LEARNER STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

In recent years, many second language researchers have devoted much time and effort in
identifying types of mental process and behaviour that characterize successful and unsuccessful
language learners. These processes and behaviours are referred to as learner strategies. The concept
of a strategy, however, is not unique to second language learning. It is prevalent in cognitive
psychology, especially in the literature on cognitive strategies in memory, reading comprehension,
and problem-solving research.

The purpose of this article is to review learner strategy research conducted in the field of second
language learning and classifications of these strategies. My article will also discuss some
implications for language teaching.

LEARNER STRATEGY RESEARCH

(1975) and Stern who each identified effective strategies that could contribute to
success in language learning, were largely responsible for generating intense interest in this area.
Many of the early learner strategy studies Naiman, and Stern, 1978)
focused on language learning in general, but in recent years studies have increasingly dealt
specifically with the learning of individual language skills. The scope of learner strategy research
has also expanded to incorporate a metacognitive dimension: that is, how learners select and
evaluate strategies, and what they know about the strategies they use. Recent studies exploring
learner strategies are reported in and (1987) and and Chamot (1990).
methods of data collection used included questionnaires, individual and group interviews,
ethnographic observations, learner journals, and think-aloud techniques1 protocols.

The rationale for learner strategy research is that if researchers can identify strategies that
successful language learners use, then the less effective learners will benefit applying
same strategies to their own learning. A major contributing factor to the advancement of learner
strategy research has been the emphasis on self-directed learning and learner autonomy.
highlights an important educational goal of research on learner strategies: "It is intended
that insights developed from the research guide the development of learner training activities so that
learners become not only more efficient at learning and using their second language, but also more
capable of self-directing these endeavors."

CLASSIFICATION O F LEARNER STRATEGIES

There are a number of classifications in the literature. I will outline just two here:

1. and Chamot drawing on research in cognitive psychology, identify three

types of strategy that are crucial to language learning: metacognitive, cognitive, and
affective.

Metacognitive strategies are applied in regulating and managing learning. They are used for
planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning processes. Two examples are selective
attention and self-monitoring.

Cognitive strategies are mental operations which interact directly with incoming
information. They facilitate comprehension and recall, as well as production. Some
examples are summarization, translation, and inferencing.

I
Social-affective strategies include ways of involving others to assist one's learning, such as
asking for repetition and clarification. This category also comprises ways of controlling
one's emotions in order to complete a learning task.

2. Oxford's (1990) system consists of six groups of strategy. These are subsumed under two main
classes of direct and indirect strategies which work in tandem with each other.

Direct strategies involve mental processing of the language and include memory, cognitive,
and compensation strategies. (Compensation strategies enable learners to use the new
language despite limitations in grammar and, especially, in vocabulary.)

strategies support and manage language learning, and consist of metacognitive,

affective, and social strategies.

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

A closer examination of classifications of learner strategies shows a considerable degree of overlap

between systems, and even within some sub-groups in each system. This indicates,
nevertheless, that researchers share a number of principles about the concept of learner strategies:

2
 Learner strategies involve learners in some kind of mental activity. This could be logical and
systematic information processing or problem-solving, or it could be mental activity that is
more reflective in nature, such as planning and evaluating one's learning.

. Learner strategies help the learners to become more independent. By using strategies
effectively, they can become more in using the language and self-directing their own
learning.

All learners use strategies. The difference is in the range, the frequency, and the suitability of
the strategies. By using appropriate data collecting methods, researchers can identify these
strategies.

Furthermore, results in this area of research have presented strong evidence in support of three
hypotheses:

Successful language learners tend to use more and better learning strategies than the weaker
learners, both in understanding and using the language, and in directing their own learning.

Successful language learners are better able to select and evaluate the strategies they apply than
their less successful counterparts.

Learners who have been trained to apply learning strategies generally perform better in their
language learning than those who have not received any training.

In view of what has been considered in this article, I suggest, therefore, that Singapore schools can
benefit from learner strategy research in several ways:

I . We can use the knowledge derived from this research to help students become more effective
language learners. We often find students who are very interested and conscientious, but who
seem to have very little success in learning a second language. This can be very demoralizing
for both student and teacher. The problem could be that the students are working hard, but not
working smart. Using one of the more comprehensive strategy classifications as a framework,
teachers can help students find out if they are applying strategies appropriately and adequately.
Learners who are not using effective strategies adequately or are using the wrong ones will
benefit from some training. Activities such as those suggested in Ellis and Sinclair
(1989) can he readily adapted to meet our students' needs.

2 . Being aware of learning enables students to take more responsibility for their own
learning so that they can eventually become independent learners, an objective of our language
programmes (MOE Teachers can guide students in selecting and applying appropriate
strategies for processing and producing information in another language, as well as for
managing and evaluating their own learning. Students can also be encouraged to reflect on their
own learning processes and share this with other students. Finding out about what others have
used successfully and experimenting with these strategies themselves, students can expand and
refine their own repertoire.

3. Schools can out their own strategy research based on theoretical frameworks reviewed in
this article. Such information on strategies used by students a second language will be
 a valuable contribution to establishing a profile of individual
Additionally, such research can add a local, cultural dimension to an understanding of
strategies.

CONCLUSION

Although there are differences in research focus and ways of classifying language
strategies, researchers and theorists share a similar view about learning. They believe
successful learners approach the task of language learning in a holistic manner. These learners
activate appropriate mental processes, plan, monitor and evaluate their own learning, and exercise
control over their emotions and circumstances. This view of learning that includes both
conceptual and a social-affective basis should be incorporated into language teaching if we are to
help our students become more effective as learners, and also independent and selfdirecting ones.

SOURCES

Ellis, G. and B. Sinclair. (1989). Learning Lo learn English. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Ministry of Education (1991). English language syllabus (Secondary). Curriculum Planning
Division.
Naiman, N., M. Frohlich, A. Todesco, and H. H. Stern. (1978). The good language learner.
Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
J. M. and (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. NY:
House.
J. (1975). What the good language learner can teach us. TESOL Quarterly. 41-51
Stern, H. H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern
Language Review. 31 18.
A. (1987) Conceptual background and utility. In A and J. 1987 (eds.).
Learner strategies in language learning. Hertfordshire: Prentice-Hall.
A and (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. Hertfordshire:
Prentice-Hall.
 HELPING STUDENTS TO OVERCOME
AND WRITING DIFFICULTIES:
USING GENRE ANALYSIS

Review by
Audrey Lim Swee E n g

An example of a characteristic organisation patternlstructure - Logical Order

INTRODUCTION

The present Primary English Language Syllabus (1991) which emphasizes the communicative
teaching approach and whole language learning, has shifted the onus onto teachers to select appropriate
meaningful, purposeful and interesting materials and activities and to ensure that these are
"contextualised, interactive and integrated" Sandosham and Neufeld, 1995, p. Although the
present thematically-based syllabus endorsed by the of Education, is in with
the latest developments in language teaching and learning, it has been criticised as being "too open'',
"unstructured, and in guidance" (Mok, et. 1995, p. 85).

The main problem English Language teachers in Singapore now face, with the implementation
of the new syllabus is the selection of appropriate materials based on the themesltopics in the syllabus,
and in applying practical teaching strategies and classroom-based activities that would provide
opportunities for integration of the four language skills in meaningful student interaction and
communication in realistic and contextualised situations 1994). Faced with this
challenging task, what criteria should teachers apply in their selection of materials and
activities? A review of research reveals that analysis" may be a useful tool at the teacher's
disposal as it provides the organisational basis for the selection of suitable materials for teaching
reading comprehension and writing. A few studies reviewed (Meyer 1982, 1984, Langer 1992,
and 1994195) demonstrate that instruction which guides students in identifying
structure, by providing them with a wider repertoire of organisational types, not only improves
reading comprehension but also helps them in their written compositions as they are better able to
choose the appropriate structure and linguistic devices to accomplish specific communication goals and
make their writing more effective.
WHAT IS "GENRE ANALYSIS"?

"Genre analysis" a technique of conventional aspects of language use

For pedagogical purposes, it is useful to identify the various genres that students are
encounter in their reading and writing, namely, narrative, descriptive, expository or
addition, it is also useful to highlight specific and
associated with each genre for instructional purposes. (Bhatia,

WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY?

Research has shown that teaching students about top-level rhetorical organisation of
is, genre analysis, enhances their reading comprehension and writing skills.

Empirical data gathered by Meyer (1982) demonstrated that five different types of
text structure affect reading comprehension, namely, causation, comparison,
description, and time-order. In one study of ninth graders, students were required to
(immediately and again a week later) two texts, one written with the comparison structure and the other
with the structure. Through analysis of the written recall protocols, Meyer found
students who organised their recall of texts according to the structure of the text, remembered more
content, including the main ideas and the supporting details. They did better on a test based
on the content of the passage and they had higher scores on reading comprehension tests.
Meyer obtained similar results in studies with older students, including university undergraduates.

(1984) study yielded similar results. This study involved students reading expository
texts which conveyed the same content but employed different organising structures, that of
comparison, problendsolution, causation, or description. The results showed that readers who
organised their recalls based on the structure of the text version they read were able to recall
significantly more ideas from the original text than those students who did not use the structure to
their recalls.

A more recent study by Langer (1992) analysed reports written by a sample of 16 third
graders, 36 sixth graders and 15 ninth graders using an adaptation of Meyer's prose analysis system in
which tree diagrams were generated to depict how children interrelated central content and ways of
subordinating, linking, and elaborating their ideas. This analysis structure involved the
overall idea at the top level of the tree and placing all other content in the text which
elaborated on this idea at subordinate levels. In this way, Langer demonstrated the range of structures
used by these mainstream American children and their development with maturity:

simple description,
(2) topic with description,
(3) topic with description and commentary,
(4) topic with elaboration or
(5) point of view with defense.

(199411995) described a pilot study of an ESL instructional unit which combined

writing process approaches, integrated language arts activities and direct instruction on different
forms. This unit was piloted in a fifth-grade public school classroom in Arizona city. Each section
the unit followed a similar of instruction, beginning with a brief review of content and
information covered in previous lessons. The writing instruction over a 5-week period progressed
narrative to descriptive to persuasive to expository. and post-assessment measures demonstrated
positive changes in student writing, content knowledge and attitudes. The findings of this study
that instruction focusing on language use and genres different ways of organising
information as well as explicit practice and guided support enhanced students' awareness of different
ways of constructing texts and their chances of experiencing success in school

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS

Here are some useful strategies for teaching students to apply genre analysis in reading
comprehension and writing.

1. Identify the genres that students require in reading and writing: narrative, descriptive, expository
or argumentative.

2 . Focus on the characteristic organisation and language used in a

particular genre such as Chronological Order, Spatial Order, of Focus,
Logical Order, Order and Balance of Contrasts. (It is to be noted that this list is by no
means exhaustive and that different terms have been used to refer to these organisation structures.)

Select materials that are good examples of the particular genre and that are organised based on a
particular organisation structure and include the language items (grammar, cohesion and
vocabulary) typical of the genre.

4 . Help students to identify these characteristic features in the reading passages.

5 . Provide ample and varied to guide students to practise this organisation structure and
language items in their own writing, for example, in writing sentences and in
writing

6. Provide independent practice to enhance mastery of the organisation pattern, linguistic and
cohesive devices as well as the vocabulary items associated with a specific genre.

Have students apply the organisation structure and related

devices to a variety of texts and tasks.

Only when students have mastered the basic organisation structures, should teachers proceed to point
out and teach combinations of these features.

CONCLUSION

In meeting the challenge of implementing a syllabus based on a thematic and whole language
approach, genre analysis may provide the organisational for helping students with reading
and writing, both of which are essential skills for the mastery of English Language. Explicit instruction
on the use of organisational text structures not only enhances comprehension, much more than
instruction based on content of reading material, but also helps the student to select the rhetorical,
organisational structures to achieve specific communication objectives and to signal the organisation of
a text through appropriate linguistic devices in their own writing (See also 1987). Proficiency
in the language which is the medium of instruction in Singapore will help students cope the
demands and exigencies of academic life by better performance in other subjects whether in
the humanities or the sciences.
REFERENCES

V. genre: use in settings. In N.

(Ed.), Applied Linguistics and Language Study. London, U.K.:

P. (1984). The effects of rhetorical organisation on ESL readers. TESOL

P. (1987). Text as interaction: implications of analysis and reading

for ESL composition. In U. R. B. Writing across
Analysis of Text, p. 47-56. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Langer, A. Reading, writing, and genre development. In W. Irwin M. A.

connections: Learning from research, 32-54. Newark,
Delaware, International Reading Association.

E. A. S. C. (1994). INSTEP: Integrated Skills in Teaching English

Programme: Narrative writing. In S. E. A Lim, M. V. Saravanan (Eds.),
Fourth National Reading Conference Proceedings: Literacy: Understanding the learner's
needs, p.148-156. Singapore: Society for Reading and Literacy.

B. J. F. Reading research and the composition teacher: The importance of plans.

College composition and communication, 37-49.

Mok, R., Sandosham, L. Neufeld, L. S. Integrating for effective learning. In J.

I. Lee A. Lim (Eds.), Asian Reading Congress 1995 Selected papers: Literacy and
in Asia: Problems and issues in the next decade, p. 81-108. Singapore: National
Book Development Council of Singapore and Society for Reading and Literacy (Singapore).

R. A genre-based approach to content writing TESOL Journal,

32-35.
 CONCEIT MAPPING IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

Review by
Grace

Can history be taught in an interesting manner? Will students understand abstract historical
concepts? Will students enjoy their history lessons? In Singapore, where history is a compulsory
subject for all Secondary One and Two students, these questions are of particular relevance.
is because the students have never studied history as a separate subject. In the primary school, the
students only learn about Singapore's historical development in their Social Studies classes.
Consequently, it is only in their first two years of secondary schooling the students learn about
the subject of history. Therefore it is essential for history to be taught well to these students since
many of them do not continue with the subject in Secondary Three.

As the teacher plays a crucial role in providing students with a firm foundation in history,
it is important that the teacher has a mastery of the subject matter as well as the ability to organize
and present content clearly to students. To help the teacher operate more effectively, researchers
have identified various strategies. One such strategy is concept mapping. This strategy is
especially useful for the history teacher as the subject of history consists of abstract concepts like
nationalism and kingship. These are difficult ideas for the teacher to explain and the students may
have problems in understanding these terms.
RESEARCH

What is Concept Mapping?

According to Novak and a concept map represents meaningful

concepts in the form of propositions. Propositions are or more concepts
words. An example of a proposition is "the king powerful". concepts are
hierarchical manner with the more general superordinate concepts placed above the more
concepts. For example, the concept trade is placed above and therefore subsumes more
concepts like monopoly, entrepot trade trade. The concept map also permits
relationships among concepts. For instance, different forms of trade involve various
government control. Thus, a concept map of trade might be as follows:

TRADE
I I
Free Trade Entrepot Trade
I I
control free port import and reexport of goods

By providing a visual road map which shows some of the pathways the teacher and student
may take in connecting facts, the concept map is therefore a useful device to help teacher and
student identify the main ideas they must focus on. It also shows the importance of
new and existing knowledge. Students have to re-sort ideas and relate new ideas in
preparing a concept map of a topic being learnt.

BENEFITS O F USING CONCEPT MAPPING

1. Key can be identified and explained by the teacher

As an expert who is knowledgeable about the subject maner, the teacher can help students
to identify and understand key concepts. Chi (1985) points out that this is important as what
people know affects the way in which they approach a problem. She cites the example of children
and adults. She argues that they both structure knowledge in a similar way. However, she notes
that children's categories of knowledge may be more restricted in terms of the number of categories
which they can form and in terms of the content of these categories. She explains that
form fewer categories with fewer core items because of the deficiency of their knowledge base.
However, if the child is knowledgeable in the area being studied, the child may categorize content
differently. Chi illustrates this with the example of a four and a half year old boy, M.K.,
knows a great deal about dinosaurs. He is able to use his knowledge about them to sort
dinosaurs into two groups - meat eaters and plant eaters. Chi (1985, p 478) concludes that a
young child is capable of sorting at a superordinate level (food habits), one that has been found
zoologists to be basic to classification of mammals because of the well organized and
representation that M.K. had of dinosaurs. In contrast, the novice adult with
knowledge about dinosaurs, focuses on perceptual features and looks for visual similarities.
knowledge and not age is the determining factor in the way in which a person classifies
into meaningful categories by using more abstract ideas or concepts. By sharing his
knowledge about these concepts with students, the teacher can help the novices acquire a
understanding of difficult historical ideas.
2
2. "Weasel words" can be clarified

Concept also useful in helping the teacher explain the meaning "weasel words"
(Gunning, 1978). According to Gunning (1978 more attention must be given to such words
as "these words are abstractions which might cause pupils trouble". Weasel words are
not particularly "history" words and may occur in almost any context. The words do not even
sound difficult. Words like immigrant, and contribution are examples of weasel words
which the teacher needs to explain to students. Hull (1985, concurs and suggests that the
teacher has to explain what a phrase like "the country was poor" might mean to a 12 year old it
might "conjure up an image of everyone in rags". In Singapore, we cannot assume that students
understandthe meaning of supposedly simple words like contribution. This word is used in the
Primary 4 Social Studies Textbook. A concept map can be used to explain the contribution of early
settlers. It can focus on what immigrants did in four areas for example trade, hospitals, schools
and places of worship.

Contributions
I

Trade Places Worship

Hospitals Schools
I I
Tan schools

Such a concept map is as it helps students to understand that early settlers contributed in
various ways to the social and economic development of Singapore

3. Students' conceptual understanding can be assessed

Concept maps can be used to obtain information about students' understanding of concepts.
In Physics, researchers like Cohen, Eylon and Ganiel (1983) reveal that their students' concept
maps showed that they had difficulties in understanding concepts like current, potential difference,
and internal resistance. Peters (1982, also reported that even honours students had
misconceptions. If students can be asked to develop their own concept maps, the teacher will be
able to obtain valuable feedback about students' misconceptions, and then be better prepared for
"remedial" lessons. For instance, if the teacher examines a student's concept map about trade, the
teacher may discover that the student is not sure whether the same goods are re-exported in
entrepot trade or whether the traders have to pay taxes in the free trade port. This information is
useful for the teacher when conducting a remedial class on the growth of trade in Singapore.

4. Content can be more effectively organised

The teacher can develop concept maps to show students how to organize information. In
the case of history, the teacher can use concepts to connect facts together. By seeing patterns in
historical events, students will not view history as a list of isolated and events which have
to be memorized. Instead, the students will understand how events are
 FOR

The research findings on the use of concept mapping has the following

Provide training for teachers

Teachers will need more training and support in developing concept maps. By
how concept maps help to organize historical content, teachers will no longer just transmit
accumulated body of facts to students. Instead, teachers will be able students how to
historical evidence through the construction of concept maps.

2. Encourage student participation in history lessons

The use of concept mapping provides ample for the teachers to involve
students in the process of constructing a picture of the past. By developing concept maps, the
students will not only have a better understanding of abstract concepts in history but also learn how
to interpret historical data.

REFERENCES

M.(1983). Concept mapping: Structure or process? Research in Science Education, 9,

13-17.

Carey, (1986). Cognitive science and science education. American Psychologist, 41,
1130.

Chi, M.T.H.(1985). Interactive roles of knowledge and strategies in the development of organized
sorting and recall. In Thinking and Learning Skills, Vol 2: Research and Open
Questions. S.F. J.W. Segal and R. Hillsdale New Jersey:
Lawrence and Erlbaum.

Cohen, R., Eylon, B. and Ganiel, U. (1983). Potential difference and current in simple electric
circuits. American Journal Physics, 51,

Gunning, D. (1978). The Teaching of History, London: Helm.

Hull, R. (1985). The language gap: How classroom dialogue fails. London: Methuen.

Novak, J.D. and D.E. (1984) Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Peters, P.C. (1982). Even honors students have conceptual difficulties with physics. American
Journal of Physics, 50,501-508.
 DEVELOPING MENTAL COMPUTATION SKILLS

Review by
Ewe Ewe

INTRODUCTION

Mental computation is ability to compute exact numerical answers mentally without the aid
of any recording or calculating device like paper and pencil or a calculator. It is not only a practical skill
which is useful in our daily lives but has other benefits. It is beneficial in promoting a greater
understanding of the structure of numbers and in developing useful computational estimation techniques
and Kelin, 1993). In Singapore secondary schools, where calculators are
mental computation are fast becoming obsolete. In it was reported, that thousands of
school who are starting work were unable to perform simple mental arithmetic, without the aid of
a calculator Straits Times 1.10.1996). Mathematics teachers and educators have a reason to worry
when there is an over-reliance on a calculating device, even though the numerical task can be solved
mentally.

VIEWS ON LEARNING BASIC COMBINATIONS

How do children learn basic number combinations? Basic number combination refers to the
addition with single digit addends to (9 9) and the 21 combinations in the series
(10 + to (10 + including their commuted pairs. This includes multiplication and
division combinations.

(1985) outlines the historical debate of the two major views on how basic number
combinations are learnt. The drill theory as its name suggests emphasizes by means of
repetition or drills. Answers are retrieved associative memory and the understanding of number
relationship is not necessary. explains the rapid fact of retrieval in simple mental mathematics.
According to the meaning theory, master number relationships through experiences
and habitual production of the number combinations.
 proposes an alternative model, where the mastery of number
discovering and relationships. Meaningful instruction like the teaching of
strategies would probably contribute more than drills. drills may foster the formation
specific numerical associations and routinize the application of procedures and principles.

MENTAL STRATEGIES

Hope and research (1987) has shown that students who are not skilled in
computation very use strategies which are to the written algorithms. Students ignored
obvious number relationship and routinely used the formal paper-and-pencil algorithms even when it
not necessary and (30 X 5). is in contrast to the more skilled students who
strategies based upon number properties and other self-taught strategies. In one case study a 13 year-old
student, who was very skilful at mental arithmetic, was able to solve very difficult tasks by using
ingenious self-taught calculations which she developed through investigation with numbers and number
patterns.

In the number domain from 20 to Beishuizen found two main (noncolumnwise)

strategies for mental addition and subtraction widely used by Dutch second graders. one is the
split method also described as decomposition or regrouping procedures. second is the jump
not so popularly used but a more efficient method.

Example for addition + 16):

38
->
method: 38 + 10 48,

Whereas mental addition and subtraction require the basic addition and subtraction mental
multiplication requires a better understanding of number concepts. (1986) described
mental strategies for mental multiplication as appmach and appmach. The
is characterized by renaming (or estimating) one of the factors, multiplying the parts separately, and
then adding (or subtracting). Below is an example applying

Example: 5 x 38:

approach:

round 38 to 40
5x40 =
40-38= 2
2 = 10
200-10 = 190
 In the approach the product is found by using easy and divisions
to the of this approach for (25 x 64) is shown below:

one factor and divide the product by same

or
ii) double each factor,
=

These are some of strategies useful for mental computation of the four operations.
More important though is how they can be integrated into the curriculum for

IMPLICATIONS FOR

Recent studies have demonstrated that some children use counting and calculation
to reconstruct basic number previously memorized facts (Carpenter
Moser, 1984). Helping children to calculate mentally would enable them to build on previously
learned strategies. A few implications for are as follows:

do not teach in but incorporate into lesson plans on a regular

ni
basis and integrate with other topics. For effective learning to be achieved, not only instruction
and practice is necessary but discussion is

give students a chance to discuss and commu cate their thinking so the fear of giving a wrong
answer reduced. There may be multiple strategies in solving a mental calculation as the
teacher probes the students. At this stage, speed in the mental calculation is secondary as
compared to understanding.

3) give the students to on and so reinforce certain strategies and shortcuts, and
perhaps show them the teacher's method of working too.

4) emphasize the strategies using visual thinking. Nunber lines are helpful
in visualizing addition and subtraction and can help in multiplication (Hope,
Reys, B.J. and Reys, R.E., 1988)

5) delay the introduction of written methods until a thorough understanding of the mental
strategies has been developed. in a study by (1985) it was
found that children developed their own computational routines in preference school
routines).

CONCLUSION

Mental computation plays a vital role in mathematical reasoning. need for instruction in
mental computation strategies must be Hence, as teachers, we must constantly seek
opportunities to extend children's use appreciation of mental methods. It a for
to be throughout the and not taught in
SOURCES

A.J. Mastery of basic number combinations: internalization of

Journal for in Mathematics Education, 16, 83-98.

(1993). Mental and materials or models for addition and subtraction

in Dutch second grades. Journal for in Mathematics Education, 24,

Carpenter, T.P., Moser, (1984). The acquisition of addition and subtraction concepts in
one through three. Journal for in Mathematics Education, 15,

T.N. A.D. Computation routines prescribed by schools:

hindrance? Journal for in Education, 16, 37-44.

D.W. (1986). Components of mental multiplying. In Estimation and Mental Computation,

1986 Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, pp. Va.:
The Council, 1986.

Hope, J.A., J.M. (1987). Characteristics of and skilled mental calculators. Journal
for Research in Mathematics Education,

Hope, J.A., Reys, B.J. Reys, R.E. Mental math in junior high. Alto, Calif.: Dale
Seymour Publications, 1988.

Sowder, J.T. sense and related topics. In Owens, D.T.

ideas for the classroom middle mathematics. National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. Research project.

Straits (1.10.1996): Young British workers cannot count.

 ESTABLISHING EFFECTIVE RULES FOR
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES

INTRODUCTION

Rules are usually written statements that "identify general expectations for behaviours that
cover a variety of situations" (Siedentop, 1991, p. 83). Rules are formalized guidelines that
frequently indicate unacceptable student behaviours, although can also be positively stated.
Regardless of how rules are stated, they always imply both what is and is not acceptable

The purpose of establishing in any class is to guide and limit student conduct.
Students know what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. In addition, consequences for
behaviours that either stretch or violate their boundaries need to be clearly explained. Sometimes
the consequences are explained to students, posted on bulletin boards, or printed and handed out to
students. A posted set of rules permits the teacher to focus attention on and create a strong
expectation about behaviours that are very important. Usually posting rules is not mandatory or
common practice in secondary schools, but such a practice is strongly recommended for primary
classes. Furthermore, a teacher might send a copy of the rules home to be returned with parents'
signatures.

Therefore, when rules are properly established, they allow students to function responsibly.
This article describes how can be effectively developed for different behaviours in physical
education classes, and provides guidelines for teaching such rules to students.

REVIEW OF RESEARCH

Studies of effective teaching with classroom teachers (Brooks, 1985; Evertson, Emmer,
1982; Sanford, Emmer, Clements, 1983; Sanford, Evertson, 1981) and physical education
specialists (Fink Siedentop, 1989; Wragg &Wood, 1984) confirm the importance of establishing
rules in class. Although these studies differed in content areas -English, mathematics, science and
physical education - and were conducted at both primary and secondary levels, findings were
relatively consistent. Effective teachers were found to be more systematic and thorough in
they established, implemented and enforced rules.

For example they:

* clearly defined their ground rules for specific patterns of appropriate behaviour
* taught students how to follow a few carefully chosen rules during the first few class periods
before any activity began
* were clearer and more persuasive when presenting rules for behaviours and attitudes
frequently reminded students about the rules throughout the school year
* often prompted and questioned students about rules and provided them with feedback for
compliance and noncompliance
* constantly monitored student behavior and stated desired behaviour more regularly
* stopped disruptive and inappropriate behaviours quickly by using rules more frequently
* enforced appropriate consequences consistently

I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR T E A C H I N G

Rules for Different Situations

Teachers have to carefully think through and anticipate behavioural problem areas in their PE
classes. They must then decide what rules they are going to set for the class before the start of the
new school year. Rules in physical education (adapted from Siedentop, 1991) tend to relate to
behaviours in the following situations:

1. Safety
Using equipment safely relative to self and classmates, take javelin when instructed,
stand a safe distance away from partner with hockey stick, lift and carry equipment
correctly.

2. Attire
Wearing proper clothing for safe participation in physical activity, no slippers or
sandals, remove watches, no jewellery.

3. Respecting the learning environment

Using and caring for equipment and the facilities, return equipment to proper location
use.

4. Respecting others
Being courteous and polite to the teacher and fellow classmates, listen while others are
speaking, no indiscriminate throwing of balls at each other, no teasing or name calling,
avoid use of abusive language or hostile gestures.

5. Supportingthe learning of others

Sharing, supporting, and helping the group, take turns, cooperate with others, do
6. Promoting the learning process
Using rime well, staying on-task, making an effort to learn, he punctual, no fooling
around, pay attention to instructions, follow directions carefully.

Guidelines for Developing Rules

(1991, p. 86) also suggests guidelines for teachers follow when developing
rules for physical education classes:

1. Rules should be short and directly to the point.

2. Rules should be communicated in language appropriate to the age level of the students.
3. Develop between five to eight rules for important categories of behaviour which can be
easily remembered by students.
4. When possible, state rules positively, but make sure that both positive and negative
examples are provided.
5. Make sure class are consistent with school rules.
6. Relate consistent consequences to rules.
7. Don't create rules which you cannot, or are not willing to enforce.

Teaching Rules t o Students

Almost all PE teachers have rules in their classes. Not all, however, teach them
effectively, or enforce the consequences consistently. It is important that rules are taught to
students early during the first few weeks. In this way, before panerns of misbehaviour can
develop, teachers will have communicated relevant expectations and desired behaviour to their
students. Furthermore, rules need to be reinforced at regular intervals throughout the school year.
The method of presenting ruies to the class is also critical to how a system of rules and the rewards
for adhering to them, or the penalties for breaking them can be successfully applied. PE teachers
can present rules to students using the following sequence:

1. State and explain the rule

For example: use equipment properly and with care

2. Provide a student-centred rationale for the rule

For example.. if equipment is misused it may not last very long, thus reducing the amount
of equipment in use

3. Give good examples of both obeying and violating rules

For example: hold, do not sit on basketballs whilst listening to instructions

4. Explain the consequences for rule violations

For example: sit on the basketballs whilst listening to instructions, you be
responsible for collecting and putting them away at the end of the lesson

5. When rules are broken, the appropriate consequence should be applied

For example: all violating rules have to help put away the equipment use

6. Compliance with rules should be positively reinforced

example: praise for holding basketballs rather than on them.
3
CONCLUSION

Rules will vary according to school expectations and policies, teacher philosophies, student
I
maturity, and different content areas. Physical education teachers have to decide between
selecting behaviour-specific o r general for all the important situations within the physical
education context. Regardless of the of rules, students must be taught the appropriate conduct
in those situations. For example, a PE teacher may make a specific rule like students should
seated while the teacher instructing. In such an instance, the rule can be taught quickly and
enforced easily. However, general rules like, respect the rights of others or take care of the
equipment may require the teacher to teach them in a variety of situations and activities encountered
in physical education. Students learn compliance to rules through continuous examples of what
the acceptable response to a general rule and what is unacceptable. The younger the child, the
more positive and negative examples of appropriate conduct are necessary to develop and
communicate the general rule. This will require greater effort by the teacher in monitoring student
behaviour and consistency in reinforcing rules. However, in the long run, such an approach is
crucial to the success of the class and the "sanity" of the teacher.

SOURCES

Brooks, D. M. (1985). Beginning the year in junior high: The first day of school. Educational
Leadership, 42, 76-78.

Evertson, C., Emmer, E. (1982). Effective management at the beginning of the school year in
junior high classes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74,

Fink, J., Siedentop, D. (1989). The development of routines, rules, and expectations at the
start of the school year. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8,

Sanford, J. P., Evertson, C. M. (1981). Classroom management in a low SES junior school:
Three case studies. Journal of Teacher Education, 32, 34-38.

Sanford, J., Emmer. T., B. (1983). Improving classroom management.

Educational Leadership, 40,

Siedentop, D. (1991). Developing teaching skills in physical education (3rd ed.). Mountain
View, CA: Mayfield.

Wragg, E. C., &Wood, E. K. (1984). Teachers' first encounters with their classes. In E. C.
Wragg (Ed.), Classroom Teaching Skills 47-78). London: Croom Helm.
 HERE A PLAN, THERE A P N IS THE BEST PLAN?
Review by
Susan B.

INTRODUCTION
.
Planning is everywhere. in schools, in meetings, in the news. Principals, Heads of
teachers, even ordinary individuals have all heard about or experienced plans or some form of
planning:

Action plans Work plans

Strategic plans Lesson plans
Management plans National development plans
Long-range plans Short-tern plans
Financial plans Retirement plans

What do plans have in common? What good are they? This article to illustrate
how planning, specifically strategic planning, can be an important tool for schools and teachers by
describing its potential and its problems.

WHAT IS STRATEGIC PLANNING?

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a plan as "A or method

according to something is to be done; a scheme of action, project, design; the way in which it is
proposed to out some proceeding." The dictionary has no definition for planning. The
following quotations offer three perspectives on strategic authors:

Planning is a process by which an individual or organisation decides in advance on some future

course of action. . . . can be valuable to in achieving their
objectives and to individuals in attaining personal aims. Cope, 1977, pp. 2 -3)

The principle purpose of strategic planning is to help the systematically at

important decisions while involving as many as possible in the deliberations. (Bryce, 1992, p.
158)
[Strategic is] a disciplined effort to produce decisions and actions that
shape and guide what an organisation is, what it does, and why it does it. 1995, pp.
4-5)

Thus, strategic planning focuses on the process of making decisiom and developing the
necessary to guide an organisation or individual the future. Participation by persons
who will be involved in or by the process is also proposed.

CHALLENGES AND BENEFITS

Concerns may be expressed that the world is rapidly for of any kind to
be and that by the time a strategic plan is developed, it is impossible to implement or complete
the phase because the situation is different. may question the value, that the
Ministry of Education may announce a new initiative or new requirement at any time. Teachers may
question the value if they anticipateturnover in school leadership team or other teachers. In just the
last year, the following are a few that have education in Singapore:
1
 New salary scale and career ladders
Very successful recruitment of new teachers
Expansion of Edusave Grants to schools
Increased numbers of autonomous schwls
Commitment of $1.5 billion to IT for schools
Moving to single-session schwls
Incorporation of national education into the cumculum

Changes do occur quickly and the future is hard to predict. But, planning can help
move away from dealing with change through crisis management
planning, a vision of the future is developed. An or a person the
picture, and a sense of direction for the next 3 to years. Using this vision or
basis, priorities are established which provide greater detail and focus for both the short-term
years) and the longer-term (3-5 years). While the vision may be even longer term in nature,
specific priorities too far out usually assumes a more stable environment than can be
expected. With a sense of direction and priorities, decision processes also
because there is a clearer understanding of what should supported and why. There is movement
away from the reactive, crisis mode and movement toward a proactive, anticipatory mode.

Other benefits of planning are the of priorities to resources and the establishing
means to measure progress toward goals. Using the priorities, funding can be directed toward
programmes based on their purposes. Activities must be justified in relation to the vision and priorities
instead of being funded without regard to or outcome. Accountability is increased
in this and when measures of progress are evaluated. Is the goal being approached? Should the
programme be revised? Is there information or methods that will help achieve the objective? A
school can more about what is really happening.

For example, two years ago, a local secondary school recognised the importance of information
technology in the future of its students and the need to facilitate access to and integration of IT
into the learning environment. Priorities were established for the acquisition of the
training of teachers, and the integration of into selected areas of the
progress has been made on these priorities. Students at all levels are exposed to in
different contexts. Most teachers feel comfortable with the new technology and are beginning to
explore different ways of using as a pedagogical tool. Strategic planning helped the
focus its attention and resources in order to respond to a major trend.

APPROACHES T O PLANNING

The standard approach to strategic planning uses the rational planning model. Two
models also will be considered: the pragmatic model and the lateral model (Knight, 1993). The
planning approach consists of a cycle that involves several steps.:

1. Establishing vision, goals by current situation, future possibilities

2. Developing objectives and targets to be achieved
3. action plans that set out must be done and who will do it
4. Linking plans to necessary resources (human, financial, physical)
5. the action plans
6. Monitoring of progress
7. Evaluating if adjustments are required in action plans, resources, or goals

2
 Although the process one step follows another in a linear manner until the
goal is achieved (See Figure The previous example of the school dealing with follows a typical
rational planning process Unfortunately, schools and life may not always be rational. Reality may be
a very political and environment may make certain aspects of this model untenable.

Adapted Knight, 1993, p. 3

The pragmatic model (Figure 2) does not assume that the future will flow in a continuous and
contiguous but does assume the existence of a guiding vision or goals. Progress is made through
small opportunistic steps that are not formulated ahead of time. Knight (1993, p. 30) notes that the
method is flexible, can build on existing strengths, and may be suited to a complex process, such as
curriculum development and implementation.

A science department might have a goal to expand students' perspectives of environmental

science. The teachers will be looking for ideas or opportunities that support the goal. One might
discover that students can tour the water treatment facility and have the option of a
pollution episode. Another teacher may a simulation on CD-ROM that broaden perspectives.
Another investigates the use of student projects. The department works its goals,
sharing and incorporating elements as they are identified and tested. Unfortunately, the model
can too by only the by to maintain an awareness of
innovations and alternatives.

The lateral model is an unusual approach, but again rests on an understood vision. Lateral
planning attempts to identify all possible means to reach the vision. Brainstorming, involvement of
diverse groups, analysis, and creative thinking are required. As are proposed, each is
thoroughly investigated. As in Figure 3, some options may be partially successful (El), some
may fail and z), and others will reach the goal.

A school library might be in a bad state with poor facilities, few materials, and by
students. The is to provide students with easy access to a variety of materials, print
and non-print. Instead of leaping to the conclusion that the school should improve the. and buy
more books, a school using the lateral model would looking for all the possibilities, and
investigate each one thoroughly. Perhaps, one idea is to develop a special relationship with the
nearby branch of the National Library Another idea is to seek donations of books, films, and
from local publishers and distributors (El). A third idea is to go completely automated, no
material at all Some ideas will work, others will not, but the of alternatives is broadened and
increases the of finding several beneficial approaches.

This approach is time consuming and should probably only be used in situations
than on a regular basis. As schools struggle to technology and pedagogy, this may become
more important.
3
SUGGESTIONS FOR T H E SCHOOL, THE TEACHER, THE INDIVIDUAL

Try to plan strategically. Attempt to identify what should be achieved over a longer period
time. As one author put it, is an incitement to action" 1985, p 89). Any of the
above methods or a of methods can be used, but all should incorporate the following:

1. Clarify your purpose. What is your vision, personal in life? What

your about the future?
2. Set priorities. Not everything can happen at once.
3. Develop strategies to get the job done.
4. Make the necessary investment in these strategies.
5. Keep your eyes and ears ready for supportive opportunities.
6. Check your progress and adapt.

At the same time, do not forget that planning is nor a leadership. Without the
commitment of leaders and followers, nothing will happen. will not be made, resources
will not flow, and will pass by.

Planning itself should not become the focus. The spotlight must remain on the vision, goals,
and objectives. Feedback, review, and revision provide the input necessary to keep a strategic plan
vital and responsive to new information, a changing environment, and the of
people.

SOURCES

W. H. and Cope, D. M. (1977). The planning process. Cambridge, MA:

Bryce, H. J. and strategic management for nonprofit organizations. 2nd ed.

NJ:

(1995). Strategic planning for public and nonprofit organizations: A to

strengthening and sustaining organizational achievement. Rev. ed. San Francisco:
Bass.

Knight, B. (1993). management for schools: The thinking manager's guide. Oxford:
Educational.

H. (1994). The rise and fall of strategic planning. New York: Free Press.

F. and
 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION

The concept of Total Quality Management is increasing among

educational administrators and practitioners as schools are faced with increasing pressure to achieve a range
of performance objectives in a climate of societal change, and TQM is a
framework and a set of practical ideas which school-based can use to more effective m
meeting the of parents and their children and in the of schools in which teachers
and students want to work.

article briefly explains the TQM philosophy; reviews research on the perceived of
TQM in education, and suggests ways in which teachers and administrators can TQM in
Singapore schools.

WHAT IS TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT?

Total Quality Management is a management philosophy developed by W. out of

his experiences in U.S. industry before and during the Second World War. The of TQM
by Japanese industry, but not by the U.S., is widely credited for the former's miraculous post-war
and the current massive imbalance between the In 1986,
published a book entitled Out in which he his ideas and exhorted U.S. to
adopt them as the Japanese had done successfully. Although his book was intended for and
captains of industry, it was also read by educationalists who attempted to apply his ideas to the school
situation.

In Total Management in education is a continuous improvement exercise which

everyone in a totally integrated, collaborative effort improving the process of teaching
and leaming at every level. The ultimate purpose of TQM is to create a learning environment in which
teachers and students monitor their own work processes to ensure quality of their output and costly
and examination The most significant of this
continuous improvement exerciseare:

focus on helping students to their own potentials through continuous improvement of

teachers' and students' work together

empower teacher-student teams to decide on their own processes of teaching and learning

cease dependence on examinations to assess students' progress

use tests, essays, assignments, and other indicators of student to diagnose

of the rather than individual student's progress

show new teachers how to set goals, how to teach and how to assess the of
work students
 show students how to set learning gods; how to be more effective in their school work; and
assess the quality of their own work.

WHAT ARE THE PERCEIVED BENEFITS OF TQM IN EDUCATION ?

I
to the history of TQM in education, there is no empirical evidence to
application of TQM improves the academic of students. However, a number of
indicate that schools which have applied TQM have enjoyed a number of positive
for example, in a survey of "Quality Schools" in New York and
teachers working to set goals for themselves and their students, experience a more purposeful
working environment and greater among staff They also share new ideas about
methods, classroom management, curriculum and materials. In addition, members walk away
TQM meetings and rededicated to the success of their cause which is the of
teacher and student

Similarly, et al (1992) claim that in U.S. school districts where TQM is used
teachers and students improve in goal and problem solving activities while the
exercise improves relationships through team activities.

Siegel and (1994) investigating the application of TQM in high schools in Ohio, found that
one of the major of staff collaboration was the improvement in teachers' skills and abilities. They
concluded that when focused on working together, they taught each other how to teach better.

and Morgan (1993) in comprehensive schools in Britain have

adopted TQM, report that goal setting for students lower-incomefamilies reduced truancy and ensured
that all children from these schools reached the school leaving age with some qualification of value
in the labour

et also working in schools" in the U.K. assert that TQM resulted in more
openness of greater objectivity, and development of programmes which were
systematic, practical and workable within the under which teachers operate.

(1993) and Capper and however, are not quite so convinced of the
of TQM in education. They argue that models of management are inappropriate for the
development of learning communities are not machines and cannot be treated in a similar fashion.

Despite the dissenters, there is evidence from the research to suggest that TQM has the
potential to promote goal setting for students' problem solving and critical thinking.

WHAT CAN ADMINISTRATORS DO TO IMPLEMENT SUCCESSFULLY?

Schools need time to institutionalize new behaviours and activities. and (1994)
that schools adopt the followingstrategies to help acquainted with the TQM philosophy:

core values and mission statements that motivate all teachers and focus their work

challenging goals in measurable and then

2
 build a e g. a series of conducted by senior
who can analyze and share experiences

create a of working groups of staffmembers to assess needs and progress

the school

integrate quality practices into key work processes

nsk and success

CONCLUSION

On the of the above review,it would be reasonable to suggest schools in Singapore could
apply TQM to improve.

1. goal setting for teachers and students

2. students' critical and problem solving skills
3. teachers' skills and abilities
4. relationships
5. collegiality

SOURCES

(1992). Schools of quality: An introduction to Total Management in education.

Alexandria, VA: Association for and Development.

Bymes, M.A., R.A., Bymes, L.D. (1992). The quality teacher: Implementing total
management in the classroom. Florida: and Associates Press.

Capper, C.A., M.T. (1993). Let the buyer beware: Total and
research and practice Educational Researcher, 15-30.

W.E. (1986). Out the crisis: Quality, productivity and competitive position Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

D, D., Russel, V. (1994). collaborative inquiry: Evaluation for a

inside a developmental programme. In C. Holly, P. (1994). Developing
quality schools. London: The Press.

Murgatroyd, S. Morgan, C. (1993). Total Quality Management and the school

Open University

(1993). role of the principal in the development of 9:

P S. (1994). Using quality to redesign school systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Publishers.
 CONCERNS OF THE BEGINNING TEACHER
Review by
Sylvia Chong

INTRODUCTION

Beginning teachers often find their initial years of teaching highly stressful. Many feel
anxious about the problems and needs they experience when they take up their first appointment to
a school. The demands on their time seem overwhelming. Results from a longitudinal study
conducted in the United States found that failure to cope with and handle these demands led to as
many as 50% of beginninng teachers leaving the profession during the first five years of teaching
1988).

Beginning to teach is a very complex process which is inevitably different for every
individual. Studies investigating the difficulties beginning teachers face in their initial years have
obvious implications for teacher education and for educational systems and schools. The focus of
this paper however will be on the nature of the expectations beginning teachers have of themselves,
the problems involved in adjusting to the demands of teaching and in meeting the needs of students.
parents and colleagues.

ON BEGINNING TEACHERS

Self-Expectations

What emerges from reviews of research literature is that too much is expected of those who
are just starting out. Niles, Magliaro (1989) found that the expectations
of the school system, administrators and other teachers are very high with regard to what beginning
teachers are actually able to do. They assume that these beginning teachers are trained and
qualified, and thus know how to teach from the start. When in reality, despite their preparation at
college, they still have to go through a process of learning to teach on the job, while being
socialised into the school and profession at the same time.

In an Australian study, Martin (1992) found that her beginning teachers felt that their
expectations of themselves had been unrealistically high. Her study reports that beginning teachers
had to learn for themselves on the job, with little help from mentors or other teachers. She
1
proposed that in their initial programme of professional pre-service teachers
through 3 stages of concerns. These 3 stages are:

1. Selfconcerns (vocational choice, coping with course demands, basic survival

2. Task concerns (mastery of the skills required to he a competent teacher, acceptance
experienced colleagues already in the profession).
3. Impact concerns (identifying student needs. developing to meet
abilities).

Self and survival concerns, such as confirmation of vocational choice, unrealized

expectations and adjustment must be addressed before the beginning teacher can move
grapple with task and impact concerns.

It is also important to note that a young teacher's first appointment usually coincides
what is usually a significant period in the individual's life (Watson et al., 1991). Many
teachers are often forming significant relationships and are taking on serious financial burdens
the first time. These responsibilities, together with questions and selfdoubts that arise from coping
with teaching and suitability of a career choice, contribute towards the pressures beginning teachers
experience.

Adjusting to the Demands of Teaching

As pointed out in the study by Watson et teachers face 'reality shock' in their
first year of teaching. However while most make the adjustment, usually with some degree of
difficulty, it is obvious that the process causes stress and feelings of inadequacy. These beginning
teachers are often left to work things out for themselves (Martin, 1992). Niles, Magliaro
(1989) suggest that beginning teachers face dual roles namely teaching (with
unreal expectations held by both themselves and schools) and learning to teach on the job (coming
to grips with reality).

Adjusting to the 'reality' of teaching often presents the beginning teacher with worries
relating to the demanding task of teaching, including control and classroom management,
programming, adequate knowledge of subject matter, reviewing and assessing instruction or
locating suitable resources (Watson et 1991). Martin (1992) asked her sample of 102 teachers
(52 primary and 50 secondary) to list their three greatest fears during their first year of teaching
and how they came to terms with these fears. Teaching efficacy and control topped the table (Re:
Table Martin, 1992 p. 38).

Table 1. Percentages of responses to fear categories

Category Percentages of responses

Teaching efficacy
Control
Content
Peer Acceptance
Acceptance by children
Acceptance by parents
Programming
Time management
Different levels
Personal characteristics 8
 Other perceived problem areas of coming to grips with teaching included: planning for
lessons, locating and making use of resources, gaining realistic views of students and their
capabilities, developing effective assessment procedures or organizing group work. Though some
of these issues may been given considerable during teacher education programmes
and during teaching practicum, being a full rime member of staff is different from being a student
in training. The transition involves a high degree of 'reframing' with its own set of unique
variables. Beginning teachers have to come to a better understanding of themselves as teachers,
their classes as learners and the strengths and limitations of the context in which they are now
working.

the Needs Students

Within this broad issue of coming to grips with teaching, the specificproblem of adjusting
to the students and their learning needs is identified as one of major (Turney et
1985; Watson et 1991). It is very difficult to summarise the enormous range of factors which
contribute to the distinctiveness of any class. These factors might include ability ranges, learning
styles, language issues.... the list is endless. In Martin's (1992) study, 68% of her sample felt that
with hindsight not only were their expectations of themselves unrealistic, their expectations of their
students had also been too high. Teaching classes with a wide ability range and dealing with
individual differences, and motivating and assessing students different backgrounds were
areas of concerns by participating teachers in Martin's study.

Working out appropriate ways on how to best meet the needs of all students is a
challenge for newcomers to the profession and will possibly include remedial
approaches in various subjects, sound strategies for managing classrooms and ways of working
with children in disadvantaged schools at 1985). While general strategies may be
addressed in teacher education programmes, for the beginning teachers the adjustment is always to
a specific school with its own mix of students. There can be no substitute for school level
orientation, together with ongoing induction and support, during the first few years.

Coping the Demands of

While catering for individual students' needs, beginning teachers are also concerned
relating effectively to different parents. Specific issues range working with parents who are
highly involved with the school and its teachers in the education of their children, to coping with
what may appear to be lack of parental interest in students and their progress et 1985).
Often beginning teachers are particularly concerned about dealing with what they perceive to be
difticult parents, possible conflicts with the home culture, obstacles to communication, or criticism
of their efforts with children.

FOR THE BEGINNING TEACHER

The issues raised in the above studies suggest that beginning teachers might find it helpful
to bear the following considerations in mind when they take up their first teaching appointments:

Acceptance of a probably heightened sense of concern should be recognized as a

natural reaction to a new situation and challenge, because new teachers must work
 through dealing with their worries as well as task concerns, before being
adequate impact on the learning of students.

Anticipation that the initial period of teaching be quite different from

as student teachers should help those entering the profession. Conscious
the beginning teacher goes through the process of 'framing and
experiences will help them handle the multitude of task concerns.

Actively seeking a mentor is one way of tackling classroom issues, working

approaches teaching and finding learning experiences suited to the school
posted to. A trusted peer, who can be a supportive, critical friend to talk through
with, provide advice and observe classroom efforts with a view to improving
helps the beginning teacher to come to the shocks' that first
involve.

Readiness ask questions in order to find out about the school culture is another
which the beginning teacher can adopt.

Assumption of a positive orientation to learning about students and their capabilities is

important. The availability of a fellow staff member (or a network) with insights into
coping effectively with students' learning and sharing ideas about how to handle particular
students is

SOURCES

Heyns, B. (1988) Educational defectors: A first look at teacher attrition in the rational longitudinal
survey. Educational 24-32

(1992) Concerns of first-year teachers in Australian Catholic schools. South Pacific

Journal of Teacher Education, 20 (2) 95-104

Turney, C. et A new basis for teacher education: The practicum curriculum. Sydney:
Sydmac Academic Press

Watson, A. et (1991) Staffing of schools and the quality of education: A study of teacher
stability and mobility. Sydney; Ministry of Education

T., Niles, J. Magliaro, S. and R. (1989) Teaching and learning to teach:

The two roles of beginning teachers, The Elementary School Journal,