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 0-07-234764-3

9 780072 347647
Selected Descriptive Statistics Application Location
Frequency distribution Categorizes numerical responses based on a scale Chapter 3
Proportion Reflects a frequency's relationship to a sample's N Chapter 3
Percent A number representing the proportion of a score Chapter 3
per hundred
Relative frequency Percent or proportion of raw scores for X Chapter 3
di tribution
Grouped frequency Places raw scores (X) into preset value intervals Chapter 3
di tribution
True limits Range of values between which a variable lies Chapters 1, 3

Percentile rank Number reflecting percentage of scores at or below a given Chapter 3

score
Percentile Score defined by a percentile rank Chapter 3

Cumulative freq uency Number of interval values added to the total values Chapter 3
falling below an interval
Cumulative perce ntage Percentage of interval values added to the total Chapter 3
perce ntage falling below an interval
Quartile Divides a distribution into four equal portions Chapter 3

Mean Arithmetic average of a data set Chapter 4

Weighted mean Ar ithmetic average of different sized groups Chapter 4

Median Number or score dividing a data distribution in half Chapter 4

Mode Most freq uently occu rring score(s) in data set Chapter 4

Range Difference betwee n the high and low scores in a distribution Chapter 4

Interquartile range Range of scores falling between the 75th and 25th Chapter 4
percentiles (m iddle) of a di stribution

emi-interquartile range Nu merical index of half the distance between the first Chapter 4
and third quartiles in a distribution
Variance Average of the squared deviations from the mean of a Chapter 4
distribution
tandard deviation Average deviation between a given score and a Chapter 4
distribution's mean
z ore Indicates the distance between a given score and a Chapter 5
distribution's mean in standard deviation units
(also known as a standard sco re)

T core Standard score reported as a positive, whole number Chapter 5

Selected Inferential Statistics

Parametric
"assumption drh'en") Application Location
Statistics
Pear on r Index of positive, negative, or zero Chapter 6
(correlation coefficient) association between two variables
Linear regre ion Examines changes in level of variable Y relative to Chapter 7
changes in the level of variable X
Selected Descriptive Statistics Application Location
Joint probability Likelihood of selecting an observation wherein two Chapter 8
conditions are present
Conditional probability Likelihood that one event depends on another Chapter 8
event occurring
Marginal probability Likelihood of an independent event's occurrence Chapter 8
Confidence interval Range of values wherein samples drawn from a Chapter 9
population are apt to fall
Single or one-sample Determines whether observed sample mean represents Chapter 10
t test a population
Independent groups t test Examines mean difference between sample means Chapter 10
from two groups
Effect size r Magnitude of effect associated with an independent variable Chapter 10
Estimated omega Degree of association between an independent Chapters 10, II, 12, 13
squared (C;/) variable and a dependent measure
Correlated or dependent Determines difference between two means drawn Chapter 10
groups t test from the same sample at two different points in time
One-way ANOVA Determines differences between means of two or more Chapter 11
levels of an independent variable
Tukey's HSD test Identifies any pairwise differences between more Chapters 11, 12, 13
than two means
Effect size f Magnitude of effect associated with an independent Chapters II, 12, 13
variable used in an ANOVA
Two-way ANOVA Identifies differences between means representing the Chapter 12
independent effects and interaction of two variables
One-factor repeated- Identifies mean differences among three or more Chapter 13
measures ANOVA sample means representing different levels of an
independent variable
Mixed design ANOYA Examines mean differences and interactions Chapter 13
caused by between- and within-group factors

Nonparametric
("assumption free") Statistics Application Location
Chi-square "goodness- Examines whether categorical data conform to Chapter 14
of-fit" test proportions specified by a null hypothesis
Chi-square test of Determines whether frequencies associated with two Chapter 14
independence nominal variables are independent
Phi coefficient (1)) Assesses association between two dichotomous variables Chapter 14
Cramer's V Assesses association between two dichotomous variables Chapter 14
when one or both are more than two levels
Mann-Whitney Identifies differences between two independent samples Chapter 14
U test of ordinal data
Wilcoxon matched-pairs Identifies differences between two dependent Chapter 14
signed-ranks test samples of ordinal data
Spearman rank-order Assesses strength of association between ordinal Chapter 14
correlation coefficient (rs) data
Selected
Statistical
Symbols Description First appears on page

Standard error of the mean 321

Estimated variance of a population 155
Estimated standard error of the mean 379
Null hypothesis 333
Alternative or experimental hypothesis 334
Alpha (G reek) refer to probability level e.g., .05), including the probability
of making a Type I error 336
Beta (Greek) refers to probability of making a Type 11 error 350
f3
t Statistic or t te t 365
ampling distribution of the difference between means 3,9
/Lx) - X 2
Standard error of the difference between means 321
CT X) - X 2
Estimated tandard error of the difference between mean 321
5 XI - X2
df Degrees of freedom 341
W2 Estimated omega (Greek squared 391
Effect size r Effect size or magnitude reported as r 3 9
t Test for dependent group 396
Mean of the difference score -dependent group t te t 3
tandard error of the difference core -dependent group t test 3%
Population mean of the difference core 3 f
/Lv
C umber of possible com pari ons between two mean based on k group 420
MS Mean square or variance estimate 430
n' Mean of various sample sizes of 11 441

F F ratio or F stati tic from the analysis of variance 414

HSD Tukey's Honestly ignificant Difference test 4-l\J
A value, based on k groups available, used in the H D te t
Effect size for the F ratio
.. ,
4-l11
"H_

Eta-squared (G reek), used in effect ize f calculation

Lambda (G reek) weight u ed in contrast an air i
Sum of condition IOtal (T) in contrast analysis
ns " onsignificant" or not ignificant
2 Chi-square (G reek) te t for "goodness-of-fit" or mdependence
X
cp Phi coefficient, u ed to report degree of association with chi- quare test
of independence (for 2 X 2 table only) 53
v Cramer's V statistic, used to report degree of as ociatJon ,nth chi-square
test of independence
u 1ann-Whitney U test for independent sample' of rank-ordered data
rs Spearman rank order correlation coefficient
 STATISTICS AND
DATA ANALYSIS
FOR T~E
5E~AVIORAl SCIENCES
 STATISTICS AND
DATA ANALYSIS
FOR T~E
5E~AVIORAL SCIENCES

DANA S. DUNN
Moravian College

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McGraw-Hill Higher Education ~
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STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc_, 1221 Avenue of

the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the
copyright page. /
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data I
Dunn, Dana.
Statistics and data analysis for the behavioral sciences / Dana S. Dunn. -1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
!)
ISBN 0-07-234764-3
r
1. Psychometrics. 2. Psychology-Research-Methodology. I. Title. I

(
BF39.D825 2001
150' .l'5195-dc21 00-030546
CIP

www.mhhe.com

;
/
To the memory of my father and grandfather,
James L. Dunn and Foster E. Kennedy.
"WHAT'S PAST IS PROLOGUE" - THE TEMPEST (ACT II, SC. I)
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dana S. Dunn is currently an Associate Professor and the Chair of the Depart-
ment of Psychology at Moravian College, a liberal arts and sciences college in
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Dunn received his Ph.D. in
experimental social psychology from the University of
Virginia in 1987, having previously graduated with a BA
in psychology from Carnegie Mellon University in 1982.
DANA S. DUNN He has taught statistics and data analysis for over 12 years.
Dunn has published numerous articles and chapters in the
areas of social cognition, rehabilitation psychology, the
teaching of psychology, and liberal education. He is
the author of a research methods book, The Practical
Researcher: A Student Guide to Conducting Psychological Research (McGraw-Hill,
1999). Dunn lives in Bethlehem with his wife and two children.

)
i

vi
J

CONTrNTS IN 5Rlri

Preface
Acknowledgments
1 INTRODUCTION: STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS AS TOOLS
FOR RESEARCHERS 3
/'
2 PROCESS OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED
1
.; FIELDS 45
3 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS, GRAPHING, AND DATA
DISPLAY 85
4 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: CENTRAL TENDENCY AND
VARIABILITY 133
5 STANDARD SCORES AND THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 177
6 CORRELATION 205
7 LINEAR REGRESSION 241
8 PROBABILITY 273
9 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS AND
HYPOTHESIS TESTING 315
10 MEAN COMPARISON I: THE tTEST 365
11 MEAN COMPARISON II: ONE-VARIABLE ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE 411
12 MEAN COMPARISON III: TWO-VARIABLE ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE 459
13 MEAN COMPARISON IV: ONE-VARIABLE REPEATED-
MEASURES ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 499
14 SOME NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS FOR CATEGORICAL AND
ORDINAL DATA 523
15 CONCLUSION: STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS IN
CONTEXT 563

vii
Contents in Brief viii

Appendix A: Basic Mathematics Review and Discussion of Math Anxiety A-I

Appendix B: Statistical Tables B-1
Appendix C: Writing Up Research in APA Style: Overview and Focus on Results C-l
Appendix D: Doing a Research Project Using Statistics and Data Analysis: Organization,
Time Management, and Prepping Data for Analysis D-l
Appendix E: Answers to Odd-Numbered End of Chapter Problems E-l
Appendix F: Emerging Alternatives: Qualitative Research Approaches F-l
References R-l
Credits CR-l
Name Index NI-l
Subject Index SI-l
 !
)
CONTENTS

Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxvi
Reader Response xxviii
1
) 1 INTRODUCTION: STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS AS
TOOLS FOR RESEARCHERS 3
DATA BOX 1.A: What Is or Are Data? 5
Tools for Inference: David L.'s Problem 5
College Choice 6
College Choice: What Would (Did) You Do? 6
Statistics Is the Science of Data, Not Mathematics 8
Statistics, Data Analysis, and the Scientific Method 9
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 10
Populations and Samples 12
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 16
DATA BOX 1.B: Reactions to the David L. Problem 18
Knowledge Base 19
Discontinuous and Continuous Variables 20
DATA BOX 1.C: Rounding and Continuous Variables 22
Writing About Data: Overview and Agenda 23
Scales of Measurement 24
Nominal Scales 25
Ordinal Scales 26
Interval Scales 27
Ratio Scales 28
Writing About Scales 29
Knowledge Base 31
Overview of Statistical Notation 31
What to Do When: Mathematical Rules of Priority 34
DATA BOX 1.D:The Size of Numbers is Relative 38
Mise en Place 39

ix
x Contents

About Calculators 39
Knowledge Base 40
PRO.JECT EXERCISE: Avoiding Statisticophobia 40
Looking Forward, Then Back 41
Summary 42
Key Terms 42
Problems 42

2 PROCESS OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY AND

RELATED FIELDS 45
The Research Loop of Experimentation: An Overview of the
Research Process 45
Populations and Samples Revisited: The Role of Randomness 48
Distinguishing Random Assignment from Random Sampling 48
Some Other Randomizing Procedures 50
Sampling Error 52
Knowledge Base 53
DATA BOX 2.A: Recognizing Randomness, Imposing Order 54
Independent and Dependent Variables 54
Types of Dependent Measures 58
Closing or Continuing the Research Loop? 60
DATA BOX 2.B: Variable Distinctions: Simple, Sublime, and All Too
Easily Forgotten 61
The Importance of Determining Causality 61
DATA BOX 2.C: The "Hot Hand in Basketball" and the
Misrepresentation of Randomness 62
Operational Definitions in Behavioral Research 63
Writing Operational Definitions 64
Knowledge Base 64
Reliability and Validity 65
Reliability 66
Validity 67
Knowledge Base 69
Research Designs 70
Correlational Research 70
Experiments 72
Quasi-experiments 74
DATA BOX 2.D: Quasi-experimentation in Action: What to Do
Without Random Assignment or a Control Group 75
Knowledge Base 76
PRO.JECT EXERCISE: Using a Random Numbers Table 77
Looking Forward, Then Back 81
Summary 81
Key Terms 82
Problems 82

3 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS, GRAPHING, AND DATA

DISPLAY 85
What is a Frequency Distribution? 87
Contents xi

DATA BOX 3.A: Dispositional Optimism and Health: A Lot About

the LOT 88
Proportions and Percentages 90
Grouping Frequency Distributions 92
True Limits and Frequency Distributions 95
Knowledge Base 96
Graphing Frequency Distributions 97
Bar Graphs 98
Histograms 99
Frequency Polygons 100
Misrepresenting Relationships: Biased or Misleading Graphs 102
New Alternatives for Graphing Data: Exploratory Data Analysis 104
Stem and Leaf Diagrams 105
DATA BOX 3.B: Biased Graphical Display-Appearances Can Be
Deceiving 106
Tukey's Tallies 108
Knowledge Base 109
Envisioning the Shape of Distributions III
DATA BOX 3.C: Kurtosis, or What's the Point Spread? 113
DATA BOX 3.D: Elegant Information-Napoleon's Ill-fated March
to Moscow 114
Percentiles and Percentile Ranks 115
Cumulative Frequency 116
Cumulative Percentage 117
Calculating Percentile Rank 118
Reversing the Process: Finding Scores from Percentile Ranks 119
Exploring Data: Calculating the Middle Percentiles and Quartiles 120
Writing About Percentiles 122
Knowledge Base 123
Constructing Tables and Graphs 123
Less is More: Avoiding Chartjunk and Tableclutter, and
Other Suggestions 124
American Psychological Association (APA) Style Guidelines
for Data Display 125
PROJECT EXERCISE: Discussing the Benefits of Accurate but
Persuasive Data Display 126
Looking Forward, Then Back 127
Summary 128
Key Terms 129
Problems 129

4 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

VARIABILITY 133
Why Represent Data By Central Tendency 134
The Mean: The Behavioral Scientist's Statistic of Choice 136
DATA BOX 4.A: How Many Are There? And Where Did They Come
From? Proper Use of Nand n 138
Calculating Means from Ungrouped and Grouped Data 138
Caveat Emptor: Sensitivity to Extreme Scores 140
xii Contents

Weighted Means: An Approach for Determining Averages of

Different-Sized Groups 142
DATA BOX 4.8: Self-Judgment Under Uncertainty-Being Average
is Sometimes OK 143
The Median 144
The Mode 145
The Utility of Central Tendency 147
Shapes of Distributions and Central Tendency 147
When to Use Which Measure of Central Tendency 148
Writing About Central Tendency 149 (

Knowledge Base 150 ,I

I
Understanding Variability 151
The Range 153
The Interquartile and the Semi-Interquartile Range 153
Variance and Standard Deviation 155
Sample Variance and Standard Deviation 157
Homogeneity and Heterogeneity: Understanding the Standard
Deviations of Different Distributions 159
Calcuklting Variance and Standard Deviation from a Data Array 160
Population Variance and Standard Deviation 161
Looking Ahead: Biased and Unbiased Estimators of Variance and
Standard Deviation 162
Avoid Computation Frustration: Get to Know Your
DATA BOX 4.C:
Calculator 165
Knowledge Base 165
Factors Affecting Variability 166
Writing About Range, Variance, and Standard Deviation 168
DATA BOX 4.D: Sample Size and Variability-The Hospital
Problem 169
PRO.IECT EXERCISE: Proving the Least Squares Principle for the
Mean 170
Looking Forward, Then Back 171
Summary 172
Key Terms 173
Problems 173

5 STANDARD SCORFS AND THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 177

DATA BOX IIA: Social Comparison Among Behavioral and Natural
Scientists: How Many Peers Review Research Before Publication? 179
DATA BOX II.B: Explaining the Decline in SAT Scores: Lay Versus
Statistical Accounts 180
Why Standardize Measures? 181
The z Score: A Conceptual Introduction 182
Formulas for Calculating z Scores 185
The Standard Normal Distribution 186 I
Standard Deviation Revisited: The Area Under the Normal Curve 187 /
Application: Comparing Performance on More than One Measure 188 ,!
(
Knowledge Base 189
i
I

f
,.
;
 Contents xiii

Working with z Scores and the Normal Distribution 190

Finding Percentile Ranks with z Scores 191
Further Examples of Using z Scores to Identify Areas Under the
Normal Curve 192
DATA BOX S.C: Intelligence, Standardized IQ Scores, and the
Normal Distribution 194
A Further Transformed Score: The T Score 196
Writing About Standard Scores and the Normal Distribution 197
Knowledge Base 198
Looking Ahead: Probability, z Scores, and the Normal Distribution 198
PRO.JECT EXERCISE: Understanding the Recentering of Scholastic
Aptitude Test Scores 199
Looking Forward, Then Back 201
Summary 202
Key Terms 202
j Problems 202
6 CORRELATION 205
Association, Causation, and Measurement 206
Galton, Pearson, and the Index of Correlation 207
A Brief But Essential Aside: Correlation Does Not Imply
Causation 207
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient 209
Conceptual Definition of the Pearson r 209
DATA BOX 6.A: Mood as Misbegotten: Correlating Predictors with
Mood States 213
Calculating the Pearson r 216
, Interpreting Correlation 221
/ Magnitude of r 222
Coefficients of Determination and Nondetermination 222
Factors Influencing r 224
Writing About Correlational Relationships 226
Knowledge Base 227
Correlation as Consistency and Reliability 228
DATA BOX 6.B: Personality, Cross-Situational Consistency, and
Correlation 228
Other Types of Reliability Defined 229
A Brief Word About Validity 229
Examining a Correlation Matrix: A Start for
DATA BOX 6.C:
Research 230
What to Do When: A Brief, Conceptual Guide to Other Measures of
Association 231

/ DATA BOX 6.D: Perceived Importance of Scientific Topics and

Evaluation Bias 232
PROJECT EXERCISE: Identifying Predictors of Your Mood 233
Looking Forward, Then Back 237
J Summary 237
i Key Terms 238
Problems 238

/
I
xiv Contents

7 LINEAR REGRESSION 241

Simple Linear Regression 242
The z Score Approach to Regression 242
Computational Approaches to Regression 243
The Method of Least Squares for Regression 245
Knowledge Base 249
DATA BOX 7oA: Predicting Academic Success 250

Residual Variation and the Standard Error of Estimate 251

DATA BOX 7.B. The Clinical and the Statistical: Intuition Versus
Prediction 253
Assumptions Underlying the Standard Error of Estimate 253
Partitioning Variance: Explained and Unexplained Variation 256
A Reprise for the Coefficients of Determination and
Nondetermination 257
Proper Use of Regression: A Brief Recap 258
Knowledge Base 258
Regression to the Mean 259
DATA BOX 7.C. Reinforcement, Punishment, or Regression Toward
the Mean? 260
Regression as a Research Tool 261
Other Applications of Regression in the Behavioral Sciences 262
Writing About Regression Results 263
Multivariate Regression: A Conceptual Overview 263
PRo.JECT EXERCISE. Perceiving Risk and Judging the Frequency of
Deaths 264
Looking Forward, Then Back 268
Summary 268
Key Terms 269
Problems 269

8 PROBABILITY 273
The Gambler's Fallacy or Randomness Revisited 275
Probability: A Theory of Outcomes 277
Classical Probability Theory 277
DATA BOX 8oA: "I Once Knew a Man Who ...": Beware Man-Who
Statistics 278
Probability's Relationship to Proportion and Percentage 281
DATA BOX 8.B. Classical Probability and Classic Probability
Examples 282
Probabilities Can Be Obtained from Frequency Distributions 283
Knowledge Base 283
DATA BOX S.C. A Short History of Probability 284
Calculating Probabilities Using the Rules for Probability 285
The Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive and Nonmutually
Exclusive Events 285
The Multiplication Rule for Independent and Conditional
Probabilities 287
DATA BOX 8.D. Conjunction Fallacies: Is Linda a Bank Teller or a
Feminist Bank Teller? 288
 Contents xv

Multiplication Rule for Dependent Events 293

Knowledge Base 293
Using Probabilities with the Standard Normal Distribution: z Scores
Revisited 294
Determining Probabilities with the Binomial Distribution: An
Overview 299
Working with the Binomial Distribution 300
Approximating the Standard Normal Distribution with the
Binomial Distribution 301
!
,I Control, Probability, and When the Stakes Are High 304
DATA BOX 8.E:

Knowledge Base 305

p Values: A Brief Introduction 305
Writing About Probability 306
PROJECT EXERCISE: Flipping Coins and the Binomial Distribution 307
Looking Forward, Then Back 310
Summary 310
Key Terms 311
Problems 311

9 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS

AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING 315
Samples, Population, and Hypotheses: Links to Estimation and
Experimentation 316
Point Estimation 317
Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing 318
The Distribution of Sample Means 319
Expected Value and Standard Error 320
The Central Limit Theorem 322
Law of Large Numbers Redux 322
DATA BOX 9oA: The Law of Small Numbers Revisited 323
Standard Error and Sampling Error in Depth 324
Estimating the Standard Error of the Mean 324
Standard Error of the Mean: A Concrete Example Using
Population Parameters 326
Defining Confidence Intervals Using the Standard Error
of the Mean 327
DATA BOX 9.B: Standard Error as an Index of Stability and
Reliability of Means 328
Knowledge Base 329
DATA BOX 9.C: Representing Standard Error Graphically 330
Asking and Testing Focused Questions: Conceptual Rationale for
Hypotheses 331
DATA BOX 9.D: What Constitutes a Good Hypothesis? 332
Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses 333
The Null and the Experimental Hypothesis 333
Statistical Significance: A Concrete Account 336
DATA BOX 9.E: Distinguishing Between Statistical and Practical
Significance 337

J
 ,/
I

xvi Contents

Critical Values: Establishing Criteria for Rejecting the Null

Hypothesis 338
One- and Two- Tailed Tests 340
Degrees of Freedom 341
DATA BOX 9.F: When the Null Hypothesis is Rejected-Evaluating
Results with the MAGIC Criteria 342
Knowledge Base 343
Single Sample Hypothesis Testing: The z Test and the Significance of r 343
What Is the Probability a Sample Is from One Population or
Another? 344
Is One Sample Different from a Known Population? 345
When Is a Correlation Significant? 347
Inferential Errors Types I and II 349
Statistical Power and Effect Size 351
Effect Size 354
Writing About Hypotheses and the Results of Statistical Tests 355
Knowledge Base 357
PROJECT EXERCISE: Thinking About Statistical Significance in the
Behavioral Science Literature 357
Looking Forward, Then Back 360
Summary 360
Key Terms 362
Problems 362

10 MEAN COMPARISON I: THE t TEST 365

Recapitulation: Why Compare Means? 367
,.
The Relationship Between the t and the z Distributions 368
The t Distribution 368
Assumptions Underlying the t Test 369
DATA BOX 10.A: Some Statistical History: Who was '~Student"? 371

Hypothesis Testing with t: One-Sample Case 372

Confidence Intervals for the One-Sample t Test 375
DATA BOX 10.B: The Absolute Value of t 376

Power Issues and the One-Sample t Test 377

Knowledge Base 377 .....
Hypothesis Testing with Two Independent Samples 378
Standard Error Revised: Estimating the Standard Error of the
Difference Between Means 379
Comparing Means: A Conceptual Model and an Aside for Future
Statistical Tests 383
The t Test for Independent Groups 384
DATA BOX 10.C: Language and Reporting Results, or (Too) Great
Expectations 388
Effect Size and the t Test 388
Characterizing the Degree of Association Between the Independent
Variable and the Dependent Measure 389
DATA BOX 10.D: Small Effects Can Be Impressive Too 390

Knowledge Base 392

Hypothesis Testing with Correlated Research Designs 393
 Contents xvii

The Statistical Advantage of Correlated Groups Designs: Reducing

Error Variance 395
The t Test for Correlated Groups 396
Calculating Effect Size for Correlated Research Designs 399
J A Brief Overview of Power Analysis: Thinking More Critically About
,)
Research and Data Analysis 400
Knowledge Base 402
PRO.JECT EXERCISE: Planning for Data Analysis: Developing a
Before and After Data Collection Analysis Plan 402
Looking Forward, Then Back 405
Summary 405
Key Terms 406
Problems 406

11 MEAN COMPARISON II: ONE-VARIABLE ANALYSIS

OF VARIANCE 411
I Overview of the Analysis of Variance 413
Describing the F Distribution 417
Comparing the ANOVA to the t Test: Shared Characteristics and
! Assumptions 418
Problematic Probabilities: Multiple t Tests and the Risk of Type I
(
Error 420
DATA BOX 1104: R. A. Fischer: Statistical Genius and Vituperative
Visionary 422
( How is the ANOVA Distinct from Prior Statistical Tests? Some
Advantages 423
Omnibus Test Comparing More than 1Wo Means Simultaneously 423
!
DATA BOX 11.B: Linguistically Between a Rock and Among Hard
Places 424
Experimentwise Error: Protecting Against Type I Error 424
Causality and Complexity 425
Knowledge Base 426
One-Factor Analysis of Variance 426
Identifying Statistical Hypotheses for the ANOVA 427
Some Notes on Notation and the ANOVA's Steps 429
DATA BOX 11.C: Yet Another Point of View on Variance: The

/ General Linear Model 431

One-Way ANOVA from Start to Finish: An Example with
Data 431
Post Hoc Comparisons of Means: Exploring Relations in the "Big,
Dumb F" 439
Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference Test 440
Effect Size for the F Ratio 442
Estimating the Degree of Association Between the Independent
Variable and the Dependent Measure 443
DATA BOX 11.D: A Variance Paradox-Explaining Variance Due to
Skill or Baseball is Life 444
Writing About the Results of a One-Way ANOVA 445
Knowledge Base 446
xviii Contents

An Alternative Strategy for Comparing Means: A Brief Introduction

to Contrast Analysis 447
PRO.JECT EXERCISE: Writing and Exchanging Letters About the
ANOVA 451
Looking Forward, Then Back 452
Summary 453
Key Terms 454
Problems 454

12 MEAN COMPARISON III: TWO-VARIABLE ANALYSIS OF

VARIANCE 459
Overview of Complex Research Designs: Life Beyond Manipulating
One Variable 460
Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 461
DATA BOX 12.A: Thinking Factorially 463
Reading Main Effects and the Concept of Interaction 465
Statistical Assumptions of the Two-Factor ANOVA 469
Hypotheses, Notation, and Steps for Performing for the Two-Way
ANOVA 469
DATA BOX 12.B: Interpretation Qualification: Interactions
Supercede Main Effects 471
The Effects of Anxiety and Ordinal Position on Affiliation: A
Detailed Example of a Two-Way ANOVA 475
Knowledge Base 475
DATA BOX 12.C: The General Linear Model for the Two-Way
ANOVA 476
Effect Size 486
Estimated Omega-Squared (~2) for the 1Wo-Way ANOVA 487
Writing About the Results of a 1Wo-Way ANOVA 488
Coda: Beyond 2 X 2 Designs 489
Knowledge Base 490
PRO.JECT EXERCISE: More on Interpreting Interaction-Mean
Polish and Displaying Residuals 490
Looking Forward, Then Back 495
Summary 495
Key Terms 495
Problems 496

13 MEAN COMPARISION IV: ONE-VARIABLE REPEATED-

MEASURES ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 499
One-Factor Repeated-Measures ANOVA 501
Statistical Assumptions of the One-Way Repeated-Measures
ANOVA 502
Hypothesis, Notation, and Steps for Performing the One-Variable
Repeated-Measures ANOVA 503
DATA BOX 13.A: Cell Size Matters, But Keep the Cell Sizes Equat
-
..

Too 508
Thkey's HSD Revisited 510
Effect Size and the Degree of Association Between the Independent
Variable and Dependent Measure 511
 Contents xix

Writing About the Results of a One-Way Repeated-Measures

Design 512
Knowledge Base 513
DATA BOX 13.B: Improved Methodology Leads to Improved
Analysis-Latin Square Designs 514
Mixed Design ANOVA: A Brief Conceptual Overview of Between-
Within Research Design 515
PROJECT EXERCISE: Repeated-Measures Designs: Awareness of
Threats to Validity and Inference 516
Looking Forward, Then Back 518
Summary 518
Key Terms 519
Problems 519
i
J
I
14 SOME NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS FOR
I CATEGORICAL AND ORDINAL DATA 523
J How Do Nonparametric Tests Differ from Parametric Tests? 525
I
I Advantages of Using Nonparametric Statistical Tests Over
Parametric Tests 526
Choosing to Use a Nonparametric Test: A Guide for the Perplexed 527
DATA BOX 14.A: The Nonparametric Bible for the Behavioral
Sciences: Siegel and Castellan (1988) 528
The Chi-Square (X 2 ) Test for Categorical Data 528
Statistical Assumptions of the Chi-Square 529
/ The Chi-Square Test for One-Variable: Goodness-of-Fit 529
The Chi-Square Test of Independence of Categorical Variables 534
DATA BOX 14.B: A Chi-Square Test for Independence Shortcut for
2 X 2 Tables 538
Supporting Statistics for the Chi-Square Test of Independence: Phi
(cp) and Cramer's V 538
Writing About the Result of a Chi-Square Test for Independence 539
DATA BOX 14.C: Research Using the Chi-Square Test to Analyze
Data 540
Knowledge Base 541
Ordinal Data: A Brief Overview 541
The Mann-Whitney UTest 541
DATA BOX 14.D: Handling Tied Ranks in Ordinal Data 544

Mann-Whitney U Test for Larger (Ns > 20) Samples: A Normal

Approximation of the U Distribution 546
Writing About the Results of the Mann- Whitney U Test 547
The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks Test 547
DATA BOX 14.E: Even Null Results Must Be Written Up and
Reported 550
Writing About the Results of the Wilcoxon ill Test 551
The Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient 551
Writing About the Results of a Spearman rs Test 554
Knowledge Base 554
DATA BOX 14.F: Research Using An Ordinal Test to Analyze Data 555
xx Contents

PROJECT EXERCISE: Survey Says-Using Nonparametric Tests on

Data 556
Looking Forward, Then Back 558
Summary 558
Key Terms 559
Problems 559

15 CONCLUSION: STATISTICS AND DATA ANALYSIS IN

CONTEXT 563
The Fuss Over Null Hypothesis Significance Tests 564
Panel Recommendations: Wisdom from the APA Task Force on
Statistical Inference 565
Knowledge Base 567
Statistics as Avoidable Ideology 567
Reprise: Right Answers Are Fine, but Interpretation Matters More
568
Linking Analysis to Research 569
Do Something: Collect Some Data, Run a Study, Get Involved 569
Knowing When to Say When: Seeking Statistical Help in the
Future 570
DATA BOX 1S.A: Statistical Heuristics and Improving Inductive
Reasoning 571
Data Analysis with Computers: The Tools Perspective Revisited 572
Knowledge Base 573
Thinking Like a Behavioral Scientist: Educational, Social, and Ethical
Implications of Statistics and Data Analysis 573
DATA BOX 1S.B:Recurring Problems with Fraudulent, False, or
Misleading Data Analysis: The Dracula Effect 576
Conclusion 578
PROJECT EXERCISE: A Checklist for Reviewing Published Research
or Planning a Study 578
Looking Forward, Then Back 580
/
Summary 580
Key Terms 581
Problems 581 /
;
Appendix A: Basic Mathematics Review and Discussion of Math Anxiety A-I
Appendix B: Statistical Tables B-1
Appendix C: Writing Up Research in APA Style: Overview and Focus on Results C-l
/
,
(
Appendix D: Doing a Research Project Using Statistics and Data Analysis: Organization, r
Time Management, and Prepping Data for Analysis D-l
Appendix E: Answers to Odd-Numbered End of Chapter Problems E-l
Appendix F: Emerging Alternatives: Qualitative Research Approaches F-l
References R-l
Credits CR-l
Name Index NI-l
Subject Index SI-l
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latter, as the known, is used to explain the former as the unknown. The
Ātman under the name of the Eternal (aksharam) is thus described in the
Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad (III. viii. 8, 11):—

“It is not large, and not minute; not short, not long; without blood, without fat;
without shadow, without darkness; without wind, without ether; not adhesive, not
tangible; without smell, without taste; without eyes, ears, voice, or mind; without
heat, breath, or mouth; without personal or family name; unaging, undying,
without fear, immortal, dustless, not uncovered or covered; with nothing before,
nothing behind, nothing within. It consumes no one and is consumed by no one. It
is the unseen seer, the unheard hearer, the unthought thinker, the unknown knower.
There is no other seer, no other hearer, no other thinker, no other knower. That is
the Eternal in which space (ākāça) is woven and which is interwoven with it.”

Here, for the first time in the history of human thought, we find the
Absolute grasped and proclaimed.

A poetical account of the nature of the Ātman is given by the Kāṭhaka

Upanishad in the following stanzas:—

That whence the sun’s orb rises up,

And that in which it sinks again:
In it the gods are all contained,
Beyond it none can ever pass (iv. 9).

Its form can never be to sight apparent,

Not any one may with his eye behold it:
By heart and mind and soul alone they grasp it,
And those who know it thus become immortal (vi. 9).

Since not by speech and not by thought,

Not by the eye can it be reached:
How else may it be understood
But only when one says “it is”? (vi. 12).

The place of the more personal Prajāpati is taken in the Upanishads by the
Ātman as a creative power. Thus the Bṛihadāraṇyaka (I. iv.) relates that in
the beginning the Ātman or the Brahma was this universe. It was afraid in
its loneliness and felt no pleasure. Desiring a second being, it became man
and woman, whence the human race was produced. It then proceeded to
produce male and female animals in a similar way; finally creating water,
fire, the gods, and so forth. The author then proceeds in a more exalted
strain:—

“It (the Ātman) is here all-pervading down to the tips of the nails. One does not
see it any more than a razor hidden in its case or fire in its receptacle. For it does
not appear as a whole. When it breathes, it is called breath; when it speaks, voice;
when it hears, ear; when it thinks, mind. These are merely the names of its
activities. He who worships the one or the other of these, has not (correct)
knowledge.... One should worship it as the Self. For in it all these (breath, etc.)
become one.”

In one of the later Upanishads, the Çvetāçvatara (iv. 10), the notion, so
prominent in the later Vedānta system, that the material world is an illusion
(māyā), is first met with. The world is here explained as an illusion
produced by Brahma as a conjuror (māyin). This notion is, however,
inherent even in the oldest Upanishads. It is virtually identical with the
teaching of Plato that the things of experience are only the shadow of the
real things, and with the teaching of Kant, that they are only phenomena of
the thing in itself.

The great fundamental doctrine of the Upanishads is the identity of the

individual ātman with the world Ātman. It is most forcibly expressed in a
frequently repeated sentence of the Chhāndogya Upanishad (vi. 8–16):
“This whole world consists of it: that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art
thou, O Çvetaketu.” In that famous formula, “That art thou” (tat tvam asi),
all the teachings of the Upanishads are summed up. The Bṛihadāraṇyaka (I.
iv. 6) expresses the same doctrine thus: “Whoever knows this, ‘I am
brahma’ (aham brahma asmi), becomes the All. Even the gods are not able
to prevent him from becoming it. For he becomes their Self (ātman).”

This identity was already recognised in the Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa (X. vi. 3):
“Even as the smallest granule of millet, so is this golden Purusha in the
heart.... That self of the spirit is my self: on passing from hence I shall
obtain that Self.”

We find everywhere in these treatises a restless striving to grasp the true

nature of the pantheistic Self, now through one metaphor, now through
another. Thus (Bṛih. Up. II. iv.) the wise Yājnavalkya, about to renounce the
world and retire to the forest, replies to the question of his wife, Maitreyī,
with the words: “As a lump of salt thrown into the water would dissolve and
could not be taken out again, while the water, wherever tasted, would be
salt, so is this great being endless, unlimited, simply compacted of
cognition. Arising out of these elements, it disappears again in them. After
death there is no consciousness;” for, as he further explains, when the
duality on which consciousness is based disappears, consciousness must
necessarily cease.

In another passage of the same Upanishad (II. i. 20) we read: “Just as the
spider goes out of itself by means of its thread, as tiny sparks leap out of the
fire, so from the Ātman issue all vital airs, all worlds, all gods, all beings.”

Here, again, is a stanza from the Muṇḍaka (III. ii. 8):—

As rivers flow and disappear at last

In ocean’s waters, name and form renouncing,
So, too, the sage, released from name and form,
Is merged in the divine and highest spirit.

In a passage of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka (III. vii.) Yājnavalkya describes the

Ātman as the “inner guide” (antaryāmin): “Who is in all beings, different
from all beings, who guides all beings within, that is thy Self, the inward
guide, immortal.”

The same Upanishad contains an interesting conversation, in which King

Ajātaçatru of Kāçi (Benares) instructs the Brahman, Bālāki Gārgya, that
Brahma is not the spirit (purusha) which is in sun, moon, wind, and other
natural phenomena, or even in the (waking) soul (ātman), but is either the
dreaming soul, which is creative, assuming any form at pleasure, or, in the
highest stage, the soul in dreamless sleep, for here all phenomena have
disappeared. This is the first and the last condition of Brahma, in which no
world exists, all material existence being only the phantasms of the
dreaming world-soul.

Of somewhat similar purport is a passage of the Chhāndogya (viii. 7–12),

where Prajāpati is represented as teaching the nature of the Ātman in three
stages. The soul in the body as reflected in a mirror or water is first
identified with Brahma, then the dreaming soul, and, lastly, the soul in
dreamless sleep.

How generally accepted the pantheistic theory must have become by the
time the disputations at the court of King Janaka took place, is indicated by
the form in which questions are put. Thus two different sages in the
Bṛihadāraṇyaka (iii. 4, 5) successively ask Yājnavalkya in the same words:
“Explain to us the Brahma which is manifest and not hidden, the Ātman that
dwells in everything.”

With the doctrine that true knowledge led to supreme bliss by the
absorption of the individual soul in Brahma went hand in hand the theory of
transmigration (saṃsāra). That theory is developed in the oldest
Upanishads; it must have been firmly established by the time Buddhism
arose, for Buddha accepted it without question. Its earliest form is found in
the Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa, where the notion of being born again after death
and dying repeatedly is coupled with that of retribution. Thus it is here said
that those who have correct knowledge and perform a certain sacrifice are
born again after death for immortality, while those who have not such
knowledge and do not perform this sacrifice are reborn again and again,
becoming the prey of Death. The notion here expressed does not go beyond
repeated births and deaths in the next world. It is transformed to the
doctrine of transmigration in the Upanishads by supposing rebirth to take
place in this world. In the Bṛihadāraṇyaka we further meet with the
beginnings of the doctrine of karma, or “action,” which regulates the new
birth, and makes it depend on a man’s own deeds. When the body returns to
the elements, nothing of the individuality is here said to remain but the
karma, according to which a man becomes good or bad. This is, perhaps,
the germ of the Buddhistic doctrine, which, though denying the existence of
soul altogether, allows karma to continue after death and to determine the
next birth.

The most important and detailed account of the theory of transmigration

which we possess from Vedic times is supplied by the Chhāndogya
Upanishad. The forest ascetic possessed of knowledge and faith, it is here
said, after death enters the devayāna, the “path of the gods,” which leads to
absorption in Brahma, while the householder who has performed sacrifice
and good works goes by the pitṛiyāṇa or “path of the Fathers” to the moon,
where he remains till the consequences of his actions are exhausted. He
then returns to earth, being first born again as a plant and afterwards as a
man of one of the three highest castes. Here we have a double retribution,
first in the next world, then by transmigration in this. The former is a
survival of the old Vedic belief about the future life. The wicked are born
again as outcasts (chaṇḍālas), dogs or swine.

The account of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka (VI. ii. 15–16) is similar. Those who
have true knowledge and faith pass through the world of the gods and the
sun to the world of Brahma, whence there is no return. Those who practise
sacrifice and good works pass through the world of the Fathers to the moon,
whence they return to earth, being born again as men. Others become birds,
beasts, and reptiles.

The view of the Kaushītaki Upanishad (i. 2–3) is somewhat different. Here
all who die go to the moon, whence some go by the “path of the Fathers” to
Brahma, while others return to various forms of earthly existence, ranging
from man to worm, according to the quality of their works and the degree of
their knowledge.

The Kāṭhaka, one of the most remarkable and beautiful of the Upanishads,
treats the question of life after death in the form of a legend. Nachiketas, a
young Brahman, visits the realm of Yama, who offers him the choice of
three boons. For the third he chooses the answer to the question, whether
man exists after death or no. Death replies: “Even the gods have doubted
about this; it is a subtle point; choose another boon.” After vain efforts to
evade the question by offering Nachiketas earthly power and riches, Yama
at last yields to his persistence and reveals the secret. Life and death, he
explains, are only different phases of development. True knowledge, which
consists in recognising the identity of the individual soul with the world
soul, raises its possessor beyond the reach of death:—

When every passion vanishes

That nestles in the human heart,
Then man gains immortality,
Then Brahma is obtained by him (vi. 14).

The story of the temptation of Nachiketas to choose the goods of this world
in preference to the highest knowledge is probably the prototype of the
legend of the temptation of Buddha by Māra or Death. Both by resisting the
temptation obtain enlightenment.

It must not of course be supposed that the Upanishads, either as a whole or

individually, offer a complete and consistent conception of the world
logically developed. They are rather a mixture of half-poetical, half-
philosophical fancies, of dialogues and disputations dealing tentatively with
metaphysical questions. Their speculations were only later reduced to a
system in the Vedānta philosophy. The earliest of them can hardly be dated
later than about 600 B.C., since some important doctrines first met with in
them are presupposed by Buddhism. They may be divided chronologically,
on internal evidence, into four classes. The oldest group, consisting, in
chronological order, of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, Chhāndogya, Taittirīya,
Aitareya, Kaushītaki, is written in prose which still suffers from the
awkwardness of the Brāhmaṇa style. A transition is formed by the Kena,
which is partly in verse and partly in prose, to a decidedly later class, the
Kāṭhaka, Īçā, Çvetāçvatara, Muṇḍaka, Mahānārāyaṇa, which are metrical,
and in which the Upanishad doctrine is no longer developing, but has
become fixed. These are more attractive from the literary point of view.
Even those of the older class acquire a peculiar charm from their liveliness,
enthusiasm, and freedom from pedantry, while their language often rises to
the level of eloquence. The third class, comprising the Praçna,
Maitrāyaṇīya, and Māṇḍūkya, reverts to the use of prose, which is,
however, of a much less archaic type than that of the first class, and
approaches that of classical Sanskrit writers. The fourth class consists of the
later Atharvan Upanishads, some of which are composed in prose, others in
verse.

The Aitareya, one of the shortest of the Upanishads (extending to only

about four octavo pages), consists of three chapters. The first represents the
world as a creation of the Ātman (also called Brahma), and man as its
highest manifestation. It is based on the Purusha hymn of the Rigveda, but
the primeval man is in the Upanishad described as having been produced by
the Ātman from the waters which it created. The Ātman is here said to
occupy three abodes in man, the senses, mind, and heart, to which
respectively correspond the three conditions of waking, dreaming, and deep
sleep. The second chapter treats of the threefold birth of the Ātman. The
end of transmigration is salvation, which is represented as an immortal
existence in heaven. The last chapter dealing with the nature of the Ātman
states that “consciousness (prajnā) is Brahma.”

The Kaushītaki Upanishad is a treatise of considerable length divided into

four chapters. The first deals with the two paths traversed by souls after
death in connection with transmigration; the second with Prāṇa or life as a
symbol of the Ātman. The last two, while discussing the doctrine of
Brahma, contain a disquisition about the dependence of the objects of sense
on the organs of sense, and of the latter on unconscious life (prāṇa) and
conscious life (prajnātmā). Those who aim at redeeming knowledge are
therefore admonished not to seek after objects or subjective faculties, but
only the subject of cognition and action, which is described with much
power as the highest god, and at the same time as the Ātman within us.

The Upanishads of the Sāmaveda start from the sāman or chant, just as
those of the Rigveda from the uktha or hymn recited by the Hotṛi priest, in
order, by interpreting it allegorically, to arrive at a knowledge of the Ātman
or Brahma. The fact that the Upanishads have the same basis, which is,
moreover, largely treated in a similar manner, leads to the conclusion that
the various Vedic schools found a common body of oral tradition which
they shaped into dogmatic texts-books or Upanishads in their own way.
Thus the Chhāndogya, which is equal in importance, and only slightly
inferior in extent, to the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, bears clear traces, like the latter,
of being made up of collections of floating materials. Each of its eight
chapters forms an independent whole, followed by supplementary pieces
often but slightly connected with the main subject-matter.

The first two chapters consist of mystical interpretations of the sāman and
its chief part, called Udgītha (“loud song”). A supplement to the second
chapter treats, among other subjects, of the origin of the syllable om, and of
the three stages of religious life, those of the Brahman pupil, the
householder, and the ascetic (to which later the religious mendicant was
added as a fourth). The third chapter in the main deals with Brahma as the
sun of the universe, the natural sun being its manifestation. The infinite
Brahma is further described as dwelling, whole and undivided, in the heart
of man. The way in which Brahma is to be attained is then described, and
the great fundamental dogma of the identity of Brahma with the Ātman (or,
as we might say, of God and Soul) is declared. The chapter concludes with a
myth which forms a connecting link between the cosmogonic conceptions
of the Rigveda and those of the law-book of Manu. The fourth chapter,
containing discussions about wind, breath, and other phenomena connected
with Brahma, also teaches how the soul makes its way to Brahma after
death.

The first half of chapter v. is almost identical with the beginning of chapter
vi. of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka. It is chiefly noteworthy for the theory of
transmigration which it contains. The second half of the chapter is
important as the earliest statement of the doctrine that the manifold world is
unreal. The sat by desire produced from itself the three primary elements,
heat, water, food (the later number being five—ether, air, fire, water, earth).
As individual soul (jīva-ātman) it entered into these, which, by certain
partial combinations called “triplication,” became various products (vikāra)
or phenomena. But the latter are a mere name. Sat is the only reality, it is
the Ātman: “Thou art that.” Chapter vii. enumerates sixteen forms in which
Brahma may be adored, rising by gradation from nāman, “name,” to
bhūman, “infinity,” which is the all-in-all and the Ātman within us. The first
half of the last chapter discusses the Ātman in the heart and the universe, as
well as how to attain it. The concluding portion of the chapter distinguishes
the false from the true Ātman, illustrated by the three stages in which it
appears—in the material body, in dreaming, and in sound sleep. In the latter
stage we have the true Ātman, in which the distinction between subject and
object has disappeared.

To the Sāmaveda also belongs a very short treatise which was long called
the Talavakāra Upanishad, from the school to which it was attached, but
later, when it became separated from that school, received the name of
Kena, from its initial word. It consists of two distinct parts. The second,
composed in prose and much older, describes the relation of the Vedic gods
to Brahma, representing them as deriving their power from and entirely
dependent on the latter. The first part, which is metrical and belongs to the
period of fully developed Vedānta doctrine, distinguishes from the qualified
Brahma, which is an object of worship, the unqualified Brahma, which is
unknowable:—

To it no eye can penetrate,

Nor speech nor thought can ever reach:
It rests unknown; we cannot see
How any one may teach it us.

The various Upanishads of the Black Yajurveda all bear the stamp of
lateness. The Maitrāyaṇa is a prose work of considerable extent, in which
occasional stanzas are interspersed. It consists of seven chapters, the
seventh and the concluding eight sections of the sixth forming a
supplement. The fact that it retains the orthographical and euphonic
peculiarities of the Maitrāyaṇa school, gives this Upanishad an archaic
appearance. But its many quotations from other Upanishads, the occurrence
of several late words, the developed Sānkhya doctrine presupposed by it,
distinct references to anti-Vedic heretical schools, all combine to render the
late character of this work undoubted. It is, in fact, a summing up of the old
Upanishad doctrines with an admixture of ideas derived from the Sānkhya
system and from Buddhism. The main body of the treatise expounds the
nature of the Ātman, communicated to King Bṛihadratha of the race of
Ikshvāku (probably identical with the king of that name mentioned in the
Rāmāyaṇa), who declaims at some length on the misery and transitoriness
of earthly existence. Though pessimism is not unknown to the old
Upanishads, it is much more pronounced here, doubtless in consequence of
Sānkhya and Buddhistic influence.

The subject is treated in the form of three questions. The answer to the first,
how the Ātman enters the body, is that Prajāpati enters in the form of the
five vital airs in order to animate the lifeless bodies created by him. The
second question is, How does the supreme soul become the individual soul
(bhūtātman)? This is answered rather in accordance with the Sānkhya than
the Vedānta doctrine. Overcome by the three qualities of matter (prakṛiti),
the Ātman, forgetting its real nature, becomes involved in self-
consciousness and transmigration. The third question is, How is deliverance
from this state of misery possible? This is answered in conformity with
neither Vedānta nor Sānkhya doctrine, but in a reactionary spirit. Only those
who observe the old requirements of Brahmanism, the rules of caste and the
religious orders (āçramas), are declared capable of attaining salvation by
knowledge, penance, and meditation on Brahma. The chief gods, that is to
say, the triad of the Brāhmaṇa period, Fire, Wind, Sun, the three
abstractions, Time, Breath, Food, and the three popular gods, Brahmā,
Rudra (i.e. Çiva), and Vishṇu are explained as manifestations of Brahma.

The remainder of this Upanishad is supplementary, but contains several

passages of considerable interest. We have here a cosmogonic myth, like
those of the Brāhmaṇas, in which the three qualities of matter, Tamas,
Rajas, Sattva, are connected with Rudra, Brahmā, and Vishṇu, and which is
in other respects very remarkable as a connecting link between the
philosophy of the Rigveda and the later Sānkhya system. The sun is further
represented as the external, and prāṇa (breath) as the internal, symbol of the
Ātman, their worship being recommended by means of the sacred syllable
om, the three “utterances” (vyāhṛitis) bhūr, bhuvaḥ, svar, and the famous
Sāvitrī stanza. As a means of attaining Brahma we find a recommendation
of Yoga or the ascetic practices leading to a state of mental concentration
and bordering on trance. The information we here receive of these practices
is still undeveloped compared with the later system. In addition to the three
conditions of Brahma, waking, dreaming, and deep sleep, mention is made
of a fourth (turīya) and highest stage. The Upanishad concludes with the
declaration that the Ātman entered the world of duality because it wished to
taste both truth and illusion.

Older than the Maitrāyaṇa, which borrows from them, are two other
Upanishads of the Black Yajurveda, the Kāṭhaka and the Çvetāçvatara. The
former contains some 120 and the latter some 110 stanzas.

The Kāṭhaka deals with the legend of Nachiketas, which is told in the
Kāṭhaka portion of the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, and a knowledge of which it
presupposes. This is indicated by the fact that it begins with the same words
as the Brāhmaṇa story. The treatise appears to have consisted originally of
the first only of its two chapters. For the second, with its more developed
notions about Yoga and its much more pronounced view as to the unreality
of phenomena, looks like a later addition. The first contains an introductory
narrative, an account of the Ātman, of its embodiment and final return by
means of Yoga. The second chapter, though less well arranged, on the whole
corresponds in matter with the first. Its fourth section, while discussing the
nature of the Ātman, identifies both soul (purusha) and matter (prakṛiti)
with it. The fifth section deals with the manifestation of the Ātman in the
world, and especially in man. The way in which it at the same time remains
outside them in its full integrity and is not affected by the suffering of living
beings, is strikingly illustrated by the analogy of both light and air, which
pervade space and yet embrace every object, and of the sun, the eye of the
universe, which remains free from the blemishes of all other eyes outside of
it. In the last section Yoga is taught to be the means of attaining the highest
goal. The gradation of mental faculties here described is of great interest for
the history of the Sānkhya and Yoga system. An unconscious contradiction
runs through this discussion, inasmuch as though the Ātman is regarded as
the all-in-all, a sharp contrast is drawn between soul and matter. It is the
contradiction between the later Vedānta and the Sānkhya-Yoga systems of
philosophy.

According to its own statement, the Çvetāçvatara Upanishad derives its

name from an individual author, and the tradition which attributes it to one
of the schools of the Black Yajurveda hardly seems to have a sufficient
foundation. Its confused arrangement, the irregularities and arbitrary
changes of its metres, the number of interpolated quotations which it
contains, make the assumption likely that the work in its present form is not
the work of a single author. In its present form it is certainly later than the
Kāṭhaka, since it contains several passages which must be referred to that
work, besides many stanzas borrowed from it with or without variation. Its
lateness is further indicated by the developed theory of Yoga which it
contains, besides the more or less definite form in which it exhibits various
Vedānta doctrines either unknown to or only foreshadowed in the earlier
Upanishads. Among these may be mentioned the destruction of the world
by Brahma at the end of a cosmic age (kalpa), as well as its periodic
renewal out of Brahma, and especially the explanation of the world as an
illusion (māyā) produced by Brahma. At the same time the author shows a
strange predilection for the personified forms of Brahma as Savitṛi, Īçāna,
or Rudra. Though Çiva has not yet become the name of Rudra, its frequent
use as an adjective connected with the latter shows that it is in course of
becoming fixed as the proper name of the highest god. In this Upanishad we
meet with a number of the terms and fundamental notions of the Sānkhya,
though the point of view is thoroughly Vedāntist; matter (prakṛiti), for
instance, being represented as an illusion produced by Brahma.

To the White Yajurveda is attached the longest, and, beside the

Chhāndogya, the most important of the Upanishads. It bears even clearer
traces than that work of being a conglomerate of what must originally have
been separate treatises. It is divided into three parts, each containing two
chapters. The last part is designated, even in the tradition of the
commentaries, as a supplement (Khila-kāṇḍa), a statement fully borne out
by the contents. That the first and second parts were also originally
independent of each other is sufficiently proved by both containing the
legend of Yājnavalkya and his two wives in almost identical words
throughout. To each of these parts (as well as to Book x. of the Çatapatha
Brāhmaṇa) a successive list (vaṃça) of teachers is attached. A comparison
of these lists seems to justify the conclusion that the first part (called
Madhukāṇḍa) and the second (Yājnavalkya-kāṇḍa) existed during nine
generations as independent Upanishads within the school of the White
Yajurveda, and were then combined by a teacher named Āgniveçya; the
third part, which consists of all kinds of supplementary matter, being
subsequently added. These lists further make the conclusion probable that
the leading teachers of the ritual tradition (Brāhmaṇas) were different from
those of the philosophical tradition (Upanishads).

Beginning with an allegorical interpretation of the most important sacrifice,

the Açvamedha (horse-sacrifice), as the universe, the first chapter proceeds
to deal with prāṇa (breath) as a symbol of soul, and then with the creation
of the world out of the Ātman or Brahma, insisting on the dependence of all
existence on the Supreme Soul, which appears in every individual as his
self. The polemical attitude adopted against the worship of the gods is
characteristic, showing that the passage belongs to an early period, in which
the doctrine of the superiority of the Ātman to the gods was still asserting
itself. The next chapter deals with the nature of the Ātman and its
manifestations, purusha and prāṇa.

The second part of the Upanishad consists of four philosophical

discussions, in which Yājnavalkya is the chief speaker. The first (iii. 1–9) is
a great disputation, in which the sage proves his superiority to nine
successive interlocutors. One of the most interesting conclusions here
arrived at is that Brahma is theoretically unknowable, but can be
comprehended practically. The second discourse is a dialogue between King
Janaka and Yājnavalkya, in which the latter shows the untenableness of six
definitions set up by other teachers as to the nature of Brahma; for instance,
that it is identical with Breath or Mind. He finally declares that the Ātman
can only be described negatively, being intangible, indestructible,
independent, immovable.

The third discourse (iv. 3–4) is another dialogue between Janaka and
Yājnavalkya. It presents a picture of the soul in the conditions of waking,
dreaming, deep sleep, dying, transmigration, and salvation. For wealth of
illustration, fervour of conviction, beauty and elevation of thought, this
piece is unequalled in the Upanishads or any other work of Indian literature.
Its literary effect is heightened by the numerous stanzas with which it is
interspersed. These are, however, doubtless later additions. The dreaming
soul is thus described:—
 Leaving its lower nest in breath’s protection,
And upward from that nest, immortal, soaring,
Where’er it lists it roves about immortal,
The golden-pinioned only swan of spirit (IV. iii. 13).

It roves in dream condition up and downward,

Divinely many shapes and forms assuming (ib. 14).

Then follows an account of the dreamless state of the soul:—

As a falcon or an eagle, having flown about in the air, exhausted folds together its
wings and prepares to alight, so the spirit hastes to that condition in which,
asleep, it feels no desire and sees no dream (19).

This is its essential form, in which it rises above desire, is free from evil and
without fear. For as one embraced by a beloved woman wots not of anything
without or within, so also the soul embraced by the cognitional Self wots not of
anything without or within (21).

With regard to the souls of those who are not saved, the view of the writer
appears to be that after death they enter a new body immediately and
without any intervening retribution in the other world, in exact accordance
with their intellectual and moral quality.

As a caterpillar, when it has reached the point of a leaf, makes a new beginning
and draws itself across, so the soul, after casting off the body and letting go
ignorance, makes a new beginning and draws itself across (IV. iv. 3).

As a goldsmith takes the material of an image and hammers out of it another

newer and more beautiful form, so also the soul after casting off the body and
letting go ignorance, creates for itself another newer and more beautiful form,
either that of the Fathers or the Gandharvas or the Gods, or Prajāpati or
Brahma, or other beings (IV. iv. 4).

But the vital airs of him who is saved, who knows himself to be identical
with Brahma, do not depart, for he is absorbed in Brahma and is Brahma.
 As a serpent’s skin, dead and cast off, lies upon an ant-hill, so his body then lies;
but that which is bodiless and immortal, the life, is pure Brahma, is pure light (IV.
iv. 7).

The fourth discourse is a dialogue between Yājnavalkya and his wife

Maitreyī, before the former, about to renounce the world, retires to the
solitude of the forest. There are several indications that it is a secondary
recension of the same conversation occurring in a previous chapter (II. iv.).

The first chapter of the third or supplementary part consists of fifteen

sections, which are often quite short, are mostly unconnected in matter, and
appear to be of very different age. The second chapter, however, forms a
long and important treatise (identical with that found in the Chhāndogya)
on the doctrine of transmigration. The views here expressed are so much at
variance with those of Yājnavalkya that this text must have originated in
another Vedic school, and have been loosely attached to this Upanishad
owing to the peculiar importance of its contents. The preceding and
following section, which are connected with it, and are also found in the
Chhāndogya, must have been added at the same time.

Not only is the longest Upanishad attached to the White Yajurveda, but also
one of the very shortest, consisting of only eighteen stanzas. This is the Īçā,
which is so called from its initial word. Though forming the last chapter of
the Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā, it belongs to a rather late period. It is about
contemporaneous with the latest parts of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, is more
developed in many points than the Kāṭhaka, but seems to be older than the
Çvetāçvatara. Its leading motive is to contrast him who knows himself to
be the same as the Ātman with him who does not possess true knowledge. It
affords an excellent survey of the fundamental doctrines of the Vedānta
philosophy.

A large and indefinite number of Upanishads is attributed to the Atharva-

veda, but the most authoritative list recognises twenty-seven altogether.
They are for the most part of very late origin, being post-Vedic, and, all but
three, contemporaneous with the Purāṇas. One of them is actually a
Muhammadan treatise entitled the Alla Upanishad! The older Upanishads
which belong to the first three Vedas were, with a few exceptions like the
Çvetāçvatara, the dogmatic text-books of actual Vedic schools, and
received their names from those schools, being connected with and
supplementary to the ritual Brāhmaṇas. The Upanishads of the Atharva-
veda, on the other hand, are with few exceptions like the Māṇḍūkya and the
Jābāla, no longer connected with Vedic schools, but derive their names
from their subject-matter or some other circumstance. They appear for the
most part to represent the views of theosophic, mystic, ascetic, or sectarian
associations, who wished to have an Upanishad of their own in imitation of
the old Vedic schools. They became attached to the Atharva-veda not from
any internal connection, but partly because the followers of the Atharva-
veda desired to become possessed of dogmatic text-books of their own, and
partly because the fourth Veda was not protected from the intrusion of
foreign elements by the watchfulness of religious guilds like the old Vedic
schools.

The fundamental doctrine common to all the Upanishads of the Atharva-

veda is developed by most of them in various special directions. They may
accordingly be divided into four categories which run chronologically
parallel with one another, each containing relatively old and late
productions. The first group, as directly investigating the nature of the
Ātman, has a scope similar to that of the Upanishads of the other Vedas, and
goes no further than the latter in developing its main thesis. The next group,
taking the fundamental doctrine for granted, treats of absorption in the
Ātman through ascetic meditation (yoga) based on the component parts of
the sacred syllable om. These Upanishads are almost without exception
composed in verse and are quite short, consisting on the average of about
twenty stanzas. In the third category the life of the religious mendicant
(sannyāsin), as a practical consequence of the Upanishad doctrine, is
recommended and described. These Upanishads, too, are short, but are
written in prose, though with an admixture of verse. The last group is
sectarian in character, interpreting the popular gods Çiva (under various
names, such as Īçāna, Maheçvara, Mahādeva) and Vishṇu (as Nārāyaṇa and
Nṛisiṃha or “Man-lion”) as personifications of the Ātman. The different
Avatārs of Vishṇu are here regarded as human manifestations of the Ātman.
The oldest and most important of these Atharvan Upanishads, as
representing the Vedānta doctrine most faithfully, are the Muṇḍaka, the
Praçna, and to a less degree the Māṇḍūkya. The first two come nearest to
the Upanishads of the older Vedas, and are much quoted by Bādarāyaṇa and
Çankara, the great authorities of the later Vedānta philosophy. They are the
only original and legitimate Upanishads of the Atharva. The Muṇḍaka
derives its name from being the Upanishad of the tonsured (muṇḍa), an
association of ascetics who shaved their heads, as the Buddhist monks did
later. It is one of the most popular of the Upanishads, not owing to the
originality of its contents, which are for the most part derived from older
texts, but owing to the purity with which it reproduces the old Vedānta
doctrine, and the beauty of the stanzas in which it is composed. It
presupposes, above all, the Chhāndogya Upanishad, and in all probability
the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, the Taittirīya, and the Kāṭhaka. Having several
important passages in common with the Çvetāçvatara and the
Bṛihannārāyaṇa of the Black Yajurveda, it probably belongs to the same
epoch, coming between the two in order of time. It consists of three parts,
which, speaking generally, deal respectively with the preparations for the
knowledge of Brahma, the doctrine of Brahma, and the way to Brahma.

The Praçna Upanishad, written in prose and apparently belonging to the

Pippalāda recension of the Atharva-veda, is so called because it treats, in
the form of questions (praçna) addressed by six students of Brahma to the
sage Pippalāda, six main points of the Vedānta doctrine. These questions
concern the origin of matter and life (prāṇa) from Prajāpati; the superiority
of life (prāṇa) above the other vital powers; the nature and divisions of the
vital powers; dreaming and dreamless sleep; meditation on the syllable om;
and the sixteen parts of man.

The Māṇḍūkya is a very short prose Upanishad, which would hardly fill two
pages of the present book. Though bearing the name of a half-forgotten
school of the Rigveda, it is reckoned among the Upanishads of the Atharva-
veda. It must date from a considerably later time than the prose Upanishads
of the three older Vedas, with the unmethodical treatment and prolixity of
which its precision and conciseness are in marked contrast. It has many
points of contact with the Maitrāyaṇa Upanishad, to which it seems to be
posterior. It appears, however, to be older than the rest of the treatises which
form the fourth class of the Upanishads of the Atharva-veda. Thus it
distinguishes only three morae in the syllable om, and not yet three and a
half. The fundamental idea of this Upanishad is that the sacred syllable is an
expression of the universe. It is somewhat remarkable that this work is not
quoted by Çankara; nevertheless, it not only exercised a great influence on
several Upanishads of the Atharva-veda, but was used more than any other
Upanishad by the author of the well-known later epitome of the Vedānta
doctrine, the Vedānta-sāra.

It is, however, chiefly important as having given rise to one of the most
remarkable products of Indian philosophy, the Kārikā of Gauḍapāda. This
work consists of more than 200 stanzas divided into four parts, the first of
which includes the Māṇḍūkya Upanishad. The esteem in which the Kārikā
was held is indicated by the fact that its parts are reckoned as four
Upanishads. There is much probability in the assumption that its author is
identical with Gauḍapāda, the teacher of Govinda, whose pupil was the
great Vedāntist commentator, Çankara (800 A.D.). The point of view of
the latter is the same essentially as that of the author of the Kārikā, and
many of the thoughts and figures which begin to appear in the earlier work
are in common use in Çankara’s commentaries. Çankara may, in fact, be
said to have reduced the doctrines of Gauḍapāda to a system, as did Plato
those of Parmenides. Indeed, the two leading ideas which pervade the
Indian poem, viz., that there is no duality (advaita) and no becoming (ajāti),
are, as Professor Deussen points out, identical with those of the Greek
philosopher.

The first part of the Kārikā is practically a metrical paraphrase of the

Māṇḍūkya Upanishad. Peculiar to it is the statement that the world is not an
illusion or a development in any sense, but the very nature or essence
(svabhāva) of Brahma, just as the rays, which are all the same (i.e. light),
are not different from the sun. The remainder of the poem is independent of
the Upanishad and goes far beyond its doctrines. The second part has the
special title of Vaitathya or the “Falseness” of the doctrine of reality. Just as
a rope is in the dark mistaken for a snake, so the Ātman in the darkness of
ignorance is mistaken for the world. Every attempt to imagine the Ātman
under empirical forms is futile, for every one’s idea of it is dependent on his
experience of the world.

The third part is entitled Advaita, “Non-duality.” The identity of the

Supreme Soul (Ātman) with the individual soul (jīva) is illustrated by
comparison with space, and that part of it which is contained in a jar.
Arguing against the theory of genesis and plurality, the poet lays down the
axiom that nothing can become different from its own nature. The
production of the existent (sato janma) is impossible, for that would be
produced which already exists. The production of the non-existent (asato
janma) is also impossible, for the non-existent is never produced, any more
than the son of a barren woman. The last part is entitled Alāta-çānti, or
“Extinction of the firebrand (circle),” so called from an ingenious
comparison made to explain how plurality and genesis seem to exist in the
world. If a stick which is glowing at one end is waved about, fiery lines or
circles are produced without anything being added to or issuing from the
single burning point. The fiery line or circle exists only in the consciousness
(vijnāna). So, too, the many phenomena of the world are merely the
vibrations of the consciousness, which is one.
Chapter IX
The Sūtras
 (Circa 500–200 B.C.)
As the Upanishads were a development of the speculative side of the
Brāhmaṇas and constituted the textbooks of Vedic dogma, so the Çrauta
Sūtras form the continuation of their ritual side, though they are not, like the
Upanishads, regarded as a part of revelation. A sacred character was never
attributed to them, probably because they were felt to be treatises compiled,
with the help of oral priestly tradition, from the contents of the Brāhmaṇas
solely to meet practical needs. The oldest of them seem to go back to about
the time when Buddhism came into being. Indeed it is quite possible that
the rise of the rival religion gave the first impetus to the composition of
systematic manuals of Brahmanic worship. The Buddhists in their turn must
have come to regard Sūtras as the type of treatise best adapted for the
expression of religious doctrine, for the earliest Pāli texts are works of this
character. The term Kalpa Sūtra is used to designate the whole body of
Sūtras concerned with religion which belonged to a particular Vedic school.
Where such a complete collection has been preserved, the Çrauta Sūtra
forms its first and most extensive portion.

To the Rigveda belong the Çrauta manuals of two Sūtra schools (charaṇas),
the Çānkhāyanas and the Āçvalāyanas, the former of whom were in later
times settled in Northern Gujarat, the latter in the South between the
Godāvarī and the Kṛishṇā. The ritual is described in much the same order
by both, but the account of the great royal sacrifices is much more detailed
in the Çānkhāyana Çrauta Sūtra. The latter, which is closely connected
with the Çānkhāyana Brāhmaṇa, seems to be the older of the two, on the
ground both of its matter and of its style, which in many parts resembles
that of the Brāhmaṇas. It consists of eighteen books, the last two of which
were added later, and correspond to the first two books of the Kaushītaki
Āraṇyaka. The Çrauta Sūtra of Āçvalāyana, which consists of twelve
books, is related to the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. Āçvalāyana is also known as
the author of the fourth book of the Aitareya Āraṇyaka, and was according
to tradition the pupil of Çaunaka.
Three Çrauta Sūtras to the Sāmaveda have been preserved. The oldest, that
of Maçaka, also called Ārsheya-kalpa, is nothing more than an
enumeration of the prayers belonging to the various ceremonies of the
Soma sacrifice in the order of the Panchaviṃça Brāhmaṇa. The Çrauta
Sūtra composed by Lāṭyāyana, became the accepted manual of the
Kauthuma school. This Sūtra, like that of Maçaka, which it quotes, is
closely connected with the Panchaviṃça Brāhmaṇa. The Çrauta Sūtra of
Drāhyāyaṇa, which differs but little from that of Lāṭyāyana, belongs to the
Rāṇāyanīya branch of the Sāmaveda.

To the White Yajurveda belongs the Çrauta Sūtra of Kātyāyana. This

manual, which consists of twenty-six chapters, on the whole strictly follows
the sacrificial order of the Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa. Three of its chapters
(xxii.–xxiv.), however, relate to the ceremonial of the Sāmaveda. Owing to
the enigmatical character of its style, it appears to be one of the later
productions of the Sūtra period.

No less than six Çrauta Sūtras belonging to the Black Yajurveda have been
preserved, but only two of them have as yet been published. Four of these
form a very closely connected group, being part of the Kalpa Sūtras of four
subdivisions of the Taittirīya Çākhā, which represented the later sūtra
schools (charaṇas) not claiming a special revelation of Veda or Brāhmaṇa.
The Çrauta Sūtra of Āpastamba forms the first twenty-four of the thirty
chapters (praçnas) into which his Kalpa Sūtra is divided; and that of
Hiraṇyakeçin, an offshoot of the Āpastambas, the first eighteen of the
twenty-nine chapters of his Kalpa Sūtra. The Sūtra of Baudhāyana, who is
older than Āpastamba, as well as that of Bhāradvāja, has not yet been
published.

Connected with the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā is the Mānava Çrauta Sūtra. It

belongs to the Mānavas, who were a subdivision of the Maitrāyaṇīyas, and
to whom the law-book of Manu probably traces its origin. It seems to be
one of the oldest. It has a descriptive character, resembling the Brāhmaṇa
parts of the Yajurveda, and differing from them only in simply describing
the course of the sacrifice, to the exclusion of legends, speculations, or
discussions of any kind. There is also a Vaikhānasa Çrauta Sūtra attached
to the Black Yajurveda, but it is known only in a few MSS.

The Çrauta Sūtra of the Atharva-veda is the Vaitāna Sūtra. It is neither old
nor original, but was undoubtedly compiled in order to supply the Atharva,
like the other Vedas, with a Sūtra of its own. It probably received its name
from the word with which it begins, since the term vaitāna (“relating to the
three sacrificial fires”) is equally applicable to all Çrauta Sūtras. It agrees to
a considerable extent with the Gopatha Brāhmaṇa, though it distinctly
follows the Sūtra of Kātyāyana to the White Yajurveda. One indication of its
lateness is the fact that whereas in other cases a Gṛihya regularly
presupposes the Çrauta Sūtra, the Vaitāna is dependent on the domestic
sūtra of the Atharva-veda.

Though the Çrauta Sūtras are indispensable for the right understanding of
the sacrificial ritual, they are, from any other point of view, a most
unattractive form of literature. It will, therefore, suffice to mention in
briefest outline the ceremonies with which they deal. It is important to
remember, in the first place, that these rites are never congregational, but
are always performed on behalf of a single individual, the so-called
Yajamāna or sacrificer, who takes but little part in them. The officiators are
Brahman priests, whose number varies from one to sixteen, according to the
nature of the ceremony. In all these rites an important part is played by the
three sacred fires which surround the vedi, a slightly excavated spot covered
with a litter of grass for the reception of offerings to the gods. The first
ceremony of all is the setting up of the sacred fires (agni-ādheya), which
are kindled by the sacrificer and his wife with the firesticks, and are
thereafter to be regularly maintained.

The Çrauta rites, fourteen in number, are divided into the two main groups
of seven oblation (havis) sacrifices and seven soma sacrifices. Different
forms of the animal sacrifice are classed with each group. The havis
sacrifices consist of offerings of milk, ghee, porridge, grain, cakes, and so
forth. The commonest is the Agnihotra, the daily morning and evening
oblation of milk to the three fires. The most important of the others are the
new and full moon sacrifices (darçapūrṇa-māsa) and those offered at the
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