The Nature and Variety of Organisms

Biology

Contents: ~Specification 1, 2 (a,b) + CGP p.1-5

-​ Characteristics of Living Organisms - Cell structure and differentiation

Introduction
All living organisms share the eight basic characteristics…
Movement - organisms move towards their needs and away from predators.
Respiration - organisms release energy from their food through this process.
Sensitivity - living organisms respond to changes in their surroundings.​
Growth - even the smallest organisms grow and develop into their adult form.
Reproduction - organisms have to produce offspring in order for their species to survive. ​
Excretion - the removal of waste products like carbon dioxide or urine. ​
Nutrition - organisms need nutrients to get energy and the raw materials needed for
Control of their internal environment - Homeostasis: keeping characteristics like water levels,
temperature, etc… constant within a narrow range.
Homeostasis: the regulation of internal conditions inside cells or organisms, to create the optimum
conditions for biological function.

Level of Organization and Cell Structure

Humans are made up of lots of cells, which are the smallest units that make up living organisms.
Some organisms are multicellular and others are composed of a single cell.

Organelles → Cells →Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems

Organelles are microscopic structures within cells. Cells with similar structures and organelles join
together to form a tissue, which is a group of similar cells that
work together to carry out a function. Tissues can contain more
than one cell type; for example, xylem tissue’s got the job to
transport water and mineral salts all across plants. It’s made up of
tracheids and vessels.
An organ is a group of different tissues that work together to
perform a specific function. Made up of different tissues, leaves
and lungs are examples of organs. Organs work together to form
organ systems, like e.g. the digestive system.

Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells are

complex and bigger than prokaryotic cells which have a simple
and small structure.
Both plants and animal cells are eukaryotic.
Nucleus: stores the genetic material that controls the cell’s
activities and is surrounded by its own membrane.
Mitochondria: small organelles where most reactions for aerobic
respiration take place. Respiration transfers energy that the cell
needs to work
Cytoplasm: gel-like substance where most of the cell’s chemical
reactions happen. Contains enzymes that control these reactions.
Ribosomes: organelles where protein synthesis happens,
proteins are made.
Cell membrane: outer surface of the cell and controls what goes
in and out the cell.
Cell wall: rigid structure made of cellulose surrounding the cell
membrane. Supports and strengthens the cell.
Vacuole: large organelle containing cell sap, a weak solution of sugars and salts, that supports the
cell.
Chloroplasts: organelles where photosynthesis takes place, containing a green substance called
chlorophyll. Where food is made
 Specialized and Stem cells
Most cells are specialised to carry out specific functions, so their structures vary.
Cells specialise for a job in cell differentiation. As cells change, they develop different organelles and
turn into different cells allowing them to carry out distinct functions.

Undifferentiated cells, also called stem cells, can divide to produce lots more undifferentiated cells.
They can specialise in different functions depending on the instructions they are given.
Stem cells are found in early human embryos. They can turn into any type of cell thus all cells in an
adult human body come from stem cells.
There’re also some stem cells in adult bone marrow, though they can’t turn into ANY cell, just specific
ones like RBC.

Stem cells can be grown in a lab to produce clones (genetically identical cells) and made into
specialised cells for medical use and research. Healthy stem cells can replace faulty ones.
If embryonic stem cells are used, they can be grown into specialised cells like nerve cells for
paralysed people. There are some risks to this, in a lab, cells might become contaminated with a virus
that could be passed on to the patient and make them sicker.

Some people are against the use of stem cells, specifically embryonic cells which they think of as
potential lives. Others think suffering patients are more important and infer that the embryos used are
most likely unwanted ones from fertility clinics. However, embryo rights campaigners would prefer if
other sources were used for the same purpose.

Examples of specialised cells are nerve cells. Their function is to send and receive signals from the
brain and for that; they have a long axon used to move the impulse from one cell to another; they
have dendrites that connect them to other nerve cells; a myelin sheath that provides insulation for
faster impulses and lots of mitochondria.
For more information refer to the sheet of specialised cells, you probs won’t need it though.
Characteristics of living organisms
Here’s a table with all needed to know about eukaryotic organisms.
Kingdom Multi/Single? Nutrition Storage of carbs? Extras Examples

Plants Multicellular Autotrophic Starch and Sucrose Their cell wall is made Maize (cereals),
of fibrous cellulose. herbaceous legumes..

Animals Multicellular Heterotrophic Glycogen Have some kind of Mammals like humans
nervous coordination and insects for
system. example.

Fungi BOTH Saprotrophic Glycogen Multicellular Yeast - single-celled

organisms have a fungus.
body called mycelium, Mucor - multicellular.
made up of hyphae
(thread-like structures
with lots of nuclei).
Cell walls made up of
chitin.

Protoctists Single-celled MIX Starch and Glycogen Microscopic, some Chlorella (plant
have chloroplasts cell-like)
similar to plant cells Amoeba (animal
while others are more cell-like) - lives in pond
like animal cells. water.

Heterotrophic Nutrition: Organisms get their food by eating other organisms or organic matter.
Autotrophic Nutrition: Organisms make their own food from sunlight or chemicals.
Saprotrophic Nutrition: Organisms get their food by decomposing dead and decaying matter. They
secrete enzymes into soil to digest nutrients, making them small and soluble in order to be absorbed
by the organisms. Extra-cellular process.
Viruses and Bacteria
Bacteria are single celled organisms with a prokaryotic cell. Some can
photosynthesize and carry plasmids (extra bits of DNA). Some examples
include lactobacillus bulgaricus - rod shaped bacteria used to make yoghurt.
→ Diagram of a prokaryotic bacterial cell

Viruses are nonliving particles, smaller than bacteria. They can’t reproduce
without a living host; they are parasites which depend on other organisms to
grow and reproduce. They have no cellular structure but do have DNA/RNA
surrounded by a protein coat and an envelope

Pathogens are organisms that can cause disease. They include some fungi,
protoctists and bacteria. Viruses also are pathogens but they aren’t living organisms. Examples
include:
Bacteria →Pneumococcus - causes pneumonia
Fungi →certain moulds - causes athlete's foot.
Virus →Influenza - flu, tobacco mosaic virus - stood tobacco plants from producing chloroplasts and
thus discolours their leaves , HIV - AIDS
Protoctists → Plasmodium - causes malaria