Project Report on Light Emitting Diode (LED)

1. Introduction

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) represent one of the most significant breakthroughs in lighting and electronics

technology. An LED is a two-lead semiconductor light source that emits light when activated. When a suitable

voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,

releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light

(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

Initially, LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible,

ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

2. History and Evolution of LED

The concept of electroluminescence was first discovered in 1907 by British experimenter H. J. Round of

Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector. However, the practical LED was

not developed until 1962, when Nick Holonyak Jr., while working at General Electric, developed the first

visible-spectrum (red) LED. Since then, LED technology has evolved rapidly, with major developments in

material science and manufacturing processes. Blue LEDs were invented in the 1990s, leading to white LEDs

when combined with phosphor coatings. Today, LEDs are used in applications ranging from indicator lights to

television screens and full-scale lighting systems.

3. Objective

The primary objective of this project is to study and analyze the construction, working principle, types, and

real-world applications of Light Emitting Diodes. Furthermore, this report aims to develop a simple

experimental setup demonstrating the working of LEDs, calculate parameters such as resistance, and

evaluate the efficiency and advantages of using LEDs over conventional lighting systems.

4. Materials Required

For constructing a basic LED demonstration circuit, the following components and tools are necessary:

- Various LEDs (red, green, blue, white)

- Resistors (220 Ohm, 330 Ohm, 1 kOhm)

 Project Report on Light Emitting Diode (LED)

- Breadboard for prototyping

- Connecting wires

- Power supply (DC adapter or batteries 3V-12V)

- Multimeter for measurements

- Soldering kit (optional, for permanent setup)

- Arduino or microcontroller (optional, for automated LED control)

5. Construction of LED

An LED is constructed using a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction.

This junction allows current to flow in one direction only. When forward biased, electrons from the n-type

region recombine with holes in the p-type region. The energy released during this recombination is emitted as

light. The entire structure is enclosed in a plastic bulb that may be colored or clear. Some LEDs also include

lenses to focus or diffuse the light output.

6. Working Principle

The working of an LED is based on the principle of electroluminescence. When a suitable voltage is applied

across the LED terminals, it becomes forward biased, and the electrons move from the n-region to the

p-region. At the junction, they recombine with holes, releasing energy. Unlike traditional bulbs, which use

heat to generate light, LEDs use electrical energy directly to emit photons, making them much more efficient.

The wavelength (and thus the color) of the emitted light depends on the semiconductor materials used.

7. Types of LEDs

LEDs come in many forms, including:

- Miniature LEDs: Found in indicators and displays.

- High-power LEDs: Used in automotive and industrial applications.

- RGB LEDs: Combine red, green, and blue chips for multi-color output.

- OLEDs (Organic LEDs): Flexible and thin, used in screens.

- SMD LEDs: Surface-mounted for compact integration.

- COB LEDs (Chip-on-Board): High-efficiency light engines for illumination.

 Project Report on Light Emitting Diode (LED)

8. Circuit Diagram and Explanation

A simple LED circuit involves connecting the LED in series with a resistor to limit the current. The anode

(positive leg) is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply, and the cathode (negative leg) is

connected to the ground. The resistor ensures that the LED is not exposed to excessive current, which could

damage it. The circuit can be built on a breadboard for testing and prototyping.

9. Calculation of Resistor Value

To calculate the appropriate resistor value to limit the current through the LED:

R = (V_supply - V_LED) / I_LED

Where:

- V_supply is the source voltage (e.g., 9V)

- V_LED is the forward voltage of the LED (e.g., 2V for red)

- I_LED is the desired current (e.g., 20 mA)

Example: R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 Ohm. Choose the nearest standard value: 330 Ohm or 390 Ohm.

10. Characteristics of LEDs

Key electrical and optical characteristics of LEDs include:

- Forward Voltage: Typically 1.8V to 3.3V

- Forward Current: Typically 10mA to 30mA

- Viewing Angle: Angle at which light intensity is half the maximum

- Luminous Intensity: Brightness in millicandelas (mcd)

- Color Temperature: For white LEDs, measured in Kelvins

11. Advantages of LEDs

- Extremely energy efficient

- Long operational life (up to 50,000 hours)

- Low heat emission

 Project Report on Light Emitting Diode (LED)

- Environmentally friendly (no toxic materials)

- Instant switching and frequent cycling resistance

- Compact size and design flexibility

12. Disadvantages of LEDs

- Higher initial cost compared to traditional lights

- Performance affected by temperature

- Requires proper heat management

- Voltage sensitivity and risk of damage without resistors

13. Applications of LEDs

- Domestic lighting and decoration

- Traffic and automotive signals

- Digital displays and signage

- TV and mobile screens (LED backlit LCDs, OLEDs)

- Remote control transmitters

- Medical and industrial equipment

14. Experiment: LED Circuit Setup

A working model was built using a breadboard, resistors, LEDs, and a DC battery. The LED glowed when

forward biased and the resistor value was correct. Reverse biasing or omitting the resistor led to LED failure.

This hands-on experiment demonstrated practical understanding of LED behavior and current limiting.

15. Safety Precautions

- Always use a current-limiting resistor

- Observe correct polarity (anode/cathode)

- Avoid high temperatures and direct current above rated levels

- Handle with care to avoid static damage

 Project Report on Light Emitting Diode (LED)

16. Comparison: LED vs Other Light Sources

| Feature | LED | Incandescent | CFL |

|------------------|-----------|--------------|-------------|

| Energy Efficiency| Very High | Low | Medium |

| Lifespan | 50,000 hrs| 1,000 hrs | 8,000 hrs |

| Heat Emission | Very Low | High | Medium |

| Cost | Medium | Low | Medium |

17. Environmental Impact

LEDs are environmentally friendly as they do not contain hazardous substances like mercury found in CFLs.

They consume less energy, reducing carbon emissions. Their long lifespan also reduces waste. Proper

disposal is still essential to recover materials like gallium and indium.

18. Future of LED Technology

The future of LEDs includes smart lighting, integration with IoT devices, Li-Fi (data transfer through light), and

enhanced efficiency with quantum dot and laser-based LEDs. OLEDs and micro-LEDs are also evolving for

better screens and lighting systems.

19. Conclusion

LEDs have revolutionized the lighting and electronics industries with their superior efficiency, long life, and

versatility. Through this project, the fundamental concepts, calculations, and real-world importance of LEDs

have been understood and demonstrated.

20. References

- Principles of Electronics by V.K. Mehta

- www.electronics-tutorials.ws

- www.howstuffworks.com

- www.energy.gov/led-basics
 Project Report on Light Emitting Diode (LED)

- Manufacturer datasheets (e.g., OSRAM, Cree, Nichia)