What does any given

species seek, whether

'consciously'
(deliberately) or
'unconsciously,' on the
planet?
SPECIES AND POPULATION
INTERACTIONS
I. Population Interactions
A. General information
1. Individuals of a species interact with individuals
of their own species (intraspecific interactions) and
with individuals of other species (interspecific).
2. Within a community there is a range of
interactions among the various groups; some
populations have minimal influence, whereas
others have direct and immediate impacts.
Coevolution:

A triggering event of close

relationships between species.

An event that affects two (or

more) species, mutually
influencing the evolutionary
trajectory of each other.

Thus, changes in the genome

of one of them can promote
the selection of mutations
arising in the genome of the
other, leading to adaptations
that favor the interaction
between both.

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

 B. Types of population interactions
Respuesta de la Respuesta de la
1. Interactions among populations Tipo de interacción
especie A especie B
can have positive, negative, or Neutralismo 0 0
neutral effects on the growth of Mutualismo + +
populations involved Comensalismo (ej.
+ 0
epifitismo)
Amensalismo (ej.
- 0
alelopatía)
Parasitismo + -
Predación (depredación) + -
Competencia - -
 Mutualism: + +
It is an interaction between populations in which both
populations benefit; examples include interactions of
pollinators with specific species of flowering plants. The
individuals of the two species could separate their bodies
any time.

Symbiosis: + +
It is a very close relationship between two species in direct contact
with one another; Lichens. Both species (2-3) are benefitted. Their
tissues are closely mixed. Others: photosynthesis of unicellular algae
in tissues of corals, association of fungi with the roots of some plants
(mycorrhizae), .
 Mutualism: + +

…mutual benefits for both species:

- The extreme mutualism that some butterflies, beetles, bees, and

hummingbirds have developed with respect to certain flowers;
these flowers have modified their structure to be pollinated by only
one species of animal, which in turn provides it with food and
space for reproduction.

- Legumes (e.g., clover, alfalfa, beans) and nitrogen-fixing bacteria

(Rhizobium, Azotobacter). The bacteria penetrate through the
absorbing hairs and form nodules from which they produce nitrogen
compounds that are essential for the plant to synthesize protein
substances. In return, the plant offers sugars that the bacteria
require. When individuals of both species can no longer physically
separate, the relationship is often referred to as symbiosis, e.g.,
lichens.

- Natural Selection favors genotypes in one species that tend to

improve its performance and, at the same time, that of another
mutualistic species, resulting in benefits for both.
Some strategies in Mutualism:

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

 Commensalism: + 0
is a one-sided relationship between two species in which one
benefits and the other neither benefits nor is harmed;
examples include cattle egrets (heronlike birds) and cattle
(the birds feed on insects that cattle flush from vegetation as
they graze), algae growing on the shells of aquatic turtles,
and sharks and companion fishes

Parasitism: + - Endo and Exo

is a type of predation in which one organism consumes
the other but does so in a manner such that the host (the
organism being consumed) survives; examples include
ticks feeding on deer and leeches feeding on aquatic
mammals
 Commensalism: + 0

- The indifferent or "unaffected" individual is called

the host; the beneficiary, known as the
"commensal," may depend entirely or partially on
the host. In the former case, evolutionary processes
can eventually lead to symbiotic or parasitic
relationships.

- One well-known example of commensalism is that

of epiphytic plants, such as mosses, bromeliads,
and orchids, which grow on individuals of other
species, primarily trees.

- In the case of animals, a classic example is the

remora fish that attaches itself to the ventral
surface of a shark. This fish not only receives free
transportation but also benefits from protection
and food scraps provided by the shark.
 Parasitism: + -

Parasites live at the expense of their hosts, causing harm, and can
reside either outside (ectoparasites) or inside (endoparasites) the host's
body. In contrast to the predator-prey relationship, where the predator
is typically larger, in the parasite-host relationship, the parasite is
small.

Notable ectoparasites include lice, mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks. Among

well-known endoparasites are amoebas like Entamoeba histolytica,
tapeworms, the bacillus causing Koch's disease, trichinae, and others.

Some parasites require intermediaries to reach their final hosts. For

instance, the protozoan causing malaria spends part of its life in
Anopheles mosquitoes and part in human blood. Biological control of
parasites, pests and plagues are crucial…

The host likely evolves to avoid parasites, while parasites evolve to

adapt and evade the host's efforts. Parasites tend to evolve for
transmission not only vertically (affecting a single host species) but also
horizontally, seeking new species prone to invasión, i.e.: CoronaVirus.
Some strategies in Parasitism:

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

 Some strategies in Parasitism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNERtjkgbEo
Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017
 Amensalism: - 0
is an interaction in which one species is inhibited and the
other species remains unaffected; examples include certain
species of ferns, pines, cacti that produce chemicals which
inhibit the growth and survival of neighboring plants

Predation: + -
is the killing of one organism by another to obtain food;
examples include coyotes preying on prairie dogs, and
wolves preying on moose.
- Animals over animals.
- Animals over plants.
- Plants over animals.
Some strategies in scenarios of
Predator – prey.
Parasite – host.

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

 Amensalism: - 0
Example: Allelopathy. Allelopathy is defined as the direct influence of a chemical compound released by
a plant on the development and growth of another plant.

Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon whereby an organism produces one or more biochemical

compounds (acids, bases, essential oils) that influence the growth, survival, or reproduction of other
organisms. These compounds are known as allelochemicals and can lead to beneficial effects (positive
allelopathy) or harmful effects (negative allelopathy) on the receiving organisms.

Monoterpenes are the main components of essential oils in plants and are the most abundant growth-
inhibiting terpenoids identified in higher plants. They are known for their allelopathic potential against
weeds and crop plants. Plant genera that produce these compounds include Salvia, Amaranthus,
Eucalyptus, Artemisia, Aster, Juglans, and Pinus.
 Predation: + -
• Most predators are free-living animals that actively seek
and consume or partially devour other organisms. When
the prey is a plant, the predator, also known as an
herbivore, is considered a primary consumer. Conversely, if
the predator feeds on hunted animals, it is classified as a
carnivore (secondary, tertiary, etc.).

• There are also a few cases of plants equipped with

mechanisms to trap and digest small animals, known as
carnivorous or insectivorous plants.

• While predation leads to the annihilation or mutilation of

the prey (harmful to the individual and its population), the
prey species often receives indirect benefits at the
population level. The death of some individuals (e.g., the
sick, old or weak ones) is advantageous, and evolutionarily
beneficial for the species.

• Interesting adaptations in predator-prey scenarios include

mechanisms where the prey seeks to avoid predators,
such as Aposematism (warning coloration) and Mimicry.
Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017
Some scenarios for the relationship Predator – Prey:

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

Some scenarios for the relationship Predator - Prey:

Mimetismo Batesiano: ocurre cuando una especie inofensiva se asemeja a otra peligrosa o
repugnante.

Especie copiadora

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

 Some strategies for the scenarios Predator – Prey:

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dd86PbABNpQ

Competition: - -
Occurs whenever a valuable or necessary resource in short
supply is sought by two or more organisms, or, if that
resource is not in short supply, whenever organisms seeking
the resource harm one another in the process of procuring
it. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dd86PbABNpQ

a. The competitive interaction will differ

depending on the characteristics of the
resource involved and of the species
competing
…Competition - -
b. Resource or scramble competition (also called
exploitative competition) occurs when a
number of organisms deplete common
resources in short supply without reducing
the probability that another individual can
exploit the remaining resources

c. Scramble competition is likely to occur

if the resource is short-lived and its
availability is unpredictable
…Competition

C. Interference or contest competition occurs

when the organisms seeking a resource harm
one another even if the resource is not in short
supply, and access to the resource pool is
reduced by pressure from or the presence of
the competitor
 COMPETITION MAY BE INTERSPECIFIC OR
INTRASPECIFIC

1. Intraspecific competition involves interaction

between members of the same species

2. Interspecific competition involves

interaction between different species

Wikipedia
Competition often increases in intensity as the similarities
between the competitors increase; thus, intraspecific
competition generally is considered to be more intense than
interspecific competition
 …Interspecific Competition
1. Interspecific competition is manifested in mobile
animals as aggressive encounters and often
involves contest and interference competition
2. In plants and immobile animals that are fixed in
space, interspecific competition is influenced by
proximity to neighboring species and occurs by
consuming resources in limited supply, by
modifying the microclimate, or by producing toxins
3. Unlike intraspecific competition, interspecific Ecologia Verde
competition often is asymmetric —that is, the
consequences are not the same for both species;
one usually is influenced more than the other
 Interspecific Competition: - -

It generally takes place between taxonomically close species since their requirements tend
to be similar. However, competition can sometimes occur between taxonomically distant
species due to evolution.

Evolutionary responses to competition between species can result in divergences in the way
resources are used and sometimes in morphological differences (character displacement).
Thus, competition is a cause of ecological diversification.
Some strategies for scenarios
of initial Competition:

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

Some strategies for scenarios of initial Competition:

Futuyma & Kirkpatrick, 2017

 CONCLUSIONS ABOUT POPULATION/SPECIES INTERACTIONS

- Both ongoing evolutionary processes and the genetic heritage and

phylogenetic inheritance often influence which species exactly will be able to
coexist in ecosystems.

- As scholars in biology and ecology, it is important for us to understand and

differentiate the various types of species interactions that can occur in nature.

- These interactions are generally the result of thousands of years of

evolutionary and/or coevolutionary events that the species involved in the
relationship have developed through various mechanisms. The role of
microevolutionary events must have played a crucial triggering role in these
processes.
 B. Density and stress
1. As population density increases, the effects of stress
and crowding may become apparent

a. At higher population densities, there may be

increased contact among members of a
population, which may lead to stress
 …Density and stress
b. The actual mode of action by which stress
may impact a natural population is not
completely understood, but many
investigators believe it involves the endocrine
system and thus may somehow adversely
impact the physiology of the organisms
Fisiología del Estrés (youtube.com)

c. Research in vertebrates indicates that increased social

pressure results in stress, which triggers overactivity of
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenocortical
system
…Density and stress
(1) Overstimulation of these hormone-regulating systems can cause dramatic
changes in hormone secretion.

(2) Significant hormonal changes may result in suppressed growth, curtailed

reproduction, and delayed sexual activity.

(3) Other hormonal changes may suppress the immune system and thereby make
the organism more susceptible to disease.

(4) Social stress among pregnant females may increase mortality of embryos and
cause inadequate milk production and subsequent stunting of offspring
 …Density and stress

- Increased social pressure resulting in

physiological stress that affects survival and
mortality in a density-dependent fashion may
be important in controlling population size

- Plants growing in high densities also show the

effects of crowding

Some plants respond to crowded conditions

by increased seed production, with seeds
dispersing to other, less crowded areas.
 C. Dispersal
1. As a result of increased density or other
complex social interactions, some of the
population may permanently move, or
disperse, from an area to a new place.
2. There is no absolute rule as to which
members of a population will disperse
a. Among bird species, the juveniles are the major
Seed Dispersal (youtube.com)

class of dispersers
b. Among many rodent species, the subadults are
the predominate dispersing class
c. Among insects, dispersal often occurs among
individuals of a particular phase of the life cycle —
winged adults
…Dispersal
3. Dispersal among all groups generally takes place
during a pre-reproductive period
a. In birds, dispersal often occurs in spring
b. In rodents, dispersal often occurs during periods
of increasing population size and high density
4. Intraspecific competition may be a driving force in
the dispersal of some species
a. Aggressive interactions among rodents during
periods of high density have been implicated in forcing
some members of the population to disperse
b. No one mechanism can explain motivations for
dispersal; however, dispersal often follows periods of
reproduction and mutual interference, and
aggressiveness often is involved
 D. Social interactions
1. For social interactions to occur, organisms
must cluster or group together into some
interacting unit
a. Groups of organisms (largely vertebrates and
some insects) usually aggregate in some fashion
that results in simultaneous use of space.

b. Aggregations may establish initially as a result of

the distribution of a resource, in response to
predation, as a consequence of patterns of
dispersal, or as a result of mating systems
 (1) Territoriality, one end of the spectrum or continuum of
social systems, occurs when the owner or defenders of
a territory have complete dominance and control over
a particular area or portion of the habitat

(2) At the other end of the social organization spectrum,

social dominance orders, or hierarchies, occur when
individuals are defending or possessing a "personal
space" or area; this often results in the establishment of a
"pecking order" or rules of rank and privilege within the
population

d. Any social system will result in one or more of the following:

allocation of areas containing all required resources, defense of a
point source of a particular resource, or establishment of priority
of resource use
2. Social dominance is based on intraspecific
aggressiveness and intolerance and on the dominance of
one individual over another

a. A dominance hierarchy is a social structure in which each Comportamiento en manadas de los lobos (youtube.com)
individual knows its place and knows which individuals it
can or cannot defeat

(1) The top individual that wins aggressive encounters is

known as the dominant individual
(2) Other members of the social hierarchy are known as
subordinates

Nuevo descubrimiento: ELEFANTE MARINO reconoce las "voces" de otros ELEFANTES | NatGeo en Español
(youtube.com)
3. Territoriality is the possession of a territory or defended area, more or less
fixed and exclusive, maintained by an individual or by a social group (for example,
a wolf pack)
a. A territory generally is a fixed area that may shift over time and is actively
defended by its owner against intrusion; territories are nonoverlapping, with
sometimes dire consequences (such as death) for the intruder

b. Territoriality is found mainly among fish, birds, and mammals, but it also may be
found in some reptiles and amphibians

c. Territory holders use aggressive behavior to exclude intruders and gain access to
contested resources
 … Social
interactions

Tres leones se enfrentan a un macho que invade su territorio | National Geographic España (youtube.com)

Un hipopótamo se enfrenta a una manada de leones | NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC ESPAÑA - YouTube

(1) In his work with the bird species the great tit (Parus
major), J. Krebs demonstrated that those individuals with
territories in wooded areas (the preferred habitat) had
greater mating success than those forced to nest in a less
favorable habitat, such as hedgerows

(2) S. Riechert (1981) demonstrated that the mortality rates

of certain species of desert spiders without territories
were significantly higher than those for members of the
same species with territories
- Once an individual has asserted control of a territory, intruders often avoid the
territory altogether or attempt incursion onto the territory merely to test the owner

- The territorial owner most often wins in the challenge for possession of a territory, for
a number of reasons:

(1) The threat displays of territorial species have evolved properties that indicate
something about the size and actual fighting capacity of the individuals involved;
thus the brilliance of coloration, size of antlers, or other characteristics used in
display often are related to the ability of the individual to fight

(2) An attempt by a weaker or smaller animal to supplant a stronger one is far more
likely to lead to exhaustion, injury, or death than to success.
 … Social
interactions

Leones: Asalto, infanticidio, canivalismo [Warning] - YouTube

The Grouse's Unique Mating Ritual | America the Beautiful (youtube.com)

A HOME RANGE is defined as an area in which an organism
normally lives; it can be considered the normal living space of a
group or an individual (social vs. solitary organisms)

a. Home ranges are characteristic of most vertebrates

b. Possessing a home range carries many advantages,

including familiarity with the landscape, capability of
monitoring food resources, knowledge of hiding places, and
recognition of neighbors;

c. A home range generally is not defended against intruders (if

it is defended, then it is a territory)
Some relationships among living beings (animals):

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H5AqB6M_Nw4

La Vida Privada de las Plantas

- Lucha social, since 5’10” – 12’00”

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1alo4faBCey
C1MSRY2hOqKi_F8JzmcxEd