Sultan Moulay Slimane University

Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences

Name of the course: Advanced Composition

Prepared by: Mr. ELMOUHTARIM

2019-2020

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 Table of contents

Introduction
What is research?
Why conduct research?
Forms and types of research
- The descriptive and the analytical research
- The applied and the fundamental research
- The positivist and the interpretive research
Research approaches
Characteristics of research
Research process
1. Formulation of the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Data analysis and discussion
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report
Criteria of good research
Validity, reliability and ethical consideration in research
Referencing Styles
Citing: APA format structure and MLA format structure
1. APA Format structure
2. MLA Format structure
Research tools
1. Questionnaires + Steps required to design and administer questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Focus group discussion
4. Document analysis
5. Observation
6. Tests

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Introduction:

The objectives of this module which is entitled Advanced Composition and Initiation to

Research are twofold. First, it aims at providing students with a deeper understanding of

essays, especially through professional models and further meaningful practice in different

types of writing through projects. The second objective is to give a focus on preparing

students for the research project writing and to provide them with the techniques of collecting,

analyzing and organizing data in a research. In this respect we decided to produce the

following document as a guide for the students that will give them some ideas about research,

its types, its approaches, criteria of a good research, research tools and other requirements to

be taken into consideration when carrying out a research project.

What is research?

Research is a systematic work and investigation undertaken to increase the stock of

knowledge, including knowledge of human aspects, society, science and culture. The goal is to

use and invest this stock of knowledge to understand various phenomena and devise new

applications related to these different fields.

Why conduct research?

Research is used to establish or confirm facts, confirm the results of previous work,

solve new or existing problems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an

expansion on past work in the field. It can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic. In

the example of a school research project, it can be used to further prepare students for future

jobs or reports.

Forms and types of research

There are several forms of research depending on the field of inquiry: scientific,

humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing , technological, etc. The typology

of research varies according to the objective of the research and the information required.

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Among the main types of research mentioned by such scholars as Collis and Hussey (2003),

Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (1998), Denscombe (2003) and Bell (2005), the following can be

listed:

-The descriptive and the analytical research: The objective of the descriptive research is to

describe and report what exists and happens in society. It is used to identify and classify the

elements of the subject under study. The analytical research, on the other hand, uses

information and available facts and analyses them to make a critical evaluation and

explanation of the phenomena. The focus here is not on what exists or happens, but on why a

phenomenon exists and happens.

- The applied and the fundamental research: The applied research, sometimes referred to

as action research, has a major aim, which is to find a solution or solutions for a problem

facing a society, an institution or a system. An example is action research carried out in

education to find immediate practical solutions to some teaching- learning problems. On the

other hand, the fundamental research, also called basic research, is an investigation whose

focus is to better understand a subject or a phenomenon. It is meant to increase scientific

knowledge and generate new ideas without being concerned with providing immediate

solutions.

-The positivist and the interpretive research: The central aim of the positivist research (the

classical scientific approach or the empirical research) is to give explanation and to

demonstrate causal relationships through experimentation (Robson, 2002). This type of

research is contrasted to the interpretive research. The focus here is not on showing causal

relationships through experimentation, but on giving explanations through careful

examination and interpretations of events.

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Research approaches

Concerning the approaches to research, basically there are two major approaches to

research. These are the quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The first one

consists of generating information in quantitative forms that can be analyzed in a rigorous

quantitative way. It uses some research tools such as questionnaires and surveys. The second

type of research approach is the qualitative approach. This type is concerned with the

subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Data are generated in non-

quantitative forms, and they are not subject to quantitative analysis. It uses such techniques as

interviews, observations, focus groups, document analysis and tests to understand individuals’

perception of the world rather than seeking statistical data.

A further research approach can be added. This is the mixed approach which combines

both the quantitative and the qualitative approaches. Such mixed approach design has gained

acceptability and credibility among researchers, with a relatively growing number of studies

claiming that it has benefits in terms of understanding and validation of results. In this

respect, the pragmatists’ view towards these approaches is shared seeing them as

complementing each other and that “in principle all data collection procedures are legitimate

for almost all research design.” (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989: 158). Qualitative measures,

then, can be added to quantitative ones to gain a better understanding of the meaning and

implications of research findings.

Characteristics of research

The following list presents the characteristics of research;

- A research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

- A research requires expertise.

- A research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that

will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

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 - A research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.

- A research demands accurate observation and description.

- A research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using

existing data for a new purpose.

- A research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous

analysis.

- A research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.

- A research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate

the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.

- A research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

- A research is carefully recorded and collected.

- A research sometimes requires courage.

Research process

A research process consists of series of actions or steps which are necessary to

effectively carry out research. These actions or steps are summed up in the following list:

- Formulating the research problem

- Extensive literature survey

- Developing the research hypothesis

- Preparing the research design

- Determining sample design

- Collecting the research data

- Execution of the project

- Data analysis and discussion

- Hypothesis testing

- Generalization and interpretation

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 - Preparing the report and presentation of the result

1. Formulation of the research problem

At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a

subject matter that he/ she would like to inquire into. Then the research problem should be

formulated. Remember a research implies a starting point which is the research problem. This

should be clear from the beginning.

2. Extensive literature survey

Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should undertake extensive literature

survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, academic journals, conference

proceedings, government reports, books etc. depending on the nature of the problem should

be consulted.

3. Development of working hypothesis

After extensive literature survey, a researcher should state in clear terms the working

hypothesis or hypotheses. A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to

draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It is very important since it provides

the focal point for research.

4. Preparing the research design

After framing the hypotheses, we have to prepare a research design i.e. we have to state

the conceptual structure within which a research would be conducted. The preparation of such

a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. The

function of research design is to provide optimum effort, time and expenditure for the

collection of relevant evidence.

5. Determining sample design

A sample design is a definite plan determined, before any data is actually collected, for

obtaining a sample from a given population. Sample designs can be either probability or non-

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probability. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included

in the sample, but the non-probability samples do not allow the researchers to determine this

probability.

6. Collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in

terms of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be

collected either through experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected

by any one or more of the following ways: observation, personal interview, telephonic

interviews, distributing/ mailing of questionnaires etc…

7. Execution of the project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution

of the project proceeds on correct ways, the data to be collected would be adequate and

dependable. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the

survey realistic as much as possible.

8. Data analysis and discussion

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as

establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,

tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis work, after tabulation, is generally

based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients etc., by applying various well

defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting

or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to

determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.

After you have collected an adequate number of responses to your survey, take a look at

the data to see what they say. Gaining an accurate understanding of your survey results is the

final step in the survey process. You may be interested in Quantitative (Numeric) Data. That

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is using statistics and considering how many respondents have this or that answer. You may

also be interested in Qualitative Data analysis. In this respect, start by reading all the

comments to have an idea about the answers of the respondents. Then categorize the

comments into different areas. Look for links between the numeric results and the comments.

When presenting results bear in mind that “The key skill is first to decide what results are

representative, and then organize them in a sequence that highlights the answers to the aims,

hypotheses or questions that you set yourself at the beginning of the paper. In many

disciplines this involves the use of figures and tables, which are commented on in the text. In

other disciplines, findings are only reported in text form.” Wallwork (2016: 296).

9. Hypothesis testing

After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he

had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary?

This is the usual question which should be answered by applying various tests. Hypothesis

testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no

hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.

10. Generalizations and interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested, it may be possible for the researcher to make generalization.

As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to get certain generalizations. If

the researcher has no hypothesis to start with and test, he might seek to explain his findings on

the basis of some theory. This process is known as interpretation.

11. Preparation of the report

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what he has done. The layout of the

report should be as follows: the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The

preliminary pages carry the title, acknowledgements and forward and then (index). The main

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text of the report should have introduction, review of literature, research methodology and

data analysis and discussion.

Criteria of good research

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

- The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

- The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another

researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement, keeping the continuity of

what has already been attained.

- The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that

are as objective as possible.

- The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the

methods of analysis used should be appropriate.

- Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and

should be limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

- The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. A word need to be

said about these two substantial elements of research together with some ethical

consideration related to research in the following section.

Validity, reliability and ethical consideration in research

1. Validity

Validity is a basic criterion of research tools. It is described as the degree to which a

research study measures what it intends to measure. There are two main types of validity,

internal and external. Internal validity refers to the validity of the measurement and the test

itself, whereas external validity refers to the ability to generalize the findings to the target

population. Both are very important in analysing the appropriateness, meaningfulness and

usefulness of a research study.

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 A distinction is also made between face validity and content validity. Face validity

refers to whether a technique looks as if it should measure the variable it intends to measure.

To guarantee face validity, all the questions included in a research tool should be formulated

in a simple language to ensure clarity and ease of understanding for the respondents. The

piloting stage as a trial administration of the research tools is of great importance to gauge the

clarity of the questions and the appropriateness of the difficulty level for the respondents.

Content validity is defined by Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007) as a form of validity

that ensures that the specified elements of an issue to be examined in a research project are

enough in terms of representing the wider issue under investigation. Some main components

of the study should be specified and should be under control. These areas constitute the main

axes of the study. In other words, the research tools should be oriented to measure what we

intend to measure.

Briefly, validity is important because if the results of a study are not deemed to be valid,

then they are meaningless to the study. If the research tool does not measure what we want it

to measure, then the results cannot be used to answer the research question which is the main

aim of the study. These results cannot, then, be used to generalize any findings and become a

waste of time and effort.

2. Reliability

This is another criterion which is mainly used to describe the overall consistency (or

repeatability) of a measure. Polit and Hungler (1993) refer to reliability as the degree of

consistency with which an instrument measures the attribute it is designed to measure. This is

guaranteed by administering the same form of each tool to all the concerned target population.

3. Ethical considerations

To abide by the ethics of research, researchers should do their best to secure honesty,

anonymity, confidentiality and informed consent. The latter is very crucial in research. It is

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defined by Burns and Grove (1993) as the agreement of the prospective subjects to participate

in a study. Consent should be received from the respondents to participate voluntarily in

research. The objectives and scientific purpose of the study should also be explained.

Anonymity and confidentiality are also major concerns. Anonymity is ensured by not

having the participants’ names written in the research instruments used. Confidentiality is

maintained through promising the participants that the information they provide will not be

publicly reported in a way which identifies them. This should be written in the questionnaires,

for example, and should be told to the participants in other research tools. Scientific honesty

is also maintained through having contribution to the bulk of knowledge as the ultimate goal

of the research.

A word on plagiarism

Plagiarism is banned. If you quote or paraphrase another author's work without

including a reference to it, you are plagiarizing. Not only is it easy to detect plagiarism using

online services like Turn It In, but it is also very easy for your supervisor to spot it just by

reading your work. Remember - you are not being marked on your ability to write facts or

show off what you know. Any assumptions or facts you state must have someone else's

credible work to back you up. Plagiarism does not only mean cheating, it is mainly used to

describe forgetting or not realizing to include a reference to other's work or theories.

Referencing Styles

To make the reference list and bibliography consistent and easy to read across different

papers, there are predefined styles stating how to set them out. These are called citation styles.

Different subjects prefer to use different styles. The following are the most popular:

 APA (American Psychological Association) is an author/date based style. This means

emphasis is placed on the author and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify

it.

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  MLA (Modern Language Association) is most often applied by the arts and

humanities, particularly in the USA. It is arguably the most used of all of the citation

styles.

 Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard

referencing is the most used referencing style in the UK and Australia and it is

encouraged for use in human sciences.

 Vancouver The Vancouver system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.

Citing: APA format structure and MLA format structure

1. APA Format structure

 Citing books: APA format

Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Publisher City, State: Publisher.

Example:

Finney, J. (1970). Time and again. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

 Citing a magazine article APA format

Author, A. (Year, month of Publication). Article title. Magazine Title, Volume (Issue),

pp-pp.

Example:

Tumulty, K. (2006, April). Should they stay or should they go? Time, 167(15), 3-40.

 Citing a journal article in print: APA format:

Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title, Volume (Issue), pp.-pp.

Example:

Nevin, A. (1990). The Changing of Teacher Education Special Education. Teacher

Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of

the Council for Exceptional Children, 13 (3-4), 147-148

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2. MLA Format structure

 Citing books: MLA format

Author's last name, first name. Book title. Additional information. City of publication:

Publishing company, publication date.

Examples:

Allen, Thomas B. Vanishing Wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National

Geographic Society, 1974.

Boorstin, Daniel J. The Creators: A History of the Heroes of the Imagination. New

York: Random, 1992.

Hall, Donald, ed. The Oxford Book of American Literacy Anecdotes. New York:

Oxford UP, 1981.

 Citing an Encyclopedia

Author's last name, first name. "Title of Article." Title of Encyclopedia. Date.

Examples:

Pettingill, Olin Sewall, Jr. "Falcon and Falconry." World Book Encyclopedia. 1980.

Tobias, Richard. "Thurber, James." Encyclopedia Americana. 1991 ed.

Levinson, David, and Melvin M. Ember, eds. Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology.

4 vols. New York: Henry Holt, 1996. Print.

 Magazine & Newspaper Articles

Author's last name, first name. "Article title." Periodical title Volume Date: inclusive

pages.

Kanfer, Stefan. "Heard Any Good Books Lately?" Time 113 21 July. 1986: 71-72.

Trillin, Calvin. "Culture Shopping." New Yorker 15 Feb. 1993: 48-51.

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Research tools

Accurate and systematic data collection is critical to conducting scientific research.

Data collection allows us to have information that we want to collect about our study objects.

Depending on research type, methods of data collection include: questionnaires, interviews,

focus group, documents analysis, observation or a combination of different methods.

1. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a data collection instrument which consists of a series of questions

and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. A well-

designed questionnaire requires some steps.

Steps required to design and administer a questionnaire

1.1. Defining the objectives of the study: A questionnaire should allow us to collect the most

complete and accurate data in a logical flow. A well-designed questionnaire should meet the

research goal and objectives.

1.2. Defining the target respondents: The researcher should clearly define the target

populations from which she/ he intends to collect data and information. Main methods of

reaching the respondents are: personal contact, mail /Internet-based questionnaires,

distributing questionnaires in some events etc…

1.3. Designing questions: Before writing the questionnaire, a researcher should decide on the

questionnaire content. All the questions should be related to the research. Each question

should contribute to testing one or more hypothesis/ research question established in the

research design. Questions could be:

• Open format: questions calling for different responses.

• Closed format: questions that take the form of yes / no answers or multiple-choice

question.

Remark: there are some points to be considered when writing a questionnaire:

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  Clarity: questions should be written in simple, clear language avoiding all sort of

ambiguity.

 Phrasing: short and simple sentences, only one piece of information at a time, avoid

negatives if possible. Ask precise questions, in line with the respondent’s level of

knowledge.

 Avoid sensitive question: avoid questions that could be embarrassing to the

respondents.

1.4. Pilot / testing a questionnaire: The major challenge in questionnaire design is to make it

clear to all the respondents. In order to identify and solve the confusing points, we need to

pre-test the questionnaire. During the pilot trial, the participants should be randomly selected

from the target population.

1.5. Questionnaire administration: This is the process of reaching the target population.

Basically, it is the stage of asking questions and recording the answers. The information

needed is translated into a set of specific questions that the respondents can answer.

Questionnaires can be administered in a variety of ways, including face-to-face, phone, online

and paper delivery. Online and paper questionnaires are best when results should remain

anonymous. The researcher should avoid orienting the respondents to a particular answer and

should avoid leading questions.

2. Interviews: Interviews consist of collecting data by asking questions. Data can be collected

by listening to individuals, recording, filming the responses, or a combination of methods.

There are 3 types of interviews:

• The structured interview

• The semi-structured interview

• The in-depth interview

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2.1. The structured interview

In the structured interview, the questions as well as their order is already scheduled. The

additional intervention of the researcher consists of giving more explanation to clarify the

questions (if needed), and to ask the respondents to provide more explanation if the answer

they provide is vague .

2.2. The semi-structured interview

This includes a number of planned questions, but the interviewer has more freedom to modify

the wording and order of questions.

2.3. The in-depth interview

This type of interview is less formal and the least structured. It is a form in which the wording

and questions are not predetermined. This type of interview is more appropriate to collect

complex information with a higher proportion of opinion-based information.

3. Focus group discussion

The focus group is a structured discussion with the purpose of stimulating conversation

around a specific topic. The focus group discussion is led by a facilitator who poses questions

and the participants give their thoughts and opinions. Such discussion gives us the possibility

to cross check one individual’s opinion with other opinions gathered. A well organized and

facilitated focus group discussion is more than a question and answer session. In a group

situation, members tend to be more open and the dynamics within the group and interaction

can enrich the quality and quantity of information needed.

Practical consideration in focus group discussion

 The ideal size of a focus groups ranges from 8 to 10 participants, plus a facilitator and

a note-taker or recorder.

 When preparing for a focus group, take into consideration the identication of the

purpose of the discussion, the participants and the questions.

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  Running the focus group proceeds in this way:

- Opening the discussion

- Managing the discussion

- Closing the focus group

- Follow-up after the focus group

4. Document analysis: this is another important research tool which consists of analysing

some documents that can provide relevant information. For example some textbooks,

newspapers, literary work, historical archives etc…

5. Observation: This research tool allows the researcher to get information by seeing what is

happening without asking questions. According to Wisker (2001) observation enables the

researcher to capture what people actually do rather than what they say they do.

6. Tests: For example language tests used to get information about a language problem.

References

Bell, J. (2005). Doing Your Research Project: a Guide for First-time Researchers in
Education and Social Sciences (4th ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., & Tight, M. (1998). How to Research. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1993). The Practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, Critique
and Utilization (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education
(6th ed.). London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Collis, J., & Hussey, R. (2003). Business Research: a Practical Guide for
Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Denscombe, M. (2003). The Good Research Guide (2nd ed.). Maidenhead: Open
University Press.
Polit, D. F., & Hungler, B. P. (1993). Nursing Research: Principles and Methods
(3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.

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Robson, C. (2002). Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and
Practitioner-researchers. Oxford: Blackwell.
Seliger, H., & Shohamy, E. (1989). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Wallwork, A. (2016). English for Writing Research Papers. (2nd ed.). Springer International
Publishing Switzerland.
Wisker, G. (2001). The Postgraduate Research Handbook: Succeed with your MA,
MPhil, EdD and PhD. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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