Big Data Visualization Tools *

Nikos Bikakis
ATHENA Research Center, Athens, Greece

Data visualization and analytics are nowadays one of the corner-stones of Data
Science, turning the abundance of Big Data being produced through modern systems
into actionable knowledge. Indeed, the Big Data era has realized the availability of
voluminous datasets that are dynamic, noisy and heterogeneous in nature.
Transforming a data-curious user into someone who can access and analyze that
data is even more burdensome now for a great number of users with little or no
support and expertise on the data processing part. Thus, the area of data
visualization and analysis has gained great attention recently, calling for joint action
from different research areas and communities such as information visualization,
data management and mining, human-computer interaction, and computer graphics.
This article presents the limitations of traditional visualization systems in the Big
Data era. Additionally, it discusses the major prerequisites and challenges that
should be addressed by modern visualization systems. Finally, the state-of-the-art
methods that have been developed in the context of the Big Data visualization and
analytics are presented, considering methods from the Data Management and
Mining, Information Visualization and Human-Computer Interaction communities.

Synonyms
Exploratory data analysis; Information visualization; Interactive visualization;
Visual analytics; Visual exploration

Definition
Data visualization is the presentation of data in a pictorial or graphical format, and a data
visualization tool is the software that generates this presentation. Data visualization offers
intuitive ways for information perception and manipulation that essentially amplify the
overall cognitive performance of information processing, enabling users to effectively
identify interesting patterns, infer correlations and causalities, and support sense-making
activities.

*
This article appears in: Encyclopedia of Big Data Technologies, 2nd Edition,
Springer, 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63962-8_109-2
Overview
Data visualization provides users with intuitive means to interactively explore and analyze
data, enabling them to identify interesting patterns, discover correlations and causalities, and
support sense-making activities (Throughout the article, terms visualization and visual
exploration, as well as terms tool and system, are used interchangeably.). This is of great
importance, especially given the massive volumes of digital information concerning nearly
every aspect of human activity that are currently being produced and collected.
Data visualization and analytics are nowadays one of the cornerstones of Data Science,
turning the abundance of Big Data being produced through modern systems into actionable
knowledge. Indeed, the Big Data era has realized the availability of voluminous datasets that
are dynamic, noisy, and heterogeneous in nature. Transforming a data-curious user into
someone who can access and analyze that data is even more burdensome now for a great
number of users with little or no support and expertise on the data processing part. Thus, the
area of data visualization and analysis has gained great attention recently, calling for joint
action from different research areas and communities such as information visualization, data
management and mining, human-computer interaction, and computer graphics.
Several traditional problems from those communities, such as efficient data storage,
querying and indexing for enabling visual analytics, ways for visual presentation of massive
data, efficient interaction, and personalization techniques that can fit to different user needs,
are revisited with Big Data in mind (Andrienko et al. 2020; Qin et al. 2020; Idreos et al.
2015; Behrisch et al. 2019; Godfrey et al. 2016; Shneiderman 2008).
Given the above, modern visualization systems should effectively and efficiently handle the
following aspects:
• Real-Time Interaction. Efficient and scalable techniques should support the
interaction with billion-objects datasets while maintaining an acceptable system
response in in less than a second.
• On-the-Fly Visualization. Support of on-the-fly visualizations over large and
dynamic sets of volatile raw (i.e., not preprocessed) data is required. In several
cases, a preprocessing phased is not an option.
• Visual Scalability. Provision of effective data abstraction mechanisms is necessary
for addressing problems related to visual information overloading (aka
overplotting).
• User Assistance and Personalization. Encouraging user comprehension and
offering customization capabilities to different user-defined exploration scenarios
and preferences according to the analysis needs are important features.
The literature on visualization is extensive, covering a large range of fields and many
decades (Rees and Laramee 2019; McNabb and Laramee 2017). Data visualization is
discussed in a great number of recent introductory-level textbooks, such as Ward et al.
(2015), Keim et al. (2010). Further, surveys of Big Data visualization systems can be found
at (Qin et al. 2020; Po et al. 2020; Godfrey et al. 2016; Behrisch et al. 2019; Bikakis and
Sellis 2016; Idreos et al. 2015).
Finally, there is a great deal of information regarding visualization tools available in the
Web. We mention dataviz.tools (http://dataviz.tools) and datavizcatalogue
(www.datavizcatalogue. com) which are catalogs containing a large number of visualization
tools, libraries, and resources.

Visualization in Big Data Era

This section discusses the basic concepts related to Big Data visualization. First, the
limitations of traditional visualization systems are outlined. Then, the basic characteristics of
data visualization in the context of Big Data era are presented. Finally, the major
prerequisites and challenges that should be addressed by modern visualization systems are
discussed.

Traditional Visualization Systems. Most traditional visualization systems perform well

for ad hoc visualizations of small data files (e.g., showing a trend line or a bar chart) or over
aggregated data (e.g., summaries of data points, into which user can zoom in), which can fit
in main memory. Hence, they restrict themselves to dealing with small datasets, which can
be easily handled and analyzed with conventional data management and visual explorations
techniques. For larger data files, the conventional systems usually require a preprocessing
phase, such as loading in a data management system. As a result, they are limited to
accessing preprocessed sets of static data.

Big Data Era. On the other hand, nowadays, the Big Data era has made available large
numbers of very big datasets that are often dynamic and characterized by high variety and
volatility. For example, in several cases (e.g., scientific databases), new data constantly
arrive on an hourly basis; in other cases, data sources offer query or API endpoints for online
access and updating. Further, nowadays, an increasingly large number of diverse users (i.e.,
users with different preferences or skills) explore and analyze data in a plethora of different
scenarios and tasks.

Visualization Systems in Big Data Era. Modern systems should be able to efficiently
handle big dynamic datasets, operating on machines with limited computational and memory
resources (e.g., laptops). The dynamic nature of nowadays data (e.g., stream data), hinders
the application of a preprocessing phase, such as traditional database loading and indexing.
Hence, systems should provide on-the-fly processing and visualization over large sets of
data.
Further, in conjunction with performance issues, modern systems have to address challenges
related to visual presentation. Visualizing a large number of data objects is a challenging
task; modern systems have to “squeeze a billion records into a million pixels” (Shneiderman
2008). Even in small datasets, offering a dataset overview may be extremely difficult; in
both cases, information overloading (aka overplotting) is a common issue. Consequently,
visual scalability is a basic requirement of modern systems, which have to effectively
support data reduction/abstraction (e.g., sampling, aggregation) over enormous numbers of
data objects.
Apart from the aforementioned requirements, modern systems must also satisfy the diversity
of preferences and requirements posed by different users and tasks. Modern systems should
provide the user with the ability to customize the exploration experience based on her
preferences and the individual requirements of each examined task. Additionally, systems
should automatically adjust their parameters by taking into account the environment setting
and available resources, e.g., screen resolution/size, available memory.

Key Research Findings

This section presents how state-of-the-art approaches from data management and mining,
information visualization, and human-computer interaction communities attempt to handle
the challenges that arise in the Big Data era.

Data Reduction. In order to handle and visualize large datasets, modern systems have to
deal with information overloading issues. Offering visual scalability is crucial in Big Data
visualization. Systems should provide efficient and effective abstraction and summarization
mechanisms. In this direction, a large number of systems use approximation techniques (aka
data reduction techniques), in which abstract sets of data are computed. Considering the
existing approaches, most of them are based on (1) sampling and filtering (Fisher et al. 2012;
Park et al. 2016; Agarwal et al. 2013; Battle et al. 2013) and/or (2) aggregation (e.g.,
binning, clustering) (Elmqvist and Fekete 2010; Bikakis et al. 2017; Jugel et al. 2015; Liu et
al. 2013).

Hierarchical Data Exploration. Data reduction techniques are often defined hierarchically
(Elmqvist and Fekete 2010), allowing users to explore data in multiple “level of detail” by,
e.g., hierarchical aggregation.
Hierarchical approaches (aka multilevel) allow the visual exploration of very large datasets
in multiple levels (with different “level of detail”), offering both an overview and an
intuitive and effective way for finding specific parts within a dataset.
Particularly, in hierarchical approaches, the user first obtains an overview of the dataset
before proceeding to data exploration operations (e.g., Roll-Up, Drill-Down, Zoom, Filter)
and finally retrieving details about the data. A significant challenge, in large data
visualization, is the problem of overplotting. It can effectively be addressed in hierarchical
approaches, in which, in each level, the number of the presented visual elements is
controlled by data reduction methods.
Hierarchical techniques have been extensively used in large graphs/network visualization, in
order to handle the common problem of overloading, in winch the graph is presented as
“hairball.” In these techniques the graph is recursively decomposed into smaller subgraphs
that form a hierarchy of abstraction layers. In most cases, the hierarchy is constructed by
exploiting clustering and partitioning (Rodrigues Jr. et al. 2013; Tominski et al. 2009),
sampling (Sundara et al. 2010), and edge bundling (Gansner et al. 2011) techniques.

Progressive Data Visualization. Visual data exploration requires real-time system’s

response. However, computing complete results over large (unprocessed) datasets may be
extremely costly and in several cases unnecessary. Modern systems should progressively
return partial and preferably representative results, as soon as possible (Angelini et al. 2018;
Zgraggen et al. 2017).
Progressiveness can significantly improve efficiency in exploration scenarios, where it is
common that users attempt to find something interesting without knowing what exactly they
are searching for beforehand. In this case, users perform a sequence of operations (e.g.,
queries), where the result of each operation determines the formulation of the next operation.
Recently, many systems adopt the progressive paradigm attempting to reduce the response
time (Moritz et al. 2017; Rahman et al. 2017; Angelini et al. 2018; Zgraggen et al. 2017;
Fisher et al. 2012; Agarwal et al. 2013). Progressive approaches, instead of performing all
the computations in one step (that can take a long time to complete), split them in a series of
short chunks of approximate computations that improved with time. Therefore, instead of
waiting for an unbounded amount of time, users can see the results unfolding progressively.
This way the users are able to interrupt the execution and define the next operation, without
waiting the exact result to be computed.

Adaptive Indexing and In-situ Data Management. Several approaches like database
cracking and adaptive indexing have been adopted in data exploration scenarios. The basic
idea of these is to incrementally adapt the indexes and/or refine the physical order of data,
during query processing, following the characteristics of the workload (Pedro et al. 2019;
Vikram et al. 2020; Matheus et al. 2021; Stratos et al. 2007).
In-situ paradigm (Idreos et al. 2011; Alagiannis et al. 2012; Bikakis et al. 2021; Maroulis et
al. 2022; Olma et al. 2017) is a recent trend that aims at enabling the on-the-fly querying
over large sets of raw data, by avoiding the (pre)processing (e.g., loading and indexing)
overhead of traditional DBMS techniques. In-situ query processing aims at avoiding data
loading in a DBMS by accessing and operating directly over raw data files. In these systems,
in situ incremental and adaptive processing and indexing techniques are used, in which
small parts of raw data are processed incrementally “following” users’ interactions.
Furthermore, several well-known DBMS support in situ SQL querying over CSV files.
Particularly, MySQL provides the CSV Storage Engine, Oracle offers the External Tables
and Postgres has the Foreign Data.

Visual-Oriented Data Structures. Numerous data visualization systems have been

developed on-top of data structures and indexes which are designed in the context of visual
exploration, to improve efficiency and scalability. VisTrees (El-Hindi et al. 2016) and
HETree (Bikakis et al. 2017) are tree-based main-memory indexes that address visual
exploration use cases; i.e., they offer exploration-oriented features such as incremental index
construction and adaptation.
Nanocubes (Lins et al. 2013), Hashedcubes (de Lara Pahins et al. 2017), SmartCube (Liu et
al. 2020), Gaussian Cubes (Wang et al. 2017), and TopKubes (Miranda et al. 2017) are
main-memory data structures supporting interactive visualization. They are based on main-
memory variations of a data cube in order to reduce the time needed to generate the
visualization.
Spatial indexes have been used in graphVizdb (Bikakis et al. 2016) is a graph-based
visualization tool, which employs a 2D spatial index (e.g., R-tree) and maps user interactions
into window 2D queries. Spatial 2D indexing is also adopted in Kyrix (Wenbo et al. 2019),
enabling efficient Zoom and Pan operations over arbitrary data types. Finally, tile-based
structures are used in several visualization systems, such as RawVis (Bikakis et al. 2021),
AID (Saheli et al. 2019), ForeCache (Battle et al. 2016).

Caching and Prefetching. Recall that, in exploration scenarios, a sequence of operations is

performed and, in most cases, each operation is driven by the previous one. In this setting,
caching and/or prefetching the sets of data that are likely to be accessed by the user in the
near future can significantly reduce the response time (Battle et al. 2016; Tauheed et al.
2012). Most of these approaches use prediction techniques which exploit several factors
(e.g., user behavior, user profile, use case) in order to determine the upcoming user
interactions.

User Assistance. The huge amount of available information makes it difficult for users to
manually explore and analyze data. Modern systems should provide mechanisms that assist
the user and reduce the effort needed on their part, considering the diversity of preferences
and requirements posed by different users and tasks.
Recently, several approaches have been developed in the context of visualization
recommendation (Vartak et al. 2016). These approaches recommend the most suitable
visualizations in order to assist users throughout the analysis process. Usually, the
recommendations take into account several factors, such as data characteristics, environment
setting and available resources (e.g., screen resolution/size, available memory), examined
task, user preferences and behavior, etc.
Considering data characteristics, there are several systems that recommend the most suitable
visualization technique (and parameters) based on the type, attributes, distribution, or
cardinality of the input data (Key et al. 2012; Ehsan et al. 2016). Other approaches provide
visualization recommendations based on user behavior and preferences (Mutlu et al. 2016),
using machine learning (Hu et al. 2019) or similarity-based techniques (Kim et al. 2017). In
a similar context, some systems assist users by recommending certain visualizations that
reveal surprising, interesting data or outliers (Vartak et al. 2014; Wongsuphasawat et al.
2016).

Examples of Applications
Visualization techniques are of great importance in a wide range of application areas in the
Big Data era. The volume, velocity, heterogeneity, and complexity of available data make it
extremely difficult for humans to explore and analyze data. Data visualization enables users
to perform a series of analysis tasks that are not always possible with common data analysis
techniques (Keim et al. 2010).
Major application domains for data visualization and analytics are Physics and Astronomy.
Satellites and telescopes collect daily massive and dynamic streams of data. Using traditional
analysis techniques, astronomers are able to identify noise, patterns, and similarities. On the
other hand, visual analytics can enable astronomers to identify unexpected phenomena and
perform several complex operations, which are not are feasible by traditional analysis
approaches.
Another application domain is atmospheric sciences like Meteorology and Climatology. In
this domain high volumes of data are collected from sensors and satellites on a daily basis.
Storing these data over the years results in massive amounts of data that have to be analyzed.
Visual analytics can assist scientists to perform core tasks, such as climate factors correlation
analysis, event prediction, etc. Further, in this domain, visualization systems are used in
several scenarios in order capture real-time phenomena, such as hurricanes, fires, floods, and
tsunamis.
In the domain of Bioinformatics, visualization techniques are exploited in numerous tasks.
For example, analyzing the large amounts of biological data produced by DNA sequencers is
extremely challenging. Visual techniques can help biologist to gain insight and identify
interesting “areas” of genes on which to perform their experiments.
In the Big Data era, visualization techniques are extensively used in the business intelligence
domain. Finance markets is one application area, where visual analytics allow to monitor
markets, identify trends, and perform predictions. Besides, market research is also an
application area. Marketing agencies and in-house marketing departments analyze a plethora
of diverse sources (e.g., finance data, customer behavior, social media). Visual techniques
are exploited to realize task such as identifying trends, finding emerging market
opportunities, finding influential users and communities, and optimizing operations (e.g.,
troubleshooting of products and services), business analysis, and development (e.g., churn
rate prediction, marketing optimization).

Future Directions for Research

From a community perspective, the challenges related to data visualization and analysis
involve different communities and research areas such as Data management & Mining,
Information Visualization, Human-Computer Interaction, and Computer Graphics. In what
follows we summarize some of the basic challenges indicated in a recent report (Andrienko
et al. 2020).

Understand needs, personalize, and guide. Modern systems need to handle several major
user-centric challenges. Systems should understand what the users need to solve their
problems and offer guidance (“Show the Data not Seen by Humans”). In this context, the
following basic challenge can be considered: (a) recommend views of the data that the users
might want to analyze; (b) find what parts of data will be useful for each task; (c) provide
insights recommendations; (d) produce data stories and explanations; (e) develop novel
interfaces that assist users to understand data types and properties of the data; (f) integrated
human factors related to human vision and perception to analysis pipeline, so users
supervise, or provide feedback to systems.

Scalability and efficiency. Another great challenge is related to the systems’ scalability and
efficiency. This is to enable visualization systems to efficiently handle billion objects
datasets, while limiting the response to a few milliseconds. In that direction, the challenges
involve how to build tools that can perform interactive operations and complex analytics
over massive sets of data. In that respect, there is the need for novel approaches (e.g.,
progressive data processing) that can handle large streaming, sampled, uncertain, high-
dimensional, and noisy data.
 Data-intensive applications. Classical data management problems, such as data storage,
querying, and indexing, are highly related to efficiency and scalability of the modern
visualization systems. However, in the context of visual analysis, solving such problems
reveals several “new” challenges. Such challenges are considered the following: define
visualization-centric algebras, design visualization operators, implement operation
optimization techniques, define effective storage and indexing scheme.

Interactive machine learning. Building interactive tools and enabling visual analysis to
Machine Learning (ML) applications is a great challenge. For example, develop visual
methods for interpreting and techniques for interacting with ML models; implement
visualization systems that enable models’ troubleshooting, debugging, and comparison.

Cross-References
- Visualization
- Visualization Techniques
- Visualizing Semantic Data
- Graph Exploration and Search

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