a circuit’s behaviour
shifts from one steady-state condition to another
sequential control system: performs a series of
operations in a specific order transient period: the time taken / period for a signal to
change from one state to another; the time taken to reach a
servo control: the regulation of the velocity and position of
steady state after a disturbance
a motor based on a feedback signal
transient response: the response of a circuit to sudden
servomechanism: performs position control in a closed-
changes in an input condition
loop system
transverse wave: a wave where the displacement of the
set point: the desired value in a closed-loop electronic
medium is perpendicular to the direction of the propagation
control system
of the wave
signal conditioning: a process that prepares the analogue
two-hand control: require the operator to simultaneously
signal for conversion to a digital form
press two buttons or switches located at a safe distance
simulation: the production of a computer model for the from the machine’s hazardous area
purpose of study
ultrasonic energy: sound energy with frequencies above
slurry: a mix of solids suspended in water the audible range, which is around 20 kHz
soft wiring: the development of a program to replicate ultraviolet (UV) flame detector: senses UV radiation
the functions of a hard-wired control system from flames caused by carbon-based fuels such as natural
spectrometer: a measuring instrument used to analyse gas, LP gas and oil
and measure the spectrum of X-ray radiation produced by underdamping: oscillatory return to equilibrium with
the tube gradually decreasing amplitude
stable system: a system that returns to its equilibrium uninterruptible power supply (UPS): a device that
state or maintains its desired performance over time when provides emergency power to an electrical load when the AC
subjected to a disturbance or perturbation mains power source fails
steady-state condition: also known as final value state; viscosity: the state of being thick, sticky and semifluid in
the condition where parameters remain relatively constant consistency due to internal friction
stepper motor: a DC motor that moves in precise steps X-rays: a form of electromagnetic radiation with a very
summing amplifier or summer: an operational amplifier high frequency and energy
circuit that is used to combine the voltages present on two X-ray production efficiency (η): the ratio of emitted
or more inputs into a single output voltage; used to obtain a power to power deposition
sum total of several individual input signals
Zener barrier: a device made up of an arrangement of
switch mode power supply (SMPS): uses solid-state Zener diodes, resistors and fuses that limit the voltage,
switches to convert electrical power efficiently from AC to DC, current and power to connected devices in the hazardous
DC to DC, DC to AC or AC to AC area
switching loss: in SCRs, the power loss that occurs during zone: a specific classification in a hazardous area that
the transition between the on state (conducting) and the off describes the probability and duration of the presence of
state (non-conducting) of the device explosive atmospheres
time constant (τ): the time it takes for voltages and
currents to change by about 63,2% of the total change
Glossary

TVET FIRST Glossary 323