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Finished on: May 2023

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
Lessons:

Started on : 15 April 2024

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PHYSICS
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 10 -
Thermal Properties Of Matter

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 10.1 -
Thermal Expansion

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 vibrate more, pushing each other apart
When a solid is heated, the molecules
Thermal Expansion
• When materials are heated, they expand
• This expansion happens because the molecules
start to move around (or vibrate) faster, which
causes them to knock into each other and push
each other apart
• Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up
by the molecules that increases. The molecules
themselves remain the same size.
• Thermal expansion occurs in solids, liquids and gases

• When temperature is increased (at constant pressure);

• Solids will tend to expand the least
• Gases expand the most
• Liquids fall in between the two

NOTE
 Consequences:
Uses & The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if

Consequences of
they get too hot. This could include:
• Metal railway tracks
Thermal Expansion • Road surfaces
• Bridges
The thermal expansion of materials can have some Things that are prone to buckling in this way have gaps built
useful applications, but also has some undesirable in, this creates space for the expansion to happen without
consequences causing damage

Applications:
• Thermometers rely on the expansion of liquids to
measure temperature
• Temperature-activated switches work when a
bimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that
expand at different rates, bends by a predictable
amount at a given temperature

The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 10.2 -
Specific Heat Capacity

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
 Internal Energy
Substances have internal energy due to the motion of the
A rise in the temperature of an object increases its particles and their positions relative to each other
internal energy
• This can be thought of as due to an increase in the
average speed of the particles
• Increasing speed increases kinetic energy
Internal energy is defined as:
The total energy stored inside a system by the
particles that make up the system due to their
motion and positions

Motion of the particles affects their kinetic energy

• Positions of the particles relative to each other
affects their potential energy
• Together, these two make up the internal energy
of the system
Average Kinetic Energy
Heating a system changes a substance's internal
energy by increasing the kinetic energy of its particles
• The temperature of the material, therefore, is
related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules

This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore internal

energy) can:
• Cause the temperature of the system to increase
• Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or
liquid to gas)

As the container heats up, the gas molecules move faster

Faster motion causes higher kinetic energy and therefore higher

internal energy
 Specific Heat Capacity
How much the temperature of a system increases depends
on:
• The mass of the substance heated
• The type of material
• The amount of thermal energy transferred in to the
system

The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as:

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of the substance by 1 °C

Different substances have different specific heat capacities

• If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it heats up
and cools down quickly (ie. it takes less energy to change its
temperature)
• If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it heats up
and cools down slowly (ie. it takes more energy to change its
temperature)
 Calculating
Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a
given mass by a given amount can be calculated using the
equation:

𝚫𝐄 = 𝐦 𝐜 𝚫𝐓
Where:
ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/kg °C)
ΔT = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
 PHYSICS - CHAPTER 10.3 -
Changing State

© DARYAN F. ABDALLA
Melting & Boiling
While a substance is changing state, either
• Melting or freezing
• Boiling or condensing

• The substance does not change temperature,

even though energy is being transferred to or
away from the thermal energy store of the
substance

NOTE
The melting and boiling points of pure
water are known as fixed points
• Ice melts at 0 °C
• Pure water boils at 100 °C
 Melting Boiling
• When solid water (ice) is heated by adding thermal • When liquid water is heated by adding thermal energy,
energy (from the surroundings, or a flame), the ice the temperature of the water rises until the water boils
melts
• At the boiling point, even if more thermal energy is
• At the melting point, even if more thermal energy is added, the liquid water does not get any hotter
added, the solid water does not get warmer
❖ This means that the internal energy is not rising
❖ This means that the internal energy is not rising
❖ The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming
❖ The additional thermal energy goes into the intermolecular forces between the molecules of
overcoming the intermolecular forces between the water
molecules of the solid ice
• As the forces are overcome, the liquid water becomes
• As the forces are overcome, the solid water water vapor (steam)
becomes liquid
• This is evaporation or vaporization; the water is now a
• This is melting; the ice is now a liquid gas
The process is repeated backwards for cooling as heat is transferred The process is repeated backwards for cooling as energy is transferred
away. A liquid turns back into a solid through freezing away. A gas turns back into liquid through condensation
 Condensation &
Solidification
Heating and cooling graphs are used to summarize:
• How the temperature of a substance changes
when energy is transferred to or away from it
• Where changes of state occur

Heating and cooling graphs tend to be the same

• Heating is when energy is transferred to the
system and the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases (red arrows to the right)
• Cooling is when energy is transferred away from
the system (or dissipated to the surroundings)
and the kinetic energy of the molecules
decreases (blue arrows to the left)
 Condensation Solidification
• The particle diagrams next to the graph show that • The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a
as a gas condenses into a liquid liquid solidifies into a solid
• The gas has already lost heat energy (cooled down) • The liquid has already lost heat energy (cooled down)
• The particles lose kinetic energy and move more • The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly
slowly
• They no longer have enough energy to overcome the
• They no longer have enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
the intermolecular forces of attraction between
molecules • The particles get closer together

• The particles get closer together • They only have enough energy to vibrate about their
fixed position
• They only have enough energy to flow over one
another • The liquid has solidified into a solid with no change of
temperature
• The gas has condensed into a liquid with no change
of temperature
 Investigating
change of state

NOTES
Evaporation
 Evaporation
Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a
gas. It happens;
❖ At any temperature
❖ Only from the surface of a liquid

The molecules in a liquid have a range of

energies
• Some have lots of energy, others have very
little
• Their average energy relates to the
Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of a liquid escape
temperature of the liquid
 Factors affecting
evaporation
❖ Increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the
molecules in the liquid
• Molecules with more energy are more likely to overcome the
intermolecular forces holding them in the liquid state and
escape the surface
• Therefore higher temperature leads to a higher rate of
evaporation
❖ Molecules only escape the intermolecular forces of
attraction at the surface of the liquid
• Therefore a larger surface area leads to a higher rate of
evaporation
❖ Air movement carries away the water vapor which has just
evaporated
• This dries the air and allows more water molecules to escape
• Therefore increasing air movement (when indoors this is
sometimes called draughts) increases the rate of evaporation
Evaporation & Cooling
The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down:
❖ If an object is in contact with an evaporating liquid, as the
liquid cools the solid will cool as well
• This process is used in refrigerators and air conditioning units
 Boiling vs
Evaporation