3.

1 Introduction
Differential protection is based on the fact that any fault within an electrical equipment
would cause the current entering it, to be different, from that leaving it. Thus, we can
compare the two currents either in magnitude or in phase or both and issue a trip output
if the difference exceeds a predetermined set value. This method of detecting faults is very
attractive when both ends of the apparatus are physically located near each other. A
typical situation, where this is true, is in the case of a transformer, a generator or a
busbar. In the case of transmission lines, the ends are too far apart for conventional
differential relaying to be directly applied.

3.2 Dot Markings

Differential protection utilizes CTs at each terminal of the equipment under protection.
Careful attention needs to be paid to the 'dot markings' (also known as 'polarity marks')
on t h e s e ' c ~ s .We, therefore, briefly review the concept of dot markings.
Consider a set of three mutually coupled coils A, B, and C with terminals A1-A2,
B,-BZ and CI-CZas shown in Figure 3.1. The question is: how shall we put dot marks on
the terminals of these coils?
To answer this question, let us energize coil A as shown in Figure 3.2 so that the
terminal Al becomes positive with respect to terminal A2. Now, this will cause an
alternating current to flow through coil A, and thus set up an alternating flux q~ in the
direction shown, at the instant of time under consideration. This flux also links both coils
B and C. Voltages will be induced in these coils. Now if a load were to be connected
between terminals B1 and B2, a current'will be established. According to Lenz's law, this
current would flow in such a direction so as to oppose the very cause (flux #A) that was
responsible for its (current in coil B) production. Therefore, the direction of current
through coil B will be such that the flux ( $ B ) due to it opposes the flux $A. Thus, current
will flow out of terminal B2, making B2 instantaneously positive with respect to B1.
 Figure 3.1 Dot marking.

Induced
current

Induced
current
9c

Figure 3.2 Dot marks: induced currents and flux.

Therefore, B2 will have the same polarity as that of A,. Thus, dot marks can be put on
Al and B2 as shown in Figure. 3.3 to signify that these two terminals will be similarly
phased.
 Similar arguments show that current must leave terminal C1 at the instant under
consideration. Thus, C1 will be similarly phased as Al. We, therefore, put dot marks on
terminals Al, B2, and C1.
A little thought will convince the reader that we can instead put dot marks on
terminals .42, B,, and C,, as shown in Figure 3.3.

Dot mark
A2

Dot mark

Figure 3.3 Dot marks: symbolic method of representation.

From the above discussion, we can generalize the following properties of dot
markings:

When current enters the dot mark on the primary side of a C r the current must leave the
similarly marked dot mark on the secondary side.
If currents are made to enter dot marked terminals on two or more coupled coils then the
fluxes produced by these currents are such that they add up.

3.3 Simple Differential Protection

3.3.1 Simple Differential ~rotection:Behaviour During Load

Figure 3.4 shows a simple differential relaying scheme (also known as Merz-Price
scheme). The currents entering and leaving the equipment to be protected are stepped
down with the help of CTs on either side. Careful attention must be paid to the dot marks
placed on the CTs.
 CT
. -- n :I
U
- .
O
,,-
11
'L

n
L
0
a
Instantaneous OC relay d
Spill current = 0 Plug setting = I,,

I .
< I
Figure 3i4 Simple differential protection.

The following rule can be applied in order to trace the currents in the circuit:
When current enters the dot mark on the primary side of the C q the current must lea.
the similarly marked dot mark on the secondary side.
For the operating condition of normal load flow shown in Figure 3.4, the currents
transformed by the two CTs, being equal in magnitude as well as in phase, just circulate
on the secondary side. There is no tendency for the current to spill into the over-current
relay. The over-current relay connected in the spill path is wired to trip the two circuit
breakers on either side of the equipment being protected.
Assuming that the protected equipment is either a 1 : 1 ratio transformer or say a
generator winding or a busbar, the two currents on the primary side will be equal. Hence
the ratios of the two protective CTs will also be identical. The CT secondary circuits are
so connected that in case the conditions are normal, the secondary currents simply
circulate through the 'pilot' leads connecting the two secondary windings. For the
operating condition of normal load flow, there is no current through the 'spill path' where
an over-current relay is located. Hence, the OC relay will not trip the two CBs. Thus, the
simple differential relay meets the first and foremost requirement that it remains stable
during normal operating conditions.

3.3.2 Simple Differential Protection: Behaviour During Externa

Fault
t
Next, the differential relaying scheme should also remain stable for any fault which is
outside its protective zone. Such faults are called external faults or through faults.
Figure 3.5 shows that during external faults too, the current leaving the protected zone
is the same as that entering it. Assuming that the CTs transform the two currents with
the same fidelity, there will be no current in the spill path and the scheme remains stable.

3.3.3 Simple Differential Protection: Behaviour During Internal

Fault
,,.
Figure 3.6 shows an internal fault of magnitude If, The current leaving the protected
zone is now I2 whereas that entering it is 11,such that, I, = I2 + Ic ,,. As can be seen
 Figure 3.5 Simple differential scheme remains stable on external faults.

from the figure, current in the spill path is now (If,i,,ln), where n is the CT ratio.
Assuming that the spill current is more than the pick-up value of the over-current relay,
both the circuit breakers will be tripped out. Thus, the scheme meets the basic
requirement of clearing internal faults.

1 Internal fault

Figure 3.6 Simple differential scheme trips on internal faults

The minimum internal fault current that will cause the tripping, is given by
If,min
= (CT ratio) (Plug setting of the OC relay) = nIp,

3.3.4 Simple Differential Protection, Double-end-fed: Behaviour

During Internal Fault . *I- +

In the preceding analysis, we have assumed a single-end-fed system. How does the
differential scheme behave in case of a double-end-fed system?
A double-end-fed system is shown in Figure 3.7, the internal fault is now fed from
both sides. The internal fault current, If,,nt, is now equal to (I, + I z )Again, we see that
the spill current is equal to (IC,,,In).
 -
a rn Equipment under
protection
,\
\I rn
U -
41

,,- '2
n
,,
Internal fault

Figure 3.7 Simple differential scheme in a double-end-fed system operates for

interrial fault.

Assuming that the splll current is greater than I,,, the plug setting of the OC relay,
the relay will operate and trip out the circuit breakers on either side of the protected
equipment.

3.4 Zone of Protection of the Differential Relay

The differential scheme generates a well-defined and closed zone of prote&tion. This zone
encompasses everything between the two CTs as shown in Figure 3.8. Thus, we talk of
any fault between the two CTs as an 'internal fault'. To the differential scheme, all other
faults are 'external faults' or 'through faults'. Ideally, therefore, a differential scheme is
supposed
-* to respond only t3 internal faults, and restrain from t r i.- ~pin- aon e x t e r ~ a l
through faults.

Zone of differential

Equipment uqder

External fault
I 1 External fault

Figure 3.8 The zone of differential protection,

 Thus, an ideal differentla1 scheme should he able to respond to the smailes~~ n t e r n d
fault but restrain from tripping on the iargest external fault This ided is difficult to
achieve, especially for very h e a y ~'through faults' because of the non-icieal nature of the
various components of the protective system. This is discussed in the following sect~ons

3.5 Actual Behaviour of a Simpie Differential Scheme

In our discussion so far we have tacitly assumed that the CTs are ideal. in ow ever,
practice, CTs are subject to ratio and phase angle errors. Both these errors depend upon
the burden on the CTs, which in turn depends on the lead lengths and the impedance of
the relay coil. The errors, in general, increase as the primary current increases, as in the
case of external faults. Figure 3.9 shows the primary and the secondary current phasors
during an external fault.
Ideally, for 'through faults', secondary currents of both the CTs would be equal in
magnitude and in phase v l t h each other, and thus the spill current would be zero.
.
However, as shown in Figure 3.9, CT, has an actual ratio of n, and pirzse-angle error of
while CT, has an actual ratio of nz and phase angle error of 8,. The difference between
these two currents, therefore, ends up as spill current, as shown in Figure 3.9. Since both
the ratio and phase angle errors aggravate as primary current increases, the spill current
builds up as the 'through fault' current goes on increasing.

/P = lr, eil
n:1
-

Equipment under
protection
,,
A .-
Ip

- --
=
n :I
If, ex1

U
7

.
Spill current
External
\
?
.
?
fault
11, ext
n = nominal CT ratio
n, and n, = actual CT ratios
!
Ideal positions of I,, and Is2

'P
Primary current

current

Figure 3.9 Spill c u r r e n t because of CT errors

-64
- F~lndarnentalsof P o w e ~Systenz Protectron
3.5.7 Through Fault Stability and Stability Ratio
As the 'through fault' current goes on increasing, various imperfections of the CTs get
magnified. This causes the spill current to build up. Therefore, as the 'through fault'
current goes on increasing, as shown in Figure 3.10, there comes a stage when the spill
current, due to the difference between the secondary currents of the two CTs, exceeds the
pick-up value of the over-current relay in the spill path. This causes the relay to operate,
disconnecting the equipment under protection from rest of the system. This is clearly a
case of maloperation, since the relay has tripped on external fault. In such instances, the
differential scheme is said to have lost stability. To signify the ability of the differential
scheme to restrain from tripping on external faults, we define 'through fault stability . .
limit' as the maximum 'through fault' current beyond which the scheme loses stability.
I
In Figure 3.10, 'through fault stability limit' is shown as Istab . >

External fault
characteristics

So Pick-up value of OC
E relay in spill path
/
1/ Trip f' , /'
-1 Through fault current -2 <

/rob
Through fault stability
L
Figure 3.10 Characteristics of simple differential relay.

Compare this with the situation of an internal fault. The minimum internal fault
current required for the scheme to operate, correctly in this case, is decided by pick-up
value of the over-current relay in the spill path. To signify the spread between the
minimum internal fault current at which the scheme operates and the maximum 'through
f a a t ' current beyond which the scheme (mal)operates, we define a term called stability
ratio as:

Stability ratio = maximum 'through fault' current beyond which scheme (ma1)operates
minimum internal fault cur;ent required for tripping

The higher the stability ratio, the better is the ability of the system to discriminate
between external and internal faults. The stability ratio can be improved by improving
the match between the two CTs.
 3.5.2 Equivalent Circuit of CT
F i g r e 3.11 shows the equivalent circuit of the CT as referred to the secondary side.

H Burden

' ( -b
h Excitation characteristic of CT

b
>
I Magnetizing current. I,
(C)

Figure 3.11 Equivalent circuit of CT.

I
RLri and LLri arc the resistance and the leakage inductance of the prlmary windir,g as '

referred to. the secondary side. R,,,,, and Lmugform the shunt magnetizing branch. The
magnetizing inductancc is highly nonlinear. R,,, and I,,,, are the resistance and leakage
inductance of the secondary winding. The impedance Zhlllilenincludes the resistance and
the inductance of the relay coils and rcsistance of the pilot wire (leads). Also shown in
Figure 3.11(c) is a sketch of the magnetization characteristic of the CT (also known as
open-circuit characteristic).
Out of the current Ipln transformed by the ideal CT, the magnetizing branch draws
the magnetization current I,. It is to be noted that the magnetizing current is a nonlinear
function of the excitation voltage V,,,. During normal operating conditions, when V,, is
small, the current I, can be safely neglected. However, at higher values of primary
current, (and therefore secondary current), as in case of 'through faults', the secondary
voltage, Vse,, which is equal to I,(Z,,, + Zburden) increases and causes I, to become an
appreciable fraction of the current transformed by the ideal CT. Thus, we can no longer
ignore I,.
,:j
-1
Differential scheme considering CT equivalent circuit
Figure 3.12 shows the simple differential scheme in which CT equivalent circuit has been
explicitly included. The various currents shown in Figure 3.12 are those that result
 during an external fault condition. Assuming that both CTs have the same nominal ratio
of transformation n, we see that a spill current equal to the difference of the two
magnetizing currents results. Since the magnetizing currents of the two CTs will
generally vary widely, there is a substantial spill current during 'through fault'
conditions. This results into loss of stability and maloperation of the simple differential
scheme. Thus, the simple differential scheme, which looks attractively simple, cannot be
used in practice without further modifications.
This is especially true in case of transformer protection. The CTs on the two sides of
the transformer have to work at different primary system voltage. Because the currents
on the two sides of the transformer are, in general, different, the ratios of transformation
of the CTs are also different. Their designs are therefore different, making it impossible
.d
to get a close match between their characteristics. This explains why the spill current
goes on increasing as the 'through fault' current increases.
In case of busbar protection, the primary voltages of the two CTs are the same, and
the CT ratios are also the same. However, busbars are subjected to very heavy 'through
fault' currents, which tend to magnify the differences between the characteristics of the
two CTs. Thus, for busbar protection too, the simple differential scheme needs to be
further modified.
Both these aspects have been dealt with in detail in subsequent chapters.

3.6 Percentage Differential Relay

The simple differential relay can be made more stable, if somehow, a restraining torque
proportional to the 'through fault' current could be developed-the operating torque still
being proportional to the spill current.
This idea has been implemented in the percentage differential relay shown in
Figure 3.13. This relay has a restraining coil which is tapped at the centre, thus forming
two sections with equal number of turns, N J 2 . The restraining coil is connected in the
circulating current path, thus receiving the 'through fault' current. The operating coil,
having No number of turns, is connected in the spill path. Let us work out the torque
equation for this relay.
Nr
Ampere-turns acting on the left-hand section of the restraining coil = I,
N,
Ampere-turns acting on the right-hand section of the restraining coil = I2
N,
Total ampere-turns acting on the restraining coil = -2 (I, + I z )
Noting that torque in an electromagnetic relay is proportional to the square of the
flux, .,

Torque produced by the restraining coil = M N ,

[ (4 ;"'I'
where M is a constant of proportionality.
Restraining torque produced by control spring = Tspring
68 Fundamentals oj Power Sysrem Prorecriott
ir 1

'P
-*
CT
n : l CB
Equipment under
CB
\
,
n
rn
:
-
~ 1,
>

T I / Trip protection ?
Trip,

Restraining coil '&

12

T Spring
Armature

rid output

Balanced beam structure

Figure 3.13 Percentage differential relay

Total restraining torque = M + Tspring

Similarly,
Operating torque = M [ N , ( I l - 1211"
The relay trips if the operating torque is greater than the restraining torque. The relay
will be on the verge of operation when the operating torque just balances out the
restraining torque, i.e. when:

M[N,,(I, - 1,)]2 = M (neglecting the restraining torque due to spring)

which can be written as

where X = N,IN,,.
I,-i,=K
I
(I?+ I,)
) '
However, if we take into account the effect of control spring, the above equation can
be written as
Dzflerenrial Prctection 69

Il - I2 = K
where KO accounts for the effect of spring.
Thus, the operating characteristics of this relay will be a straight line with a slope of
(N,IN,) and an intercept KOon the y-axis. All points above the straight line will represent
the condition where the operating torque is greater than the restraining torque and hence
will fall in the trip region of the relay. All points below the straight line belong to the
restraining region. The operating characteristics of the percentage differential relay are
shown in Figure 3.14.
Internal fault
:.. ,.. characteristic External fault
200% slope characteristic

' Minlrnurn Internal Through fault current. -

(";")
I '

-? ,+ fault current, IF ,,,,,,

-
I I

!
,
I
!
I
Maximum through fault current, I,,,,,.,,
I
I

Figure 3.14 Operating characteristics of percentae differential relay.

Thus, the spill current must be greater than a definite percentage of the 'through
fault' current for the relay to operate. Hence, the name percentage differential relay. The
slope of the relay is customarily expqessed as a percentage. Thus, a slope of 0.4 is
expressed as 40% slope.
The percentage differential relay does not have a fixed pick-up value. The relay
automatically adapts its pick-up value to the 'through fault' current. As the 'through fault'
current goes on increasing, we are in effect asking the relay to take it easy, by introducing
a restraining torque proportional to the circulatillg current. I t can be seen from
Figure 3.14,that the 'through fault' stability and the stability ratio of the percentage
70 F~lrrdar~~etitnls
of Power Svsterrr Prutecriun --
--
.
differential relay is substantially better than that of the simple differential relay. The
restraining winding is also known as the biasing winding because we bias the relay
towards restraint. The slope of the characteristic is also known as percentage bias.
The characteristic of the percentage differential relay, superimposed on the 'through
fault' characteristic, and the internal fault characteristic are shown in Figure 3.14. The
slope of the internal fault characteristic can be found as follows:
Consider an internal fault in the case of a single-end-fed system. Since CT2 will not
contribute any current, i.e., I2 = 0, the spill current, ( I , - I;), will be equal to I I . The
+
circulating current which is [ ( I 1 12)121 will be equal to (1,121. ~ h u s ,the following
currents will exist during an internal fault:
Spill current I l - I2 = I I
11 + I,
Circulating current T - 11
- -
- A
5
' I

Thus, during internal faults the spill current will be two times the circul'ating current, a ,'
giving a slope of 2, which is expressed as 200%. :
'5

The minimum internal fault current below which the scheme will not respond is seen . ,

.
to be Ir,,in,int and the maximum 'through fault' current above which the scheme will ,

maloperate is seen to be If,,,,,,,, as shown in Figure 3.14. Thus, the stability ratio is given ,. -.
by

1 Stability ratio = %max,ext

If,mm,lnt 1
The percentage differential relay can be made more immune to maloperation on
'through fault' by increasing the slope of the characteristic.

3.6.1 Block Diagram of Percentage Differential Relay 1

1
Figure 3.15 shows the block diagram of the percentage differential relay. The relay has
two settings. the slope setting and the minimum pick-up setting. The slope is adjusted by
changing the tapping on the restraining coil. It may be noted that both halves of the
restraining coil need to be symmetrically tapped. The m~nimumpick-up is adjusted by .~
changing the tension of the restraining spring.
$Adjust rnlntrnurn plck-up
Restra~n~ng
cod
N.12 N.12
0 0

--- Adjust slope

1 + 20% slope
2 30% slope I

;-
3 + 40% slope
1
Figure 3.15 Block diagram of percentage differential relay showing its settings.
 3.7 Elarfh leakage ProSecfion
Many times because of insulatior~failure the chassis of the equipment becomes live. This
causes a leakage of current to earth from the chassis as the chassis is always connected
t o earth. However, the leakage current may be too small for an over-current relay to
operate. This poses danger to the personnel who come in contact with the chassis. A
special type of differential relay known as the earth leakage relay or current balance relay
can easily detect such faults.
In case the chassis of the equipment is not earthed, the relay will not trip because of
leakage. However, as soon a person whose body is in contact with earth, touches the
chassis, a path to earth becomes available, and assuming that the leakage current is of
suficient magnitude, the OC relay trips. The person will, of course, receive an electric
shock before the circuit is tripped out.

3.7.1 Earth Leakage Protection for Single-phase Load

Figure 3.16 shows the earth leakage relay for a single-phase load.

Figure 3.16 Earth leakage protect~onfor single-phase load

The relay consists of a toroidal corson which two identical windings A and B, each
having N number of turns are wound in close proximity. A third coil C, known as the pick-
up coil, is also wound and connected across an OC relay as shown in Figure 3.16. The
phase and neutral leads are connected to these windings as shown in the figure so that
windings A and B carry the currents in the phase wire and the neutral wire, respectively.
t Under normal operating conditions, the current through the phase wire (and coil A)
is exactly the same as that through the neutral wire (and coil B). Thus, there is no net
 72 F~~i~da~~ierltols
01- Power S v ~ r r ~Protect~orr
r~

magnetomotive force (mmf) acting on the toroidal core. The flux linked with the pick-up
coll is therefore zero, and thus no voltage is induced in the pick-up coil and the OC relay
remains unenergzed.
Now consider the situation of earth leakage as shown in Figure 3.16. The current in
the phase wire is now greater than that in the neutral wire, as part of the current returns
to the supply vla the earth. The mmf acting on the toroid is now equal to [N(Iyh- I,)]
or equal to [N(Il,,)]. This rnmf sets u p flux in the core causing a voltage to be Induced
by the pick-up coil. The OC relay connected to the pick-up coil, therefore, gets energized,
and trips the circuit.
I

3.7.2 Earth Leakage Protection for Three-phase Loads

Figure 3.17 shows earth leakage protection for a three-phase load. The three-phase leads
are threaded through a CT core on which a pick-up winding is provided as in the case of
single-phase earth leakage protection. •
Three-phase load
la + lb + k '/leak
Iron core

Figure 3.17 Earth leakage protection for three-phase loads.

During the normal balanced operating condition, the phasor sum of the three-phase
currents is zero. Therefore, there is no net mmf acting on the core and the OC relay
remains unenergized.
However, during the earth leakage situation s h w n in Figure 3.17, the net mmf acting
on the core is (Ileak)ampere-turns. This causes a flux to be produced. A voltage is induced
in the pick-up winding causing the OC relay connected across it to operate.
 Review Questions
1. Fiow will :iou check the polarity marks on a protection CT with the help of a
1.5 volt battery and a centre-zero voltmeter?
2. What do you mean by CT saturation?
3. Explain the following terms with respect to the simple differential scheme:
Circulating current, spill current, internal fault, external fault, through fault,
'through fault' stability limit and stability ratio.
4. What are the drawbacks of the simple differential scheme?
5. What is the effect of the resistance of the pilot (lead) wires on the CT errors?
6. As the burden on a CT secondary goes on increasing, what happens to the
magnitude and waveform of current delivered to the burden?
7. Explain how the percentage differential relay overcomes the drawbacks of the
simple differential relay.
8. Prove that the slope of the internal fault characteristics for a single-end-fed
system is 200%.
9. How do you adjust the slope of the percentage differential relay?
10. Show that the slope of the simple differential relay characteristics is zero.
11. Prove that the slope of the internal fault characteristics for a double-end-fed
system is greater than 200%.
12. Higher slopes are required in cases where there is a lot of mismatch between the
CTs at various terminals. Explain.
13. Which elements of the power system are ideal candidates for applying differential
protection?
14. What problems, if any, do you anticipate in applying conventional differential
protection to a transmission line?

Problems
1. For a 5 A CT, the total impedance of the secondary winding and leads is 0.01 ohm.
Determine the VA capacity of the CT secondary at (a) the rated secondary current
and (b) the maximum fault current of 20 times the rated CT secondary current.
2. In a simple differential scheme, the two CTs have a nominal ratio of 100 : 1. The
CT errors for a 'through fault' current of 1000 A are as follows:
CTI CT2
Ratio error
.- 5% + 6%
Phase angle error 2% -4%

Determine the pick up of the OC relay in the spill path so that the scheme
remains stable.