Biology: Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a biochemical process in which plants convert light energy into chemical energy to
produce glucose and oxygen. The process primarily occurs in the chloroplasts within the palisade
mesophyll cells of the leaf. In photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO₂) through the stomata
in the leaves and absorb water (H₂O) through the roots. These are used, along with sunlight, to produce
glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), which is stored as chemical energy, and oxygen (O₂), which is released into the air.
The light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, the green pigment in chloroplasts. Factors that influence the
rate of photosynthesis include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, and water
availability.

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, land, water, and
living organisms. The key processes include photosynthesis, where plants absorb carbon dioxide;
respiration, where organisms release carbon dioxide; decomposition, where decomposers break down
dead organic matter, releasing carbon back into the atmosphere or soil; and combustion, where burning
fossil fuels releases stored carbon. This cycle ensures that carbon is recycled within ecosystems.
However, human activities like deforestation and burning fossil fuels are disrupting the balance, leading
to increased carbon in the atmosphere, which contributes to climate change.

Importance of Water and Transpiration

Water is crucial for plants for photosynthesis, nutrient transport, and temperature regulation. Water
is absorbed by plant roots via osmosis, a process where water moves from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration. The water travels through the plant to the leaves, where it is used for
photosynthesis and evaporates through the stomata in a process known as transpiration. This loss of
water vapor helps cool the plant and maintain the flow of water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves.
Factors affecting transpiration include light intensity, temperature, humidity, and wind speed.

Lab Reports in Biology

Lab Report: Comparing the Epidermis and Upper Epidermis of a Leaf

Aim: To compare the structures of the leaf's epidermis and upper epidermis under a microscope.
Apparatus: Microscope, prepared slides of leaf epidermis, iodine solution, tweezers, glass slide.
Method:

1. Take a leaf and cut small sections from the upper and lower epidermis.
2. Place the sections on separate glass slides and add a drop of iodine solution.
3. Place a coverslip over the sections and observe under a microscope.
Observation: The upper epidermis is smooth and covered with a waxy cuticle, while the lower
epidermis has stomata and guard cells for gas exchange.
Conclusion: The upper epidermis protects the leaf and reduces water loss, while the lower
epidermis is involved in gas exchange.
Lab Report: The Importance of Light in Photosynthesis

Aim: To determine the importance of light for photosynthesis.

Apparatus: Two leaves, iodine solution, boiling water, ethanol, beaker, tongs.
Method:

1. Boil both leaves in water to soften them.

2. Remove one leaf and keep it in a dark environment, the other in sunlight.
3. After several hours, test both leaves for starch by dipping them in iodine solution.
Observation: The leaf exposed to sunlight turns blue-black, indicating starch presence, while the
leaf in the dark remains unchanged.
Conclusion: Light is essential for photosynthesis, as it is required for starch production.

Lab Report: The Importance of Chlorophyll in Photosynthesis

Aim: To demonstrate the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis.

Apparatus: Variegated leaf (part green, part white), iodine solution, boiling water, ethanol, beaker.
Method:

1. Boil the variegated leaf to soften it.

2. Remove the leaf and place it in ethanol to remove the chlorophyll.
3. Test for starch presence using iodine solution.
Observation: Only the green areas turn blue-black, indicating starch presence.
Conclusion: Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis because it is the pigment that captures
light energy for the process.

Chemistry:

1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

An atom consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus
of the atom, while electrons orbit the nucleus in electron shells. The number of protons in the nucleus is
called the atomic number, and it determines the element's identity.

Electronic Configuration of the First 20 Elements:

 1. Hydrogen (H): 1 electron → 1

 2. Helium (He): 2 electrons → 2
 3. Lithium (Li): 3 electrons → 2,1
 4. Beryllium (Be): 4 electrons → 2,2
 5. Boron (B): 5 electrons → 2,3
 6. Carbon (C): 6 electrons → 2,4
 7. Nitrogen (N): 7 electrons → 2,5
 8. Oxygen (O): 8 electrons → 2,6
 9. Fluorine (F): 9 electrons → 2,7
 10. Neon (Ne): 10 electrons → 2,8
 11. Sodium (Na): 11 electrons → 2,8,1
 12. Magnesium (Mg): 12 electrons → 2,8,2
 13. Aluminium (Al): 13 electrons → 2,8,3
 14. Silicon (Si): 14 electrons → 2,8,4
  15. Phosphorus (P): 15 electrons → 2,8,5
 16. Sulfur (S): 16 electrons → 2,8,6
 17. Chlorine (Cl): 17 electrons → 2,8,7
 18. Argon (Ar): 18 electrons → 2,8,8
 19. Potassium (K): 19 electrons → 2,8,8,1
 20. Calcium (Ca): 20 electrons → 2,8,8,2

The Periodic Table is arranged by atomic number, and elements in the same group have similar
chemical properties due to the same number of valence electrons (outermost electrons).

2. Trends in Groups within the Periodic Table:

 Group 1: Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)

o Properties: Soft, low melting points, highly reactive, and form alkaline hydroxides.
o Reactivity: Increases down the group as atoms get larger and electrons are easier to lose.
 Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)
o Properties: Harder, higher melting points than alkali metals, and form alkaline solutions
when reacting with water.
o Reactivity: Increases down the group.
 Group 7: Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At)
o Properties: Non-metals, reactive, form salts with metals.
o Reactivity: Decreases down the group as atoms get larger and electrons are harder to
gain.
 Group 8: Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
o Properties: Inert, colorless, and odorless gases with a full outer shell of electrons.
o Reactivity: Very low, as their outer electron shells are full.

Group 1: Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)

 Lithium (Li):
o Melting Point: 180°C
o Boiling Point: 1,342°C
 Sodium (Na):
o Melting Point: 98°C
o Boiling Point: 883°C
 Potassium (K):
o Melting Point: 63°C
o Boiling Point: 759°C
 Rubidium (Rb):
o Melting Point: 39°C
o Boiling Point: 688°C
 Cesium (Cs):
o Melting Point: 28.4°C (close to room temperature)
o Boiling Point: 669°C
 Francium (Fr):
o Melting Point: Estimated to be around 27°C (but not precisely known due to its extreme
rarity)
 o Boiling Point: Estimated to be around 677°C (due to the very limited data on Francium)

Group 7: Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At)

 Fluorine (F):
o Melting Point: -219.67°C
o Boiling Point: -188.12°C
 Chlorine (Cl):
o Melting Point: -101.5°C
o Boiling Point: -34.04°C
 Bromine (Br):
o Melting Point: -7.2°C
o Boiling Point: 58.8°C
 Iodine (I):
o Melting Point: 113.7°C
o Boiling Point: 184.3°C
 Astatine (At):
o Melting Point: Estimated around 302°C
o Boiling Point: Estimated around 337°C

Group 8: Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

 Helium (He):
o Melting Point: -272.2°C (at extremely low pressure)
o Boiling Point: -268.93°C
 Neon (Ne):
o Melting Point: -248.59°C
o Boiling Point: -246.05°C
 Argon (Ar):
o Melting Point: -189.34°C
o Boiling Point: -185.85°C
 Krypton (Kr):
o Melting Point: -157.36°C
o Boiling Point: -153.22°C
 Xenon (Xe):
o Melting Point: -111.8°C
o Boiling Point: -108.1°C

3. Why Elements React to Form Compounds:

Elements react to form compounds in order to achieve a stable electron configuration (usually a full
outer shell). They can achieve this by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons:

 Ionic bonds: Occur when one atom loses an electron and another gains it, forming oppositely
charged ions (e.g., NaCl).
  Covalent bonds: Occur when atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer shell (e.g., H₂O).

Ionic Bonds:

Definition:
An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed when one atom transfers electrons to another atom.
This occurs between a metal and a non-metal.

How it forms:

 Metals, which have few electrons in their outer shell, lose electrons easily. This forms a
positively charged ion (cation).
 Non-metals, which have more electrons in their outer shell, tend to gain electrons, forming a
negatively charged ion (anion).
 The opposite charges of the cations and anions attract each other, holding the two atoms together
through electrostatic force.

Example:

 Sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become Na⁺ (a cation).

 Chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains that electron to become Cl⁻ (an anion).
 The positive charge of Na⁺ is attracted to the negative charge of Cl ⁻, forming an ionic bond,
resulting in the compound NaCl (sodium chloride or table salt).

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

 High melting and boiling points due to strong electrostatic forces.

 Conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted (because ions are free to move).
 Typically soluble in water.
 Brittle and can break easily due to the strong ionic lattice being disrupted by physical force.

Covalent Bonds:

Definition:
A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond formed when two non-metals share electrons to achieve a
full outer shell of electrons (a stable configuration, often referred to as an octet in the case of most
atoms).

How it forms:

 Non-metals have a high electron affinity and tend to share electrons rather than lose or gain
them.
 Each atom contributes one or more electrons to form a shared electron pair, creating a strong
bond.
 This bond allows both atoms to attain a full outer electron shell, which makes the bond stable.

Example:
  Hydrogen (H), a non-metal, needs one electron to complete its outer shell. Two hydrogen atoms
will share their electrons to form a H-H bond, creating H₂ (hydrogen gas).
 Oxygen (O), another non-metal, needs two electrons to complete its outer shell. Two oxygen
atoms will share two pairs of electrons to form an O=O bond, creating O₂ (oxygen gas).

Types of Covalent Bonds:

1. Single Covalent Bond: One pair of electrons is shared between two atoms (e.g., H₂, Cl₂).
2. Double Covalent Bond: Two pairs of electrons are shared (e.g., O₂).
3. Triple Covalent Bond: Three pairs of electrons are shared (e.g., N₂).

Properties of Covalent Compounds:

 Lower melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds (due to weaker intermolecular
forces).
 Do not conduct electricity, as they do not have free-moving ions or electrons.
 Can be soluble in non-polar solvents, but insoluble in water.
 Soft and flexible (e.g., plastic materials).

Physics:

1. Density

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance and is calculated by the formula:

Density=MassVolume\text{Density} = \frac{\text{Mass}}{\text{Volume}}Density=VolumeMass

 SI unit: kg/m³, but commonly measured in g/cm³.

 Formula: Density (ρ) = mass (m) / volume (V).

Lab Report 1: Comparing Densities of Regularly Shaped Objects

 Apparatus: Balance scale (for mass), ruler (for measurements), graduated cylinder (for volume
measurement).
 Procedure: Measure the mass of the object. Use appropriate formula (e.g., length × width ×
height for a cuboid) to find the volume. Calculate the density using the formula above.
 Results: Denser objects have higher values of density. For example, metal objects are denser than
wood.

Lab Report 2: Comparing Densities of Irregularly Shaped Objects

 Apparatus: Balance scale (for mass), measuring cylinder (for volume).

 Procedure: Measure the mass of the irregular object. Submerge the object in a known volume of
water and record the volume change to determine the volume. Use the formula to calculate
density.
 Results: The density can be calculated similarly to regular objects, but displacement is used for
volume determination.

2. Turning Forces (Moments)

A moment is a measure of the turning effect of a force. It is calculated as:

Moment=Force×Distance from Pivot\text{Moment} = \text{Force} \times \text{Distance from

Pivot}Moment=Force×Distance from Pivot

 Units: Newton meter (Nm).

 Balanced Forces: For an object to be in equilibrium, the total clockwise moment must equal the
total anticlockwise moment. This is used in levers, doors, and seesaws.
 Examples: A door handle works because when you apply a force at the edge (far from the pivot),
the moment created by the force is large enough to open the door.