Started on : 18 April 2023

Finished on: 30 April 2023

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
Lessons: 3
Started on : 2 April 2024
Finished on: 2024
Lessons: 3

PHYSICS
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 9 -
Kinetic model of matter

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER -
- 9.1 & 9.2 & 9.3 -

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 States of matter
Matter can exist in one of three different states:
•Solids
• Solids have a fixed shape and volume
• Solids have a fixed volume
•Liquids
• Liquids have no fixed shape – they are able to flow,
and will take the shape of a container
• Liquids have a fixed volume
•Gases
• Gases have no fixed shape – they will take the
shape of their container
• Gases have no fixed volume – if placed in an
evacuated container they will expand to fill the Diagram showing the 3 states of matter in terms of shape and volume
container. They are also highly compressible
 Changes of State
When a substance changes state, the number of
molecules in that substance doesn't change and so
neither does its mass:
• The only thing that changes is its energy
• Changes of state are physical changes and so they
are reversible

Melting & Freezing

• Melting occurs when a solid turns into a liquid (e.g.
ice to water)
• Freezing occurs when a liquid turns into a solid

Boiling & Condensing

• Boiling occurs when a liquid turns into a gas
• This is also called evaporating
• Condensing occurs when a gas turns into a liquid
 Arrangement & Motion
of Molecules
•In a solid: Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of matter
• The molecules are very close together and arranged in
a regular pattern
• The molecules vibrate about fixed positions
•In a liquid:
• The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are
no longer arranged in a regular pattern
• The molecules are able to slide past each other
•In a gas:
• The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times
further apart in each direction
• The molecules move about randomly at high speeds
 Forces & Distances
between Molecules
• The forces between particles affect the state of matter
• This is because the magnitude of the forces affects the
relative distances and motion of the particles

This affects the ability of the substance to:

• Change shape
• Change volume
• Flow
 Intermolecular Forces
and Motion of Particles
In a solid:
• The molecules are held in place by strong intermolecular bonds
• These bonds prevent the molecules from moving, giving the solid its rigid shape and fixed
volume
In a liquid:
• The molecules have enough energy that they are able to break the bonds between them
• The bonds are still there, but they no longer hold the molecules in place
• As a result, the molecules can move around (by sliding past each other) allowing the liquid to
flow
In a gas:
• The molecules are now moving around randomly at high speeds
• The molecules have broken the bonds between them: They are widely separated with no
long-range forces binding them together
• As a result the molecules are able to move freely and so the gas can flow freely
• Because of the large spaces between the molecules (along with the absence of long-range
forces) the gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand
Motion of Molecules
in a Gas
• The molecules in a gas move around randomly at
high speeds
The temperature of a gas is related to the average
speed of the molecules:
• The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules
move

Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds

• As the molecules move around, they collide with
the surface of nearby walls, and With other
molecules
• Each collision applies a force across the surface
area of the walls
 Pressure & Force of Gas molecules hit the sides of

Particles in a Gas the container and exert a

force, which creates pressure.

• A feature of gases is that they fill their container

• As the gas particles move about randomly they collide with
the walls of their containers
• Pressure in a gas is caused by the collisions with the surface
(walls) of the container

𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 and hence a pressure will

𝑷= be exerted on those walls
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

• These collisions produce a net force at right angles to the wall

of the gas container (or any surface)
• Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent collisions
with the container walls and a greater force
• Hence the higher the pressure, the higher the force exerted • It is possible to experience this force by closing the mouth
per unit area and forcing air into the cheeks
• The strain on the cheeks is due to the force of the gas
particles pushing at right angles to the cheeks
 Molecule Momentum
• When molecules collide against a wall, they bounce off,
changing their momentum
• There are many such collisions every second, resulting in a
large change in momentum each second
• This change in momentum each second results in a force being
exerted against the wall:
𝒎𝒗𝒇 −𝒎𝒗𝒊
f= When molecules (in a gas) collide against a wall, they
𝒕 undergo a change in momentum
• The pressure exerted by the gas is equal to this force divided
by the area of the wall
 Brownian Motion
The Kinetic Theory of Matter, which simply says that all matter is
made up of tiny particles, was discovered almost by accident

• When small particles (such as pollen or smoke particles) are Brownian Motion: the erratic motion of small particles when observed
suspended in a liquid or gas, the particles can be observed through a microscope
through a microscope moving around in a random, erratic
fashion
• This observation could not be explained at the time, but later
it was realized that it shows that substances are made of
particles which are in constant motion

Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a liquid

or a gas produced by large numbers of collisions with smaller
particles which are often too small to see

Gas molecules move at high speeds, collide with larger particles,

giving them a little nudge
 Massive Particles Moved
by Small Molecules
• The small particles observed in Brownian motion are
significantly bigger than the molecules that cause the motion
• The pollen or smoke particles are seen to move
• Smaller atoms and molecules, of water or air, are still too small
to be seen
• These fast-moving atoms and molecules collide with the larger
microscopic particles
• The collisions give the particles a little nudge, causing them to
change their speed and directions randomly, each time they
are struck by a molecule
• The molecules are able to affect the particles in this way
because they are travelling at very high speeds (much higher
than the particles) and so have a lot of momentum, which
they transfer to the particles when they collide
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 9.4 -
Temperature and the Celsius scale

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 Temperature and
the Celsius scale
• When a substance is heated, its internal energy increases
• As a substance’s internal energy increases, so will its
temperature
• The higher the temperature of a substance, the more internal
energy it possesses

The molecules within a substance possess two forms of energy:

• Kinetic energy (due to their random motion/vibration)
• Potential energy (due to the bonds between the molecules) As the temperature of a substance is increased, the total energy of the
molecules (the internal energy) increases
• Together, these two forms of energy make up the internal
energy of the substance
• When a substance is heated, that heat will usually cause the
kinetic energy of the molecules to increase
• The temperature of the material is related to the average kinetic
energy of the molecules
 the Celsius
temperature scale
When a substance is heated, some of its physical
properties can change
For example
• The volume (and density) of the substance

If these properties change in a well-defined way, Ice melts and water boils at well-defined temperatures
by measuring the property you can determine (fixed points) which may be used to calibrate thermometers
the temperature
 the Celsius
temperature scale
In order to build a thermometer based on one of these
properties, you need to start by measuring the property at
some well-defined fixed points
A fixed point is a temperature at which some easily
identifiable change occurs, such as the melting of ice (at 0 °c)
or the boiling of pure water (at 100 °c)
These fixed points allow you to know the temperature
without having to measure it directly
Usually two fixed points are used:
• The lower fixed point: The melting temperature of ice
• The upper fixed point: The boiling temperature of pure
water.

Once a property has been measured at these two fixed

points, the values of that property at other temperatures can
be worked out
 Liquid As the bulb is heated, the liquid expands and moves along the capillary tube

Thermometers
• A liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass
capillary tube containing a liquid that expands with
temperature
• At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a larger
volume of the liquid which expands when heated, moving
into the narrower tube
• A scale along the side of the tube allows the temperature
to be measured based on the length of liquid within the
tube
 Temperature &
Energy of Particles
• This temperature is called absolute zero, and is equal to -273 °C
• The unit kelvin is written as K
• Note that there is no degree as with Celsius, which is written °C
• The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its
container is dependent on the temperature of
the gas
• This is because particles gain kinetic energy as
their temperature increases
• As the temperature of the gas decreases, the
pressure on the container also decreases
• In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord
Kelvin, recognized that there must be a
temperature at which the particles in a gas
exert no pressure
• At this temperature they must no longer be
moving, and hence not colliding with their
container

At absolute zero, or -273 °C, particles will have no net movement. It is

therefore not possible to have a lower temperature
 the Kelvin
temperature scale
• The kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute
zero
0 K is equal to -273 °C
• An increase of 1 K is the same change as an
increase of 1 °C
• It is not possible to have a temperature lower
than 0 K
• This means a temperature in kelvin will never
have a negative value
• To convert between temperatures θ in the
Celsius scale, and in the Kelvin scale, use the
following conversion:
 Sensitivity, Range
& Linearity
The above description has made a big assumption about the
way in which the property changes with temperature: That it
does so at a steady rate
Properties that change in this way are said to be linear, and
linearity is a very useful property for something to have as it
makes it easy to work out the relationship between that
thing and the temperature.
Other important properties when designing a device such as
a thermometer include:
• Sensitivity – if the thing you are measuring changes
significantly when the temperature changes, it makes it
easier to detect small changes in temperature: Your
thermometer is more sensitive
• Range – What are the lowest and highest temperatures
the thermometer can measure? If a liquid-thermometer is
too short, there may not be enough room for the liquid to
expand into
 The Sensitivity of
Liquid Thermometers
The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are chosen for their thermal
expansion properties:
• They expand linearly with temperature
• They expand significantly, giving them greater sensitivity
• They have low freezing points and high boiling points, allowing them to be used
over a greater range of temperatures
Sensitivity is another word for precision. Anything that makes it easier to detect
small changes in temperature increases the precision, or sensitivity of a liquid
thermometer
• Some of the factors which increase sensitivity are:
• Using a thermometer with a larger glass bulb, as a larger bulb contains more
liquid and therefore, allows for a larger change in the level of the liquid in the
tube
• Using a narrow tube, as a small change in volume results in the liquid moving a
larger distance along the tube
• Using a glass bulb with a thinner wall, as heat can be transferred to the bulb
more easily and a small change in temperature can be more easily detected
•
 Thermocouples
• A thermocouple consists of two different types of wire
attached together
• When the joint between the two wires is heated, a
potential difference (voltage) is created between the two
wires
• The greater the temperature, the greater the potential
difference
• Thermocouples are not as sensitive as liquid-in-glass
thermometers, but because the metals have high melting
points, they can be used to measure very high
temperatures
• Thermocouples are also very responsive to rapidly
changing temperatures

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar wires connected together

 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 9.5 -
The Gas Laws

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 When a gas is compressed it becomes more dense,
increasing the pressure

Constant Temperature
Pressure & Volume
When a gas is compressed, the density of the gas
increases
This means there will be more collisions against
surfaces, which will also increase the pressure
Decreasing the volume of a gas will increase the
pressure

Whilst Expanded – increases the volume which

decreases the pressure
 Constant Temperature
Pressure & Volume
Similarly, a change in pressure can cause a change
in volume
• A vacuum pump can be used to remove the air
from a sealed container
• When a gas is compressed, the molecules will
hit the walls of the container more frequently
• This creates a larger overall net force on the
walls which increases the pressure

The diagram shows the change in volume to a tied up balloon when

the pressure of the air around it decreases.
 Constant Volume

Pressure & Temperature

The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds,
colliding with surfaces and exerting pressure upon them
When the temperature of a gas is increased, the speeds of the
molecules increases
Since the average kinetic energy depends on their speed, the
kinetic energy of the molecules also increases if its volume
remains constant
As the gas heats up, the molecules will travel at a higher speed
• They collide with the walls more often, increasing the
pressure
Therefore, at a constant volume, an increase in temperature
increases the pressure of a gas and vice versa

• Diagram A shows molecules in the same volume collide with

the walls of the container more as the temperature increases

• Diagram B shows that since the temperature is proportional

NOTE to the pressure, the graph is a straight line
• The hotter the gas, the higher the average kinetic energy
• The cooler the gas, the lower the average kinetic energy
 Boyle's Law graph: Pressure is
inversely proportional to volume

Boyle's Law Note:

This equation only works if the
If the temperature T of an ideal gas is constant, then Boyle’s temperature of the gas remains
Law is given by: constant

This means the pressure is inversely proportional to the

volume of a gas

The relationship between the pressure and volume for a

fixed mass of gas at constant temperature can also be
written as:
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐

• Notice that volume and pressure are measured in m3 and Pa

respectively
• In calculations if units are given in cm3 or MPa this is a rare
case where calculations can be done using the original
units as long as answers are reported in the same, original
units