Selected Topics

Spring 2025 - Dr. Mohamed Medhat

Dr. Bassant Mostafa
Selected Topics

Lecture 2
 Table of Contents

● The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

● Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, and Matrices
● Algorithms
● Number Theory
● Induction and Recursion
● Counting
● Discrete Probability
● Advanced Counting Techniques
● Relations
● Graphs
● Trees
● Boolean Algebra
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

If it is a dog, then it is a mammal

p q
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Conditional statement
Imply
p q

Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q ≡ ┐q ┐p

q p ≡ ┐p ┐q
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Propositional Equivalences:

Compound proposition

Tautology. Contradiction. Contingency.

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Compound
proposition

Tautology Contradiction. Contingency.

All the truth All the truth

Neither T nor F
table (T) table (F)
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≡
⇔
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Example:
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Logically
Equivalences
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without using a Truth Table

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without using a Truth Table

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¬ (p → q) → p

≡ ¬ (¬ p V q) → p

≡ (p ∧ ¬ q) → p

≡ ¬ (p ∧ ¬ q) V p

≡ (¬ p V q) V p

≡ (¬ p V p) V q

≡TVq
≡T
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Predicates and Quantifiers
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Predicates and Quantifiers

➢ Predicate is a statement has

variables.
➢ Proposition is a statement
does not have variables.

You are good person (Proposition)

Mohamed is married to X (predicate)
X+10=20 (predicate)
2+3=5 (Proposition)
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Example 4:
Let P(x,y) denote the statement “x +y ≤ 4.” and Q(x,y,z) denote the
statement “ x+2y+5z > 20”
What are these truth values?

➢ P(2,3) ^ Q(2,1,5)

➢ P(2,1) Q(3,1,3)
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

Example:
Let P(x,y) denote the statement “x +y ≤ 4.” and Q(x,y,z) denote the
statement “ x+2y+5z > 20”
What are these truth values?

➢ P(2,3) ^ Q(2,1,5) F^T False

➢ P(2,1) Q(3,1,3) T F False

 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Quantifiers:

Expresses the extent to which a predicate is true over a range of elements.

Quantifiers

Universal Existential
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Quantifiers

Universal Existential
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Quantifiers

Universal Existential
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Universal
Existential
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Example 5:
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Example 5:

T T F
F T F
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Translate into English
Example1:
Express the statement “Every student in this class has studied calculus.

Solution x is the domain that consists of all students in the school

𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 has studied calculus.
𝑆(𝑥): 𝑥 is in this class. x ( S ( x ) → p ( x ))
The statement can be expressed as
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Example2:

𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
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𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
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𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
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𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
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Precedence of Quantifiers:
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Negating Quantified Expressions
1
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∀𝒙𝑷(𝒙) :
1
"Every student in your class has taken a course in calculus"

The negation of this statement is

"There is at least one student in your class who has not taken a course in calculus"
¬∀𝒙𝑷(𝒙) ≡ ∃𝒙¬𝑷(𝒙)
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2
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2
∃𝒙𝑷(𝒙) :

“At least one student in your class has taken a course in calculus"

The negation of this statement is

"Every student in this class has not taken calculus"

¬∃𝒙𝑷(𝒙) ≡ ∀𝒙¬𝑷(𝒙)
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Negating Quantified
Expressions

¬∀𝑥P(𝑥) ≡ ∃𝑥¬P(𝑥) ¬∃𝑥𝑄(𝑥) ≡ ∀𝑥¬𝑄(𝑥)

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1. ¬∀𝑥(𝐴 ∨ 𝐵)

2. ቀ𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶))

3. ¬∃𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶)

4. 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶)

5. 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶)

6. ¬∀𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐴𝑉𝐶)
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Answer
1. ¬∀𝑥(𝐴 ∨ 𝐵) 1. ¬∀𝑥(𝐴 ∨ 𝐵) = ∃𝑥(𝐴᪄ ∧ 𝐵)
᪄

2. ቀ𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶)) 2. 𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶 ቁ = 𝐴᪄ ∨ 𝐵᪄ ∧ 𝐶᪄ = (𝐴᪄ ∨ 𝐵)

᪄ ∧ (𝐴᪄ ∨ 𝐶)
᪄

3. ¬∃𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶) 3. ¬∃𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶) = ∀𝑥¬ 𝐴∧ (𝐵 ∨ 𝐶) = ∀𝑥(𝐴᪄ ∨ 𝐵)

᪄ ∧ (𝐴᪄ ∨ 𝐶)
᪄

4. 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶) 4. 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶 ቁ = 𝐴᪄ ∨ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶) = 𝐴᪄ ∨ (𝐴᪄ ∧ 𝐶)
᪄ = 𝐴᪄
• Another Solution: ൫A∧ (A ∨ C) = A → So: 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶 is 𝐴᪄

5. 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶) 5. ¬∀𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶)

6. ¬∀𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐴𝑉𝐶) 6. ¬∀𝑥 𝐴∧ (𝐴 ∨ 𝐶) = ∃𝑥¬(A) = ∃𝑥 𝐴᪄

 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Arguments in Propositional Logic
Consider the following argument involving propositions
(which, by definition, is a sequence of propositions):
"If you have a current password, then you can log onto the network."
"You have a current password."

Therefore,
"You can log onto the network."
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Arguments in Propositional Logic
Consider the following argument involving propositions
(which, by definition, is a sequence of propositions):
"If you have a current password, then you can log onto the network."
"You have a current password." Premises
Therefore,
"You can log onto the network." Conclusion
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This argument is valid if 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is a tautology.

𝑝→ 𝑞
𝑝 Premises

∴𝑞 Conclusion
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Valid Arguments
An argument in propositional logic is a sequence of
propositions. All the proposition in the argument are called
premises and the final proposition is called the conclusion.

∀
The argument is valid if ∧ (∀ Premises) → conclusion is a tautology.
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Valid Arguments
We can always use a truth table to show that an argument form is valid.
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→ 𝒒 𝒑 (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 𝒒 ((𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑) → 𝒒
𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓
𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓
𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓
𝑝→ 𝑞
𝐅 𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓
𝑝
So, this argument is valid
𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is a tautology
∴𝑞
Critical Rows: The critical rows are those rows where the premises have truth value T.
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Example1
Using the truth table to show that the hypotheses
𝑝∨𝑞
¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟
lead to the conclusion
𝑞∨𝑟
 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

Example1
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
𝑝∨𝑞
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒑∨𝒒 ¬𝒑 ¬𝒑 ∨ 𝒓 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ (¬𝒑 ∨ 𝒓) 𝒒 ∨ 𝒓
¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟
𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓
----------- 𝐓 𝐓 𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓
𝐓 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓
𝑞∨𝑟 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝐅
𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓
𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓 𝐓
𝐅 𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐅 𝐓
𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝐅 𝐓 𝐓 𝐅 𝐅

So, this argument is valid

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WORD PROBLEM
Example2

Use truth table to determine the argument form

If Tariq is not on team A, then Hameed is on team B.

If Hameed is not on team B, then Tariq is on team A.
∴ Tariq is not on team A or Hameed is not on team B.

is valid or invalid.
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Argument is invalid
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WORD PROBLEM
Example3

Use truth table to determine the argument form

If I got an Eid bonus, I’ll buy a stereo.

If I sell my motorcycle, I’ll buy a stereo.
∴ If I get an Eid bonus or I sell my motorcycle, then I’ll buy a stereo.

is valid or invalid.
let
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Argument

Argument is valid
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Spring 2025 - Dr. Mohamed Medhat

Dr. Bassant Mostafa