Maths S4 Notes by Emmy
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irakozfistchrisMaths S4 Notes by Emmy
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irakozfistchrisKIGALI CITY
KICUKIRO DISTRICT
KAGARAMA SECONDARY SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS SYLLABUS FOR S4
Teacher: MANIRAKIZA Emmanuel
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TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT......................................................................................................ii
UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY.......................................................... 1
1.1.: TRIGONOMETRIC CONCEPT ............................................................................ 1
1.2.: MEASURE OF AN ANGLE .................................................................................. 2
1.3.: UNIT CIRCLE ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4.: TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF ACUTE ANGLES .............................................. 4
1.5.: TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES .......................................................................... 6
1.6.: REDUCTION TO FUNCTIONS OF POSITIVE ANGLES ..................................... 9
1.7.: TRIANGLES AND APPLICATIONS ................................................................... 15
a) Right triangle ...................................................................................................... 15
b) Oblique triangles................................................................................................. 18
c) Angle of elevation and angle of depression ........................................................ 22
d) Bearings ............................................................................................................. 24
UNIT 2: PROPOSITIONAL AND PREDICATE LOGIC.................................................. 25
2.1.: INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS ............................................................... 25
2.2.: LOGICAL CONNECTIVES................................................................................. 26
a) Negation of a proposition .................................................................................... 26
b) Conjunction of two propositions .......................................................................... 26
c) Disjunction of two propositions ........................................................................... 27
d) Implication (conditional proposition) ................................................................... 28
e) Equivalence (biconditional propositions) ............................................................ 29
f) Tautologies .......................................................................................................... 31
g) Quantifiers .......................................................................................................... 33
UNIT 3: BINARY OPERATIONS ................................................................................... 37
3.1.: DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES .................................................................... 37
3.2.: ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES ............................................................................. 42
a) Groups ................................................................................................................ 42
b) Rings .................................................................................................................. 44
c) Fields .................................................................................................................. 46
UNIT 4: THE SET R OF REAL NUMBERS ................................................................... 49
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4.1.: ABSOLUTE VALUE AND ITS PROPERTIES .................................................... 49
4.2.: POWERS AND RADICALS................................................................................ 53
a) Powers in R ........................................................................................................ 53
b) Radicals in R ....................................................................................................... 53
C) Rationalization ................................................................................................... 55
d) Decimal logarithms and properties ..................................................................... 56
Unit 5: Linear equations and inequalities....................................................................... 59
5.1.: Equations and inequalities in one unknown ....................................................... 59
EQUATIONS PRODUCTS/QUOTIENTS ................................................................ 61
Inequations of the first degree in one unknown ...................................................... 62
5.2.: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN .......... 65
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS .................................................................................. 65
Parametric inequalities ........................................................................................... 67
5.3.: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS IN TWO UNKNOWNS..................................... 68
5.4.: SIMULTANEOUS INEQUALITIES ..................................................................... 72
Unit 6: Quadratic equations and inequalities. ................................................................ 74
6.1.: Quadratic equations ........................................................................................... 74
6.2.: Equations Reducible to Quadratic form.............................................................. 80
a) Biquadratic equations ......................................................................................... 80
b) Nested radicals ................................................................................................... 81
c) Equations of the form ax 4 bx3 cx2 bx a 0 .................................... 82
d) Reciprocal equations .......................................................................................... 83
e) Irrational equations ............................................................................................. 84
6.3.: Quadratic inequalities......................................................................................... 86
6.4.: Parametric equations and inequalities in one unknown ..................................... 87
Parametric equations of the second degree ........................................................... 87
Unit 7: Polynomial, rational and irrational functions. ...................................................... 88
7.1.: Factorization of polynomials ............................................................................... 88
7.2.: Generalities on numerical functions ................................................................... 92
Definition and domain of a function......................................................................... 92
Domain and range of a numerical function ............................................................. 92
Operations on functions .......................................................................................... 97
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Addition of polynomials.................................................................................... 97
Odd and even functions .......................................................................................... 98
Composite function ............................................................................................... 100
The inverse of a function ...................................................................................... 101
Unit 8: Limits of polynomial, rational and irrational functions ....................................... 103
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 103
OPERATIONS ON LIMITS....................................................................................... 104
THE SQUEEZE THEOREM ..................................................................................... 106
Indeterminate cases................................................................................................. 107
Formal definition of the limit ..................................................................................... 111
Applications of limits ................................................................................................ 112
a) Continuity ....................................................................................................... 112
Unit 9: Differentiation of polynomials, rational and irrational functions and their
applications. ................................................................................................................ 120
Definition .................................................................................................................. 120
Rules of differentiation ............................................................................................. 125
Product and quotient rules .................................................................................... 125
Chain rule and the derivative of the inverse .......................................................... 126
Implicit differentiation ............................................................................................ 127
Derivative of a function defined parametrically ..................................................... 128
Application of derivatives ......................................................................................... 130
Equation of tangent and normal ............................................................................ 130
Velocity ................................................................................................................. 131
Mean value theorem ............................................................................................. 132
Hospital’s rule ....................................................................................................... 133
Maximum and minimum values ............................................................................ 134
Increasing and decreasing functions .................................................................... 135
Concavity and second derivative test ................................................................... 137
Optimization .......................................................................................................... 138
Related rates ........................................................................................................ 139
Curve sketching ....................................................................................................... 140
Unit 10: Vector spaces of real numbers. ..................................................................... 146
Vectors space R2 ..................................................................................................... 146
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Linear combination ................................................................................................... 148
Basis ........................................................................................................................ 149
The dimensions of a vector space ........................................................................... 151
Euclidian vector space ............................................................................................. 152
Scalar product and properties and magnitude of a vector .................................... 152
Scalar product and triangles ................................................................................. 156
Unit 11: Concepts and operations on linear transformations in 2D. ............................ 158
Linear transformation ............................................................................................... 158
Geometric transformation......................................................................................... 162
Kernel and range ..................................................................................................... 165
Operations on transformations ................................................................................. 166
Unit 12: Matrices of linear transformations and determinants of order 2 ..................... 168
Square matrices of order two ................................................................................... 168
Operations on matrices ............................................................................................ 169
Determinants of matrices of order two ..................................................................... 172
Matrix inverse........................................................................................................... 173
Application of matrices ............................................................................................. 174
Solving simultaneous equations ........................................................................... 174
Matrix of a linear transformation............................................................................... 175
Matrices of geometric transformation ....................................................................... 176
Application of determinants ...................................................................................... 180
Unit 13: Points, straight lines and circles in 2D. .......................................................... 181
Points in 2 D............................................................................................................. 181
Straight lines in two dimensions ............................................................................... 183
The shortest distance between a point and a line ................................................. 185
Relative position of two straight line...................................................................... 186
Angle between two straight lines .......................................................................... 187
The circle ................................................................................................................. 188
Relative position between a line and circle. .......................................................... 192
Intersection of two circles ..................................................................................... 194
Unit 14: Measures of dispersion. ................................................................................. 195
Variance ................................................................................................................... 195
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Standard deviation ................................................................................................... 199
Coefficient of variation ............................................................................................. 200
Unit 15: Combinatorics. ............................................................................................... 206
Permutations and combinations ............................................................................... 206
Principle of counting ............................................................................................. 206
Factorial notation .................................................................................................. 207
Permutations ............................................................................................................ 208
Fact 1: Permutations of objects not all different (Permutations of indistinguishable
objects) ................................................................................................................. 209
Fact 2: Circular permutations ................................................................................ 210
Fact 3: Permutations of r objects selected from n objects .................................... 210
Fact 4: Permutations with repetition allowed ........................................................ 212
Combinations ........................................................................................................... 212
Binomial theorem (binomial expansion) ................................................................... 215
Unit 16: Elementary probability ................................................................................... 219
Definitions: ............................................................................................................... 219
Discrete sample space ......................................................................................... 219
Events ................................................................................................................... 219
Definitions of certain terms ................................................................................... 220
Probability of an event. ......................................................................................... 221
Tree and Venn diagram and sample space ............................................................. 222
Tree diagrams and total number outcomes .......................................................... 222
References .................................................................................................................. 230
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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY
1.1.: TRIGONOMETRIC CONCEPT
Trigonometry is the study of how the sides and angles of a triangle are related to each other. A
rotation angle is formed by rotating an initial side through an angle, about a fixed point called
vertex, to terminal position called terminal side.
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EXAMPLE:
1.2.: MEASURE OF AN ANGLE
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EXAMPLES:
ACTIVITY:
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1.3.: UNIT CIRCLE
1.4.: TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF ACUTE ANGLES
EXAMPLE:
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ACTIVITY:
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1.5.: TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
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EXAMPLE:
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EXERCISES
EXAMPLE:
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ACTIVITY:
1.6.: REDUCTION TO FUNCTIONS OF POSITIVE ANGLES
EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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ACTIVITY:
1.7.: TRIANGLES AND APPLICATIONS
a) Right triangle
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EXAMPLE 1:
EXAMPLE 2:
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b) Oblique triangles
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EXAMPLE1:
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EXAMPLE 2:
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EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
c) Angle of elevation and angle of depression
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EXAMPLE:
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d) Bearings
EXAMPLE:
See examples on page 29-30 Advanced Mathematics for Rwanda secondary schools Book 4.
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ACTIVITY:
UNIT 2: PROPOSITIONAL AND PREDICATE LOGIC
2.1.: INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
EXAMPLE:
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2.2.: LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
a) Negation of a proposition
EXAMPLE:
b) Conjunction of two propositions
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EXAMPLE:
c) Disjunction of two propositions
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EXAMPLE:
d) Implication (conditional proposition)
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EXAMPLE:
e) Equivalence (biconditional propositions)
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EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
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f) Tautologies
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g) Quantifiers
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PRACTICE
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UNIT 3: BINARY OPERATIONS
3.1.: DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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3.2.: ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
a) Groups
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EXAMPLE:
b) Rings
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c) Fields
EXAMPLE:
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PRACTICE
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UNIT 4: THE SET ℝ OF REAL NUMBERS
4.1.: ABSOLUTE VALUE AND ITS PROPERTIES
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EXAMPLE:
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EXAMPLE:
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4.2.: POWERS AND RADICALS
a) Powers in ℝ
b) Radicals in ℝ
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EXAMPLE:
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C) Rationalization
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Example:
Exercise
Rationalize the denominator
5 2√2 3√3+2√2
1. 4. 6.
√7 4+3√3 1+2√2
3−2√2 𝑎−√𝑏
2. 5.
1−√2 √𝑑
2√2
3.
√2+√3+√5
d) Decimal logarithms and properties
Examples:
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Examples:
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Co-logarithm
Co-logarithm, sometimes shortened to colog, of a number is the logarithm of the reciprocal of
that number, equal to the negative of the logarithm of the number itself,
1
colog𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥) = −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥.
Example: colog200 = −log200 = −2.3010
Practice:
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Unit 5: Linear equations and inequalities
5.1.: Equations and inequalities in one unknown
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EQUATIONS PRODUCTS/QUOTIENTS
EXAMPLES:
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EXAMPLE:
Inequations of the first degree in one unknown
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Example:
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Example:
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5.2.: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
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Example 1:
Example 2:
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Parametric inequalities
Examples:
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5.3.: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS IN TWO UNKNOWNS
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Examples:
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Examples:
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Examples:
Examples:
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5.4.: SIMULTANEOUS INEQUALITIES
Examples:
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Unit 6: Quadratic equations and inequalities.
6.1.: Quadratic equations
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Examples:
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Solving quadratic equation by factorizing
The method of solving quadratic equations by factorization should only used if is readily
factorized by inspection.
Example:
1) Solve in : x 2 2 x 24 0
Solution:
x 2 2 x 24 0 x 6x 4 0
So, either x 6 0 or x 4 0 giving x 6 or x 4 .
2) Solve in : 5 x 2 7 x 6 0
Solution:
5 x 2 7 x 6 0 5 x 2 3x 10 x 6 0 x5 x 3 25 x 3 0
5 x 3x 2 0
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So, either 5 x 3 0 or x 2 0 giving x
3
or x 2 .
5
Quadratic equations by completing the square.
Before solving equations by completing square, let’s look at some examples of expanding a
binomial by squaring it.
x 32 x2 6 x 9
x 52 x2 10 x 25 . Notice that the constant term k 2 of the trinomial is the square of the
half of the coefficient of trinomial’s x term. Thus, to make the expression x 2 kx a perfect
2
1
square, you must add k to the expression. When completing the square to solve quadratic
2
equation, remember that you must preserve the equality. When you add a constant to one side of
the equation, be sure to add the same constant to the other side of the equation.
Example:
1) Solve x 2 2 x 8 0 by completing the square.
Solution:
x 2 2 x 8 x 2 2 x 12 8 12
( x 1) 2 9 x 1 3
x1 3 1 2
x2 3 1 4
2) Solve 4 x 2 2 x 5 0 by completing squares
Solution:
1 5
4x2 2x 5 x2 x
2 4
2 2 2
1 1 5 1 1 21 1 21
Rewrite x 2 x x x
2 4 4 4 4 16 4 4
1 21
x1
4 4
x 21
1
2
4 4
Exercises:
Solve in the set of real numbers the following equations by completing the square
1. x 2 5 x 24 0 3. x 2 13 x 36 0
2. 2 x 2 x 6 0 4. 3x 2 5 x 12 0
Factor form of a quadratic expression
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Examples:
6.2.: Equations Reducible to Quadratic form
a) Biquadratic equations
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Example:
Exercises:
Solve in the set of real numbers
1. x 4 13x 2 36 0 3. x 4 10 x 2 9 0
2. x 6 7 x3 6 0 4. x 4 61x 2 900 0
b) Nested radicals
A nested radical is a radical expression (one containing a square root sign, cube sign etc) that
contains (nests) another radical expression. Examples include 5 2 5 and more complicated
ones such as 3
2 3 3 4 . We will see the nested radicals of the form A B . The radicals
like of A B can be transformed and give x y . The process is called denesting.
To do this, we square both sides of the relation A B x y and we find the values of x
and y that is,
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A B x y A B x y A
2
B x 2 xy y
A B x y 4 xy
A x y
B 4 xy
Example:
Transform the radical 9 80 to simple radical.
Solution:
9 80 x y
2
Let 9 80 x y 9 80 x 2 xy y 9 80 x y 4 xy
2
x y 9 x y 9
4 xy 80 xy 20
We need two numbers such that their sum is 9 and their product is 20.
x 4, y 5 or x 5, y 4 .Thus, 9 80 4 5
Exercises:
Transform to simple radical
1. 3 5 2. 62 5 3. 3 2 2 4. 52 6
c) Equations of the form ax 4 bx3 cx2 bx a 0
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d) Reciprocal equations
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Example2:
Solve the equation 3x3 7 x 2 7 x 3 0
Solution:
3x 2 3 7 x 2 7 x 0 3x3 3 7 x 2 7 x 0
3
2
3 x 1 7 x7 x 1 0 3 x 1 x x 1 7 x x 1 0
x 13x x 1 7 x 0
2
x 13 x 3 x 3 7 x 0
2
x 13 x 10 x 3 0
2
x 1 0, or3x 2 10 x 3 0
) x 1 0 x 1
)3 x 2 10 x 3 0
1
Either x or x 3
3
1
S 1, ,3
3
Exercises:
Solve in the set of real numbers
1. 2 x 4 5 x3 5 x 2 0 3. 3x3 13 x 2 13 x 3 0
2. 2 x3 3x 2 3x 2 0 4. 6 x 4 5 x3 38 x 2 5 x 6 0
e) Irrational equations
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Example:
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Exercises:
Solve in the set of real numbers the following equations
1. 2x 8 x 5 7 3. x 4 7
2. x 7 13 4. 2 x 3 5
6.3.: Quadratic inequalities
Examples:
Example:
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Example:
6.4.: Parametric equations and inequalities in one unknown
Parametric equations of the second degree
Example:
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Application
Unit 7: Polynomial, rational and irrational functions.
7.1.: Factorization of polynomials
Factorization is the reverse process of expansion.
a) Factorization by common factors.
When factorizing an expression, look for common factors first. The common factor is the highest
common factor (HCF) of the all terms.
Examples:
1) Find the HCF of 6 xy and 18x 2 . Solution: 6 xy 6 x y and 18 x 2 3 6 x x . The HCF
of 6 xy and 18x 2 is 6 x 6 x.
2) Factorize the following:
a) 9a 3z b) 5 x 2 15 x
c) 2mh 8m 2 h
Solution:
a) Since the HCF of 9a and 3z is 3. Therefore 9a 3z 3(3a z ) .
5 x 2 15 x
2
b) Since the HCF of 5x and 15 x , then 15 x 2
15 x 5 x 5 x( x 3)
5 x 5 x
c) Since the HCF of 2mh and 8m 2 h is 2mh , then
2mh 8m 2 h
2mh 8m 2 h 2mh 2mh 1 4m
2mh 2mh
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Exercises
Factorize:
a) 5a 5 z c) 7mnp mp
b) 6 x 15 y d) 5 xy 15 x
Simplifying calculation by factorization.
Examples:
1) By factorizing, simplify 79 37 21 37 . Solution: 37 is the common factor on both
terms. Thus 79 37 21 37 37(79 21) 37(100) 3700
2) Factorize the expression r 2 2rh , hence find the value of r 2 2rh when
22
, r 14 and h 43. Solution: Since r is the common factor on both terms, then
7
r 2rh r (r 2h) . Substituting the value of , r and h in the expression we get
2
22
r (r 2h) 14(14 2 43) 22 2(14 86) 44(100) 4400
7
Factorization of larger expressions
Examples:
1) Factorize 2 x(5a 2) 3 y(5a 2) . Solution: Since (5a 2) is common factor on both
terms. Thus, 2 x(5a 2) 3 y(5a 2) (5a 2)(2 x 3 y)
2) Factorize 2d 3 d 2 (3d 1) . Solution: since 2d 3 d 2 (3d 1) have the common factor d 2
in common. Thus, 2d 3 d 2 (3d 1) d 2 (2d 3d 1) d 2 (5d 1)
3) Factorize (a m)(2a 5m) a m2 . Solution: the two parts of expression have the
(a m) in common. Thus
(a m)(2a 5m) a m (a m)2a 5m a m (a m)(a 6m) .
2
4) Factorize ( x 2 y)( z 3) x 2 y . Notice that 1 is a factor of the last two terms. The
given expression may be written as follows:
( x 2 y)( z 3) x 2 y ( x 2 y)( z 3) ( x 2 y) the two parts of expression now have
( x 2 y ) as a common factor. RHS ( x 2 y)z 3 1 ( x 2 y)( z 2) .
Exercises
1) Factorize b) 9 xy and 24 pq
a) 12a 8a 2 c) 30 ad and 28ax
b) 5am 20bm 3) Factorize completely
c) 2a a(3x y ) a) (h k )(r s) (h k )(r 2s)
d) a(m 1) b(m 1) b) (3x y )(u v) ( x 2 y )(u v)
2) Find the HCF in each case c) b c 3d e b c d 2e
a) 13ab and 5am 20bm d) f g 4e f g 2
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Factorization by grouping
Examples:
1) Factorize cx cy 2dx 2dy . Solution: The terms cx and cy have c in common and the
terms 2dx and 2dy have 2d in common. Grouping in pairs in this way,
(cx cy) (2dx 2dy) c( x y) 2d ( x y) . The two products now have ( x y ) in
common c( x y) 2d x y hence cx cy 2dx ( x y)(c 2d )
2) Factorize 3a 6b ax 2bx . Solution:
3a 6b ax 2bx 3(a 2b) x(a 2b) (3 x)(a 2b) .
Note: To factorize in this way, the same bracket must occur twice in the first line of the working.
If the given expression is to be factorized, there must be repeated pair of brackets.
3) Factorize 2 x 2 3x 2 x 3 . Solution:
2 x 2 3x 2 x 3 x(2 x 3) (2 x 3) ( x 1)(2 x 3)
4) Factorize 2am 2m2 3ab 3bm . Solution:
2am 2m2 3ab 3bm 2m(a m) 3b(a m) (a m)(2m 3b)
5) Factorize cd de d 2 ce . Solution:
cd de d 2 ce cd ce de d 2 c(d e) d (d e) (c d )(d e) .
If all the terms contain a common factor, it should be taken out first. For example: Factorize
2sru 6tru 4srv 12trv . Solution: 2r is a factor of every term in the given expression
2sru 6tru 4srv 12trv 2rsu 3tu 2sv 6tv
2ru ( s 3t ) 2v( s 3t ) 2r (u 2v)(s 3t )
Exercises
Factorize the following where possible
a) mx nx my ny e) 2d 2 x 4dx2 y 3dy 6 xy 2
b) 2mh 3nh 3nk 2mk f) 2am 3m2 4an 6mn
c) hl 2kl 3hm 6km g) 2 x 2 y xy 2 2ax ay
d) ab 2b 2ac 4bc
2
h) 2amu 2anu 2amv 2anv
Factorization of quadratic expressions
To factorize quadratic expression such as x 2 5 x 6, we use our knowledge of expansion i.e:
that factors will be in the form ( x p)( x q) . The numbers p and q must have a product of 6
and the constant in the quadratic gives 1 and 6 or 2 and 3 as he product of +6. The coefficient of
x in the quadratic expression is +5 so the sum p and q is +5. Therefore, the numbers are 2 and 3
not 1 and 6. x 2 5 x 6 ( x 2)( x 3) ) x 2 5x 6 ( x 2)( x 3)
Examples:
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p 10 2
1) Factorize x 2 7 x 10 Since
s7 5
x 2 7 x 10 x 2 2 x 5x 10 x( x 2) 5( x 2) ( x 2)(x 5)
2) Factorize x 2 7 x 12
P 12 3
Since thus the expression x 2 7 x 12 x 2 3x 4 x 12
S 7 4
x( x 3) 4( x 3) ( x 4)( x 3) . Therefore x 2 7 x 12 ( x 4)( x 3)
3) Factorize 3x 2 16 x 5
P 3 5 15
These numbers must be all negative as the product is positive and the sum
S 16
P 15 1
is negative. Negative factors of 15 are -1,-3,-5,-15
S 16 15
3x 2 16 x 5 3x 2 x 15 x 5 x(3x 1) 5(3x 1) ( x 5)(3x 1)
Synthetic division
The remainder theorem states, “The remainder of the division of polynomial p (x) by x a is
p (a) ”. Hence p (x) is divisible by x a iff p(a) 0 . In this case x a is a factor of p (x) . To
find the quotient and the remainder of p (x) divided by x a proceed as shown in the following
examples.
Examples:
1) Use the synthetic division to find the quotient and the remainder of the division of
p( x) 3x3 8 x 2 9 x 4 by x 2
The quotient is 3x 2 2 x 5 and the remainder is 6.
2) a) Use the remainder theorem to show that p( x) 3x3 7 x 2 6 x 8 is divisible by x 2
b) Use synthetic division to find the quotient.
c) Hence, find the corresponding, find the corresponding factorization of p (x)
Solution
a) p(2) 3(2)3 7(2)2 6(2) 8 24 28 12 8 0 . Therefore p (x) is divisible by x 2
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b)
The quotient is 3x 2 x 4
c) 3x3 7 x 2 6 x 8 ( x 2)(3x 2 x 4)
Exercises
1) Divide f ( x) x3 2 x 2 5 x 6 by x 1 using synthetic division.
2) If p( x) x3 3x 2 5 x 25 is divisible by x 5 factorize p (x) completely.
7.2.: Generalities on numerical functions
Definition and domain of a function
Domain and range of a numerical function
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Examples:
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Examples:
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Activity:
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Operations on functions
Addition of polynomials
Example:
Example:
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f
Given functions f and g sum f g , difference f g , product f .g and the quotient , are
g
defined by
f g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
f g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
f .g ( x) f ( x).g ( x)
f f ( x)
( x)
g g ( x)
For the functions f g , f g and f .g , the domain is defined to be the intersection of the
f
domains of f and g and for , as we have seen it, the domain is the intersection with points
g
where g ( x) 0 excluded.
Examples:
1. Let f and g be the functions f ( x) 3x 4 5 x3 x 4 and g ( x) 4 x3 3x 2 4 x 3 .
Find f g (x) and f g (x) .
9
2. If f ( x) and g ( x) x3 . Find
x2
a) h ( x ) f ( x) g ( x) f ( x)
c) k ( x)
b) t ( x) f ( x).g ( x) g ( x)
Odd and even functions
Examples:
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Composite function
The combined or composite function is written g f (x) or g f (x) or simply gf . The function
f is performed first and so is written nearer to the variable x .
Note that f g ( x) g f ( x) .
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Example:
If f ( x) 2 x and g ( x) 3x 1 , express g f as a single function h(x)
Solution:
f ( x) 2 x so,
g f ( x) g (2 x) 3(2 x) 1 6 x 1
h( x ) 6 x 1
Exercises:
1. Let f ( x) x 1 and g ( x) x ,find f g (x) and g f (x) .
2. If f ( x) 3x and g ( x) x 2 1 , find
a. f g (x)
b. g f (x)
c. g f (4)
3. If f ( x) 4 and g ( x) x 1, find
a. f g (x)
b. g f (x)
The inverse of a function
Examples:
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Example:
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Exercises:
3
1. Find the inverse of the function g ( x)
x 1
2. Find the inverse of the function f ( x) 2 x 3
3. Find the inverse of the following functions
a. f ( x) 5 x 2
b. g ( x) 7 x 2
2x 1
c. h( x)
x2
Applications.
Unit 8: Limits of polynomial, rational and irrational functions
Introduction
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ACTIVITY
OPERATIONS ON LIMITS
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EXAMPLES:
ACTIVITY:
Evaluate the following limits:
1. lim √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥→2
√2𝑥+1
2. lim 3
𝑥→3 √3𝑥−1
𝑥+4
3. lim 2+𝑥
𝑥→2
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
4. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥+6
THE SQUEEZE THEOREM
The squeeze theorem (or Sandwich theorem or Pinching theorem)
Examples:
x2 x2
1. Given that 1 u ( x) 1 . Find lim u ( x)
4 2 x 0
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Solution:
x2 x2
Since lim 1 1 lim
and x 0 1 1 , the Sandwich theorem implies that lim u ( x) 1 .
x 0
4 2 x 0
2. Show that if lim f ( x) 0 then lim f ( x ) 0
xa xa
Solution:
Since f ( x) f ( x) f ( x) , and f (x) and f (x) both have limit 0 as x approaches a . So
does f (x) by the Sandwich theorem.
Indeterminate cases
An indeterminate form is a certain type of expression with a limit that is not evident by
0
inspection. There are several types of indeterminate forms such as , ,0 , ,00 ,1 . In
0
0
this section we will study the forms , ,0 , . The indeterminate forms may be
0
produced in the following ways:
0
a) Indeterminate case of the form or
0
Examples:
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Example:
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Activity:
b) Indeterminate form
Examples:
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Activity:
Formal definition of the limit
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Activity:
Applications of limits
a) Continuity
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Example:
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Example:
Example:
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Continuity on the closed interval
A function f is continuous on a closed interval a, b if the following conditions are satisfied
F is continuous on a, b
F is continuous at the right of a
F is continuous at the left of b
Example:
The function f ( x) 9 x 2 is continuous on the closed interval 3,3 . We observe that
domf 3,3. For c in the interval 3,3 we have lim f ( x) lim 9 x 2 9 c 2 f (c) .
xc xc
So that f is continuous on 3,3 . Also lim f ( x) lim 9 x 2 0 f (3) and
x3 x3
lim f ( x) lim 9 x 2 0 f (3) . So that f is continuous on 3,3 .
x3 x3
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Example:
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Example:
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Activity
Unit 9: Differentiation of polynomials, rational and irrational functions and
their applications.
Definition
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Activity:
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Activity
Properties
Examples:
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Activity
High order derivatives
Examples:
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Rules of differentiation
Product and quotient rules
Example:
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Examples:
Activity:
Chain rule and the derivative of the inverse
Examples:
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Activity
Implicit differentiation
Examples:
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Activity:
Derivative of a function defined parametrically
Example:
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Activity:
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Application of derivatives
Equation of tangent and normal
Examples:
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Activity:
Velocity
Example:
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Activity:
Mean value theorem
Example:
Solution:
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Example:
Activity:
Hospital’s rule
Example:
5x4 4 x2 1
Evaluate lim
x 1 10 x 9 x 3
Solution:
5x4 4 x2 1 5 4 1 0
lim IF Applying H.R
x 1 10 x 9 x 3 10 1 9 0
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lim
5 x 4 x 1
4 2
lim
20 x 8 x
3
20 8
3
10 x 9 x 1 27 x 1 27
x 1 x 1 2
3 7
Activity:
Maximum and minimum values
Example:
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Example:
Activity:
Increasing and decreasing functions
Example:
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Examples:
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Concavity and second derivative test
Example:
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Activity:
Optimization
Example:
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Activity
1) We want to construct a box whose base length is 3 times the base width. The material
used to build the top and the bottom cost $10/m2 and the material used to build the sides
cost $6/m2. If the box must have a volume of 50m3, determine the dimensions that will
minimize the cost to build the box.
2) We want to construct a box with a square base and we only have 10m2 of the material to
use in construction of the box. Assuming that all the material is used the construction
process, determine the maximum volume that the box can have.
3) A manufacturer needs to make a cylindrical can that will hold 1.5l of liquid. Determine
the dimensions of the can that will minimize the amount of material used in its
construction.
4) A cylindrical can is to hold 16𝜋𝑐𝑚3 . Find the dimensions that will minimize the amount
of material used in the construction.
5) The sum of two non-negative numbers is 50. Find the least value of the sum of their
squares.
Related rates
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Example:
Activities:
1. A cylindrical tank of radius 10m is being filled with wheat at the rate of 314m3 per
minute. How fast is depth of the wheat increasing?
2. The top of a 7.5m leaning against the vertical wall is slipping down the wall at the rate of
0.5m per second. How fast is the bottom of the ladder slipping along the ground when the
bottom of the ladder is 2m away from the base of the wall?
3. A ten-metre ladder leans against the side of the building. If the top of the ladder begins to
slide down the wall at the rate of 2 metres per second, how fast is the bottom of the ladder
sliding away from the wall when the top of the ladder is 8 metres off the ground?
4. If each edge of a cube is increasing at the constant rate of 3cm per second, how fast is its
volume increasing when x, the length of the edge is 10cm long?
5. A small funnel in the shape of a cone is being emptied of fluid at the rate of 12 cubic
centimetres per second. The height of the funnel is 20cm and the radius of the top is 4cm.
How fast is the fluid level dropping when the level stands 5 centimetres above the vertex
1
of the cone? Remember that the volume of the cone is V r 2 h
3
Curve sketching
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Examples of curve sketching
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Activities:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Unit 10: Vector spaces of real numbers.
Vectors space ℝ𝟐
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Examples:
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Sub-vector spaces
See on pages 341-345 of the book advanced Mathematics for Rwanda secondary schools.
Learner’s book4
Linear combination
Example:
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Basis
Example:
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Example:
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The dimensions of a vector space
Example:
Activity
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Euclidian vector space
Scalar product and properties and magnitude of a vector
The scalar product or dot product (or sometimes inner product) is an algebraic operation that
takes two coordinate vectors and returns a single number.
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Example:
Find the scalar product of u (2,4) and v (5,0) .
The scalar product is u.v 2(5) 4(0) 10
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Example:
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Activity:
Scalar product and triangles
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Example:
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Activity:
Unit 11: Concepts and operations on linear transformations in 2D.
Linear transformation
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Example:
Example2:
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Geometric transformation
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Properties of Enlargement:
These transformations preserve slope but do not preserve length or area (except when
k 1)
If k 1 , the transformation is an enlargement and the image is larger than the original.
If 0 k 1 , the transformation is a reduction and the image is smaller than the original.
If k 0 , the object is also reflected across the x-axis. For any enlargement, there must be
a point called the centre of enlargement.
Distance from centre of enlargement to point on image= distance from centre of enlargement to
point on object x scale factor.
With a negative scale factor the number part of it tells us if the shape is to be made bigger or
smaller, while the negative sign tells us that the image and an object are on opposite sides of the
centre of enlargement.
Notice:
Sometime we need to find the coordinates of vertices of image of a shape obtained by
enlargement of scale k constant at c(a, b) in a Cartesian plane.
Let point p( x, y ) be the vertex on the shape. The image of this point will be
x, y k x a a, k y b b
Particular case:
If the centre of enlargement is the origin, then the formula reduced to x, y kx, ky
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Example:
Rotating the point p( x, y ) through an angle about the origin O(0,0) counterclockwise means to
determine another point q( x, y) on the circle centred at 0 such that anglePOQ. We use the
x x cos y sin
formulae
y x sin y cos
Generally, if the centre of rotation is C (a, b) and an angle of rotation is and P( x, y ) is the point
to be rotated then the coordinates of the image of P( x, y ) are given by
x cos ( x a) sin ( y b) a
y sin ( x a) cos ( y b) b
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Example:
1. Consider the vector u (1,1) . Find u image of u by rotation of centre 0 and angle
3
2. Find the image of the point P(4,7) obtained after rotating this point through an angle of
180 0 about the point C (4,1) .
Kernel and range
The kernel of a linear transformation f : E F noted ker( f ) is a subset of E whose
image by f is 0-vector of F . i.e. ker f v E : f v 0
The nullity of linear transformation f noted n( f ) is the dimension of ker( f ) ,i,e:
n( f ) dim ker( f ) .
The image or range of a linear transformation f : E F is the set of points in F to
which points in E are mapped on i.e. Im f u F : f (v) u, v E
The rank of f noted rank( f ) or r ( f ) is the dimension of the image of f . i.e:
rank f dimIm f .
Notice:
A linear transformation f is called singular if there exist a non- zero vector whose image is zero
vector. Thus it is non-singular if the only zero vector has zero vector as image or equivalent if
its kernel consists only of the zero vector: ker( f ) 0.
Theorems:
A linear transformation f : E F is one-to-one (1-1) if and only if ker( f ) 0
A linear transformation f : E F is onto if the range is equal to f
Consider the linear transformation f : E F , the following is true:
dimker f dimrange f dimE
Consider the linear transformation f : E F . If dimE dimF , then
o f is one-to-one
o f is onto
In this case f : E F is called an isomorphism. And we say that E and F are isomorphic and
we write E F
Examples:
t : 2 2
1. Consider the linear mapping
t ( x, y ) x 2 y , x y
x 2 y 0 x 0
ker(t ) ? We have
x y 0 y 0
Then, the vector x, y becomes 0,0 . Hence the kernel of t is ker(t ) 0,0
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Its basis and dimensixon:
The basis is 0,0 and n(t ) 0
Range of t ? The image of t is x 2 y, x y
Its image and dimension:
x 2y x 2y 1 2
x y . The vectors 1,1, 2,1 are linearly
x y x y 1 1
independent. Then the basis of t is 1,1, 2,1. From this the rank(t ) 2 . This
transformation is non-singular, one to one and onto.
2. Consider the linear mapping f : 2 2
f ( x, y) x 2 y,3x 6 y
Find
a) ker( f )
b) Basis and dimension of ker( f )
c) Range of f , its basis and dimension
3. For each of the following linear transformations, find
a) The kernel and nullity
b) The range and rank
4. Is the transformation one to one? Why?
a) f : 2 2
f ( x, y) 3x y,9 x 3 y
b) g : 2 2
g x, y x y, x 2 y
Operations on transformations
We are able to combine linear transformation in various ways to obtain new linear mapping.
Suppose f : E F and g : E V are linear transformation of vector spaces over a field K.
We define the sum f g to be the linear transformation from E into V which assigns
f (u ) g (u ) to u E : f g u f u g u
For any scalar K , we define the product f to be the mapping from E to V which
assigns f (u ) to u E : f u f u . Note that if f and g are linear
transformations, then f g and f are also linear.
Theorems:
Let E and V be vector spaces over a field K. then the collection of all linear
transformation from E to V with operations of addition and scalar multiplication form a
vector space over K. this space is usually denoted by Hom( E ,V ) .(Hom becomes from
the word homomorphism.)
Suppose dim(E ) m and dim(V ) n . Then dimHomE,V mn
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Now suppose that E,U and V are vector spaces over the same field K, and that f : E U and
g : U V are linear transformations: E U V . Recall that the composition function g f is
the mapping from E into V defined by g f v g f v . Note that g f is linear whenever
f and g are linear transformations.
Let E , U and V be vector spaces over K. let f , f be linear transformations from E
into U and g , g linear transformations from U into V and let K . Then
i. g f f g f g f
ii. g g f g f g f
iii. g f g f g f
Invertible operators
A linear operator f : E E is said to be invertible if it has an inverse, i.e there exists
f 1 L( E ) such that f . f 1 f 1 f 1 .
Now f is invertible if and only if it one to one and onto. Thus in particular, if f is invertible then
the only 0 E can map into itself, i.e f is nonsingular.
Example:
1. Consider the following linear transformations
f : 2 2 and g : 2 2
f ( x, y ) ( x y, x y ) g ( x, y) ( x y, x 2 y)
Find
a) 2 f g
b) f 3g
c) g f
2. Consider the following linear transformations;
t : 2 2 and h : 2 2
t ( x, y ) ( y,2 x) h ( x, y ) ( x y , 2 x 2 y )
Find
a) 4t 3h
b) t h
Solution:
1. 4t 3h : 2 2
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4t 3h x, y 4 y,2 x 3x y,2 x 2 y
4 y,8 x 3x 3 y,6 x 6 y
3x y,14 x 6 y
2. t h : 2 2
t hx, y thx, y
t x y ,2 x 2 y
2 x 2 y,2 x 2 y
Another examples seen on page 386-387
Unit 12: Matrices of linear transformations and determinants of order 2
Square matrices of order two
A square matrix is formed by the same number of rows and columns. The elements of the form
(aij ) , where the two subscripts i and j are equal, constitute the principal diagonal (or leading
diagonal or main diagonal or major diagonal or primary diagonal). The secondary diagonal (or
minor diagonal, antidiagonal, or counter diagonal) is formed by the elements with i j n 1
The square matrix of order three has the form
a11 a12
a21 a22
Example
Matrix of order two
Identity matrix or unit matrix
An identity matrix (denoted by 𝐼) is a diagonal matrix in which the leading diagonal elements are
equal to 1.
1 0
Example: identity matrix of order two
0 1
0 0
The matrix is said to be the zero or null matrix
0 0
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Operations on matrices
Example 1:
Example 2:
a11 a12 b b
If A and B 11 12 , then
a21 a22 b21 b22
a a12 b11 b12 a11 b11 a12 b12
A B 11 and
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 b21 a22 b22
a a12 b11 b12 a11 b11 a12 b12
A B 11
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 b21 a22 b22
Example:
3 2 1 2
If A and B find A B and A B
1 1 4 6
Properties:
1. Closure
The sum of two matrices of order two is another matrix of order two.
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2. Associative
A B C A B C
3. Additive identity
A 0 A , where 0 is the zero-matrix
4. Additive inverse
A ( A) 0 the opposite matrix has each of its elements change sign.
5. Commutative
A B B A
Scalar multiplication
Given a matrix A aij and a real number k , the product of a real number by a matrix is
a11 a12 a a12 a11 a12
k. A k , aij . If A and ,then A 11
a21 a 22 a21 a22 a21 a22
Example:
3 6
If A , find 2 A
5 2
Multiplying matrices
Two matrices A and B of order two can be multiplied together. The element of the product
matrix is obtained by multiplying every element in row i of matrix A by each element of column
a11 a12 b b
j of matrix B and then adding them together. If A and 11 12 , then
a21 a22 b21 b22
a a b b a b a b a11b12 a12 b22
A.B 11 12 11 12 11 11 12 21
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21b11 a22 b21 a21b12 a22 b22
Example:
1 3 2 0
If A and B , find the product of A and B
2 5 1 1
Solution:
1 3 2 0 1.2 3.1 1.0 3.1 5 3
A.B
2 5 1 1 2.2 5.1 2.0 5.1 9 5
Properties:
Example:
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6. Commuting matrices
In general, the multiplication of matrices is not commutative. i.e.: AB BA , but we can have the
case where two matrices A and B satisfy AB BA . In this case A and B are said to be
commuting.
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Example:
5 9 2 3 5 9 2 3 10 24
The matrices A , B commute as AB
0 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 2
2 3 5 9 10 24
BA . Therefore AB BA
0 1 0 2 0 2
Determinants of matrices of order two
Properties of determinants
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Exercises:
1 3 6 3
If A and B ,find
1 1 2 1
1. A 4. AT
2. B
3. AB
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Matrix inverse
a c 1 d c
Consider the following matrix A . The inverse of A is A1
b d det A b a
If det A 0 (i.e.: the determinant is zero) the matrix has no inverse and is said to be a singular
matrix.
Example:
Example 2:
1 0
Find the inverse of A
2 1
Solution:
det A 1 0 1
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1 1 0 1 0
A1
1 2 1 2 1
Properties of the inverse matrix
1. A.B 1 B 1. A1 3. .A1 1 A1
2. A1 A 4. ( At ) 1 A1
1 t
Exercises:
1 3 6 3
If A and B , find
1 1 2 1
1. A1 4. A
t 1
2. B 1
5. 4B 1
3. AB 1
Application of matrices
Solving simultaneous equations
Example:
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Exercise
Solve the simultaneous equations by matrix method
2 x y 2 3x 3 y 6
1. 3.
x 3 y 15 x y 0
x y 4 3x y 6
2. 4.
x y 4 2 x 4 y 4
Matrix of a linear transformation
Every linear transformation f : 2 2 can be identified with a square matrix of order two,
f e aij , whose j th column is f e j ,where e j , j 1,2 is the standard basis of 2 . The
matrix f e is called matrix representation of f relative to the standard basis e j .
Example: Find the matrix of f relative to the standard basis if f : 2 2
f ( x, y) 4 x 2 y,2 x y
Solution:
The standard basis of 2 is e1 1,0, e2 0,1
f e1 4,2
f e2 2,1
4 2
Then the matrix of f relative to the standard basis is f e
2 1
What is the procedure of finding matrix of linear mapping if the given basis is not
standard?
The following is the general method. To find the matrix of a linear mapping f relative to any
basis e1 ,e2 , we follow the following steps:
a) Find f e j , j 1,2
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b) Equate f e j to ei aij to find the values of aij
i number of row
c) The matrix of f is f e aij
j number of column
Example:
Consider the following linear transformation defined on 2 by f x, y 4 x 2 y,2 x y .
Determine its matrix relative to the basis
Solution:
For f e j , j 1,2 f e1 4 2,2 1 2,3 , f e2 4 0,2 0 4,2
f e j ei aij , f e1 ei ai1
2 1 1
a11 a 21
3 1 0
2 a a a a21 a11 a21 2
11 21 11 a11 3, a21 1
3 a11 0 a11 a11 3
4 1 1 4 a12 a22 a12 a22
f e2 ei ai 2 a12 a22
2 1
0
12
2 a 0 22 a
a12 a22 4
a12 2, a22 2
a12 2
a11 a12 3 2
The matrix of f is given by f e aij , therefore, f e
a21 a22 1 2
Matrices of geometric transformation
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Application of determinants
Example 2:
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Example:
Unit 13: Points, straight lines and circles in 2D.
Points in 2 D
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Example:
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Exercises:
1. Consider the points A(1,4), B(2,3) in plane. Find the distance between point A and B.
2. If the distance between points C (k ,2) and D(0,1) is 5, find the value(s) of k.
3. Find the midpoint of the segment joining points A(3,0) and B(1,8) .
4. If 3,5 is the midpoint of 2,6 and (a, b) , find the value of a and b .
Straight lines in two dimensions
Example:
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Example:
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The shortest distance between a point and a line
Example:
Note:
If a point lies on a line, then it verifies the equation of that line. In this case, the shortest distance
between the point and the line is zero.
Examples:
1. Show that the point A(4,1) lies on the line with equation 3x 2 y 14
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Solution:
Substituting the coordinates of the points into the equation of the lines gives:
3(4) 2(1) 14 12 2 14 . Thus, the given point lies on the given line.
2. If the point A(k ,4) lies on the line with equation 2 x 5 y 8 , find the value of k.
Solution:
Substituting the coordinates of the points onto the equation of the line gives:
12
2k 5(4) 8 2k 20 8 2k 8 20 k 6 . Thus the value of k is -6.
2
If the point does not lie on a line, then it does not verify the equation of that line. In this case the
shortest distance between the point and the line is different from zero.
Exercises:
1. Find the shortest distance from the point (3,2) to the line 2 x y 1 .
2. Find the perpendicular distance from the line 4 x 3 y 1 to the point 1,3 .
3. Show that the point 2,3 lies on the line with equation 3x 2 y 12 .
4. Show that the point 2,1 does not lie on the line with equation 2 x 4 y 10 and find the
shortest distance from that point to a given line.
Relative position of two straight line
In the plane, for any two straight line (d1 ) and (d 2 ) three relative position can occur:
d 1 A1x B1 y c1 0
d 2 A2 x B2 y c2 0
1o) Coincident lines
d 1 A1x B1 y c1 0 A1 B1 c1
Two straight lines coincide iff
d 2 A2 x B2 y c2 0 A2 B2 c2
2o) Intersecting lines or concurrent lines
d 1 A1x B1 y c1 0 A1 B1
Two straight lines intersect iff . And two intersecting lines are
d 2 A2 x B2 y c2 0 A2 B2
perpendicular iff A1 A2 B1B2 0 and d1 d 2 po.
3o) Parallel lines
d1 d2 . d1 d2 there is no common point. We find the relative position between d1
and d 2 by solving the system of 2 2 .
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d 1 A1x B1 y c1 0
d 2 A2 x B2 y c2 0
A1 B1 C1 B1 A1 C1
0 , x , y . If x y 0 ,two lines are coincident.
A2 B2 C2 B2 A2 C2
A1 B1 c1
If 0 and x 0or y 0 ,then two lines are parallel and distinct. Therefore .
A2 B2 c2
d1 d2 A1B2 A2 B1 0 .
d 1 y k1x m1
If the equations of two straight lines are given in explicit form that is then
d 2 y k2 x m2
d1 d 2 iff k1k2 1 and d1 d2 iff k1 k2 where k1 ,k2 are gradients of the two lines.
Examples:
1. Show that the straight lines d1 2 x y 3 0 and d 2 2 x y 4 0 are parallel.
2. Show that the straight lines d1 2 x 4 y 1 0 and d 2 4 x 2 y 6 0 are
orthogonal.
Solution:
1. d1 and d2 are parallel iff A1B2 A2 B1 0 . Since A1 2 , A2 2 , B1 1 and B2 1
2(1) 2(1) 2 2 0 . It follows that d1 and d 2 are parallel.
2. d1 and d2 are orthogonal iff A1 A2 B1B2 0 . Since A1 2 , A2 4 , B1 4 and
B2 2 therefore 2(4) (4)(2) 8 8 0 and it follows that d1 and d 2 are
orthogonal.
Angle between two straight lines
k1 k 2 k1 k2
therefore tan . If the equations are given in implicit form, that is
1
tan
1 k1k2 1 k1k 2
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d 1 A1x B1 y c1 0
,then
d 2 A2 x B2 y c2 0
A1 A2 B1B2 A1 A2 B1B2
cos cos1
A1 B1
2 2
A2 B2
2 2 A2 B 2 A 2 B 2
1 1 2 2
A1B2 A2 B1 A1B2 A2 B1
sin sin 1 . Where the angle is an acute
A1 B1
2 2
A2 B2
2 2 A2 B 2 A 2 B 2
1 1 2 2
angle between d1 and d 2 .
u .v
If we are given the equations of lines in vector form, then cos 1
.
u v
Example:
Find the acute angle between the pair of lines whose equations are 3 y x 7 and 2 y 3 4 x
Solution:
Since A1 1, A2 4, B1 3 and B2 2 implies that
(1)(4) (3)(2)
cos1 cos1 2
81.90
(1) 2 32 2
4 2
2
10 20
Activities:
1. Find the acute angle between the pair of lines whose vector equations are
xi yj 2i j 3i and xi yj 2i 3 j 5i 5 j .
2. Find the acute angles between the pairs of lines
a. y x 4 and y 2 x 1
b. 2 x y 3 and 4 x 3 y 3
c. y 3x 2 and y 3x 4
x 2 2 x 3 1
d. and
y 1 3 y 4 2
The circle
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Example:
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Example:
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Activities:
5. Find the equation of the circle passing through points 4,2, 2,4 and 2,0
6. Find the centre, the radius, the circumference and the area of the circle with equation
3x 2 3 y 2 18 x 12 y 27 0
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Relative position between a line and circle.
The intersection of a straight line d Ax By C 0 and a circle x 2 y 2 kx ly m 0
is given by solving simultaneously the system.
Ax By C 0
2 2
x y kx ly m 0
This equation leads to a quadratic equation of the form ax2 bx c 0 obtained by injecting
Ax C
y into the equation of the circle.
B B
Three cases arise:
10) If the equation obtained has 2 distinct roots, the line is secant (chord) with the distance from
the centre of the circle and the line is less than the radius of the circle.
20) If the equation obtained has a double root, the line is tangent to the circle and the distance
from the centre to the line is equal to the radius of the circle.
30) If the equation has two conjugate complex roots (there is no real), the line does not have any
common point with the circle. In this case the distance from the centre of the circle to the line is
greater than the radius of the circle.
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Examples:
1. Show that part of the line 3 y x 5 is a chord of the circle x 2 y 2 6 x 2 y 15 0
and find the length of this chord.
Solution:
x5
3y x 5 y plug into the equation of the circle to get
3
x 5 x 5
2
x 2 10 x 25 2 x 10
x
2
6 x 2 15 0 x
2
6x 15 0
3 3 9 9 9 3 3
9 x 2 x 2 10 x 25 54 x 6 x 30 135
0 10 x 2 50 x 140 0
9
p 14 7
x 2 5 x 14 0 x 2 5 x 14 x 7 x 2
s 5 2
x 2 and x 7
If x 2, y 1 and if x 7, y 4 thus, the line cuts the circle in 2 distinct points 7,4, 2,1 .
The length of the chord is distance between points 7,4 and 2,1 i.e the length of the chord is
l 2 7 2 1 42 81 9 90 3 10 units.
Exercises:
1. Find the intersection of the circle x 2 y 2 14 x 12 y 69 0 and the line x y 1 .
2. Find the intersection of the circle x 2 y 2 14 x 12 y 69 0 and the line y 2 .
3. Find the intersection of the circle x 2 y 2 14 x 12 y 69 0 and the line y x .
4. Find the intersection of the circle x 2 y 2 10 x 8 y 25 0 and the line:
i. yx
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ii. yx21
iii. y6
Intersection of two circles
Let 1 : x 2 y 2 2m1 2n1 p1 0 and 2 : x 2 y 2 2m2 2n2 p2 0 be two concentric
circles: from the equations of the above circles we have m1 m2 x n1 n2 y p1 p2 0 .
The equation obtained represents a straight line which is the common chord to the both circles.
The common chord always exists even if the two circles are not geometrically secant and in this
last case the real common chord joints the two complex conjugated intersecting points.
The two circles are said to be orthogonal if they intersect each other orthogonally i.e.:
the angle between two circles is 900. In other words, two circles cut each other
orthogonally if angle of intersection is right angle.
Condition for two circles to be orthogonal:
The necessary and sufficient condition for two circles to be orthogonal is:
In a pair of intersecting circles, the tangent lines that are x 2 y 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0 and
x 2 y 2 2 g x 2 f y c 0 to be orthogonal is given by : 2 gg 2 ff c c where g, f and
g , f are the centres of the two circles and their radii are given by: r g 2 f 2 c and
r g 2 f 2 c . If the centres of both or any one of the circles lie at the origin then either
g , f 0,0 or g , f 0,0 or both in any case, the equation of orthogonality would be
c c 0
Examples:
Show that the circles x 2 y 2 2 x 5 y 16 0 and x 2 y 2 8 x 6 y 23 0 are orthogonal to
each other or not?
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Solution:
The equation of the first circle is x 2 y 2 2 x 5 y 16 0 hence 2 g 2,2 f 5 and c 16
so g 1, f 5
2 the equation of the second circle is x y 8 x 6 y 23 0 ,
2 2
2 g 8,2 f 6 and c 23 so g 4 and f 3 . The condition of orthogonality is
2 gg 2 ff c c since 2(1)(4) 2(5 / 2)(3) 16 23 8 15 7 . Our condition is
proved to be satisfied, hence the given circles are orthogonal.
Exercises:
1. Prove that the two circles x 2 y 2 2 y 15 0 and x 2 y 2 8 x 6 y 21 0 are
orthogonal circles.
Unit 14: Measures of dispersion.
Variance
Variance measure how far a set of numbers is spread out. A variance of zero indicates that all the
values are identical. Variance is always non-negative: a small variance indicates that the data
points tend to be very close to the mean and hence to each other, while a high variance indicates
that the data points are very spread out around the mean and from each other. The variance is
xi x
n
2
denoted and defined by: 2 i 1
. Developing this formula, we have
n
n
xi 2 xi x x 2
2
1 n 2 1 n
1 n
1 n 2 1 n 2
2 i 1
xi 2 x xi x 2 1 xi 2 x x x 2 xi x 2 . Thus,
n n i 1 n i 1 n i 1 n i 1 n i 1
1 n 2
the variance is also denoted by 2 xi x 2 . Recall that the mean of the set of n values
n i 1
n
xi 1 n
x1 , x2 , x3.....xn is denoted and defined by x xi . For example, calculate the variance
i 1 n n i 1
of the following distribution: 9,3,8,8,9,8,9,18 .
Solution:
9 3 8 8 9 8 9 18
x 9
8
2
9 92 3 92 8 92 8 92 9 92 8 92 9 92 18 92 15
8
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Example:
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Example 2:
Calculate the variance of the distribution of the following grouped data:
Class [10,20] [20,30] [30,40] [40,50] [50,60] [60,70] [70,80]
Frequency 1 8 10 9 8 4 2
Solution:
Class x f xf x2 x2 f
[10,20] 15 1 15 225 225
[20,30] 25 8 200 625 5000
[30,40] 35 10 350 1225 12250
[40,50] 45 9 405 2025 18225
[50,60] 55 8 440 3025 24200
[60,70] 65 4 260 4225 16900
[70,80] 75 2 150 5625 11250
f 42 xf 1820 x 2
16975 x 2
f 88050
1820
x 43.333
42
43.33 218.94
88050
2 2
42
Exercises:
Find the variance of the following set of data:
1. 1,3,2,1,2,5,4,0,2,6 4. 5,4,5,5,4,5,4,4,5,3
2. 3,2,1,5,4,6,0,4,7,8 5. 8,7,6,8,6,5,6,4,1
3. 1,5,6,7,6,4,2,6,3
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Standard deviation
The standard deviation has the same dimension as the data, and hence is comparable to
deviations from the mean. We define the standard deviation to be the square root of the
n
x x
2
i
variance. Thus, the standard deviation is denoted and defined by i 1
n
1 n 2
Or xi x . The above results are used for the grouped data where xi is the mid-
2
n i 1
interval value for the i th group. The following results follow directly from the definitions of mean
and standard deviation:
When all the data are multiplied by a constant a , the new mean and new standard
deviation are equal to a times the original mean and standard deviation. That is, the
mean of ax1 , ax2 , ax3.......axn is ax and the standard deviation is a .
When a constant value b is added to all data values, then the new mean is increased by b
. However, standard deviation does not change. That is, the mean of
x1 b, x2 b, x3 b.......xn b is x b and the standard deviation is .
Examples:
1. The six runners in a 200meters race clocked times (in seconds) of
24.2;23.7;25.0;23.7;24.0;24.6
a) Find the mean and the standard deviation of these times
b) These readings were found to be 10% too low due to faulty timekeeping. Write down the
new mean and standard deviation.
Solution:
24.2 23.7 25.0 23.7 24.0 24.6
a) x 24.2 seconds
6
24.2 24.22 23.7 24.22 25.0 24.22 23.7 24.22 24.0 24.22
24.6 24.2
2
6
0.473
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b) we must divide each term by 0.9 to find the correct time. The new mean is
24.2 0.4726
x 26.9 the new standard deviation is 0.525 sec.
0.9 0.9
Example:
The number of customers served lunch in a restaurant over a period of 60 days is as follows:
Number of customers served lunch Number of days in the 60-day period
20-29 6
30-39 12
40-49 16
50-59 14
60-69 8
70-79 4
Find the mean and the standard deviation of the number of customers served lunch using this
grouped data.
Solution:
We need the mid-interval values for all groups.
Groups Mid-interval value xi Frequency f i f i xi f i xi
2
20-29 24.5 6 147 3601.5
30-39 34.5 12 414 14283.
40-49 44.5 16 712 31684.0
50-59 54.5 14 763 41583.5
60-69 64.5 8 516 33282.0
70-79 74.5 4 298 22201.0
f 60 fx 2850 fx 2
146635
2850
The mean is x 47.5
60
47.52 13.7
146635
The standard deviation is
60
Coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation measure variability in relation to the mean (or average) and is used to
compare the relative dispersion in one type of data with the relative dispersion in another type of
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data. It allows us to compare the dispersions of two different distributions if their means are
positive. The greater dispersion corresponds to the value of the coefficient of greater variation.
The coefficient of variation is a calculation built on other calculations: the standard deviation and
the mean as follows:
CV 100
x
Where:
is the standard deviation
x is the mean.
Example:
One data series has mean of 140 and standard deviation 28.28. the second data series has mean
of 150 and standard deviation 24. Which of the two has a greater dispersion?
Solution:
28.28
CV1 100 20.2%
140
24
CV2 100 16%
150
The first data has a higher dispersion.
Exercises:
Find the coefficient of variation of the following set of data
1. 2,9,8,4,7,3,2 4. 8,10,7,11,6,12,9
2. 12,11,9,8,6,10,7,9 5. 7,6,0,9,6,12,12,9,8,6
3. 5,9,8,6,0,10,8,3,14
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Example:
Activity:
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Application:
A large standard deviation indicates that the data points can spread far from the mean an d a
small standard deviation indicates that they are clustered closely around the mean. Standard
deviation is often used to compare real-world data against a model to test the model.
Example:
In industrial applications the weight of products coming off a production line may need to legally
be some value. By weighing some fraction of the products an average weight can be found,
which will always be slightly different to the long term average. By using standard deviations, a
minimum and maximum value can be calculated that the averaged weight will be within some
very high percentage of the time (99.9% or more). If it falls outside the range, then the
production process may need to be corrected.
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Unit 15: Combinatorics.
Permutations and combinations
Combinatorial analysis is a mathematical theory of counting.
Principle of counting
Some terms:
Experiment: Any human activity
Trial: Small experiment contained in a large experiment
Example: Tossing simultaneously a coin and a die may be regarded as an experiment consisting
of smaller experiments. Tossing a coin (experiment 1) followed by tossing a die (experiment 2).
Here experiment 1 and experiment 2 are trials.
Deterministic experiment: Experiments that produce the same results when performed
repeatedly under the same conditions.
e.g.: Certain experiment in science
Random experiment: Experiment that do not yield the same results no matter how carefully
they are repeated under the same conditions. Examples:
Flipping coins/tossing coins
Rolling dice
Drawing a ball from a box
A.1. Techniques of counting
Here we develop some technics for determining without direct numeration of the number of
possible outlines of a particular experiment or the number of elements in a particular set such
technics are sometimes referred to as combinatorial analysis.
A.2. Fundamental principles of counting
If some procedure can be performed in n1 different ways and of the following, this procedure, a
second procedure can be performed in n2 different ways and of the following this second
procedure other procedure can be performed in n3 different ways and so forth then the number of
the procedures can be performed is the product n1 n2 n3 ......
Example:
1. In tossing simultaneously, a coin with two side H and T and a die with six sides 1 through
6. How many possible outcomes will appear?
Solution:
Tossing a coin consisting of 2 smaller experiment (experiment 1: tossing a coin)
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Tossing a die consisting of 6 smaller experiment (experiment 2: tossing a die)
So experiment 1&2 has 2 6 12 outcomes.
2. Suppose a license plate containing two distinct letters followed by three digits with a digit
not zero. How many different license plate can be printed?
Solution:
The first letter is chosen in 26 ways
The second letter is chosen in 25 ways
The first digit is chosen in 9 ways and each two digits in 10 ways
Hence the different plate can be printed is 26 25 9 10 10 850000
3. There 5 roads joining A and B and 3 roads joining B to C. how many different roads from
A to C via B?
Solution:
From A to B we have 5 roads
From B to C we have 5 roads
Thus, the number of roads from A to C via B is 3 5 15
4. A car license plate is to contain three letters of the alphabet, the first of which must be R,
S, T or U followed by three decimal digits. How many different license plates are
possible?
Solution:
- The first letter can be chosen in 4 different ways
- The second letter and the third letter can be chosen each in 26 ways
- Each of the 3 digits can be chosen in 10 different ways
Hence the number of possible different license plates is 4 26 26 10 10 10 2,704,000
Exercises:
1. There 4 roads joining A and B and 5 roads joining B and C. How many different roads
from A to C via B?
2. A car license plate is to contain two letters of alphabets. The first of which must be A or
B, followed by 6 decimal digits. How many different license plates are possible?
Factorial notation
Def: It is called n factorial denoted by n! the number n!=n(n-1)(n-2)………3.2.1 where n is a
positive integer.
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Notice that 0! =1 and 1! =1
e.g.: 4! =4x3x2x1
9! =9x8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1
6! =6x5x4x3x2x1
Simplify
8! 8 7 6!
1. 56 by cancel out 6! and 6!
6! 6!
n! nn 1! n n
2. after cancelling (n-1)!
2!n 1! 2!n 1! 2! 2
80! 80 79 78 77 76!
3. 37957920
76! 76!
Permutations
Permutations is the arrangement of a set of n objects in a given order (taken al at time) or It is a
simple arrangement of a set objects in definite order taken all at time.
In general, the number of permutation of n objects (elements) taken all at time is n Pn or
P(n, n) n!
Examples:
1. Find the number of permutations of 4 objects taken all at time.
Solution: Nb of ways will be 4! =4x3x2x1=24
2. Five children are to be seated on bench.
a. In how many ways they can be seated?
b. In how many arrangements are there if the young child has to sit at the left of the
bench?
Solution:
a) The seat can be chosen in 5 ways, next in 4 ways, the next in 3 ways, the next in 2
ways, the next in 1 way. Then the number of ways id 5! =5x4x3x2x1=120.
b) If the youngest child has to sit at he left end of the bench, this place can be filled in
only 1 way. The next can be chosen in 4 ways, the next in 3 ways, the next in 2 ways
and the last in 1 way. Thus, the number of total arrangements is 1x4!
=1x4x3x2x1=24.
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Fact 1: Permutations of objects not all different (Permutations of indistinguishable objects)
If there are n objects of which k are alike the remaining (n-k) objects are different from there and
from which other, then the number of different permutations of their objects taken all together is
n!
k1!k2!....kn!
Note that alike means that the objects in a group are indistinguishable from one another.
Examples:
1. How many different permutations of 4 letters can be formed using the letters of the word
“BASS”?
4!
Solution: number of permutation is 4 3 12
2!1!1!
2. How many words can be formed using the letters from the word DADDY?
5!
Solution: nb of words is 5 4 20
3!1!1!
3. How many words (not necessary sensible) can be formed from the letters of word
“MATHEMATICS”?
11! 39916800
Solution: the number of words is 4989600
2!2!2! 8
4. How many distinguishable six digit numbers can be formed from the digits 5,4,8,4,5,4?
6! 720
Solution: the required numbers are 60
3!2! 12
5. In how many different ways can 4 identical red balls, 3 identical green balls and a yellow
ball be arranged in a row?
Solution: there 8 balls in total with 4 red, 3 green and one yellow. Thus, we have
8! 8 7 65
280 ways.
4!3!1! 3 2 1
Exercises:
1. How many arrangements can be made from the letters of the word “ENGLISH”?
2. How many arrangements can be made from the letters of English alphabet?
3. In how many ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 green discs be arranged in a row, if discs of
the same color indistinguishable?
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Fact 2: Circular permutations
Instead of arranging objects in a line, we arrange them in a circle, then the number of
permutations change. A circular permutation is an arrangement of objects around a circle or
other simple closed curves. The number of permutations of n objects in a circle can be found by
keeping one element fixed and arranging remaining (n-1) elements which can be done (n-1)!
Examples:
1. In how many ways can 7 people form a ring?
2. In how many ways can 7 gentlemen and 7 ladies sit down at around table, no two ladies
being together?
Solution:
1. 7 persons can be seated along a circle in (7-1)! =6! Ways =720 ways
2. First let all gentlemen be seated along the round table in 6! Ways, between any two
gentlemen, let a woman be seated. Hence all the seven ladies can be seated in 7
intermediate places in 7! Ways. Therefore 7 gentlemen and 7 ladies can be seated
along/around table in 6!x7! ways.
3. In how many ways can 6 people be arranged on a circle?
Solution: (6-1)! =5! =120 ways
4. Four men, Peter, Rogers, Smith and Thomas are to be seated at a circular table. In how
many ways can this be done?
Solution:
Suppose Peter is seated at some particular place. The seats on his left can be filled in 3 ways, the
next in 2 ways and the remaining in 1 way. Thus, the total number of arrangements is (6-1)! =6.
Exercises:
1. Five men, Eric, Peter, John, Smith and Thomas are to be seated at a circular table. In how
many ways can this be done?
2. Eleven different books are placed on a circular table. In how many ways can this be
done?
Fact 3: Permutations of r objects selected from n objects
An ordered selection or arrangement of r objects is called a permutation (or r-permutation of n
objects). It is denoted by P (n, r). If all elements are distinct and repetition is not allowed then by
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applying product rule it can be shown that P(n, r ) n(n 1)(n 2)....(n r 1) .
n!
P(n, r ) nPr Pr
n
(n r )!
n!
Note that if r n we have n Pn Pn n! which is the way of arranging n unlike objects.
n
0!
Examples:
1. In how many ways can 5 of 8 people be seated in a row of 5 Valant chairs?
Solution: Position 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The number of choices 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. There are 8x7x6x5x4
8! 8!
permutation of 8 people taken 5. The symbol 8 P5 8 7 6 5 4 6720 ways.
(8 5)! 3!
2. In how many ways can three cars be parked in a parking with four places?
4! 4!
Solution: 4 P3 4 3 2 24
(4 3)! 2!
3. How many permutations are there of three letters chosen from eight letters of the word
“RELATION”?
8! 8!
Solution: 8 P3 8 7 6 336
(8 3)! 5!
4. In a class of 32 students there are 20 girls. In how many ways can a committee composed
of a chairperson, a vice-chair person, secretary, a counselor and a treasurer be formed if:
i. Any student can occupy any position
ii. No girl must be in committee
iii. There must be 3 girls for the first three positions and 2 boys for remaining
positions?
Solution:
32! 32!
i. 32
P5 32 31 30 29 28 24165120
(32 5)! 27!
12! 12!
ii. 12
P5 12 11 10 9 8 95040
(12 5)! 7!
20! 12! 20! 12!
iii. 20
P3 12 P2 20 19 18 12 11 902880
(20 3)! (12 2)! 17! 10
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Fact 4: Permutations with repetition allowed
When there is no restriction on the number of times a particular element may occur in r-
permutations of set of n elements, there are n-ways to choose an element of the set for each of r
positions. Hence by multiplication rule the number of possibilities is n n.........n n r : r times.
Examples:
1. How many couples of letters can we make using the letters a, b, c?
Solution:
(a, b), (b, c), (c, a), (a, c), (b, a), (c, b), (a, a), (b, b), (c, c) = 9 couples 32
2. In how many ways can the digits of the number 3499848544 can be arranged on a line?
10!
Solution: 37800
2!4!2!
Combinations
A combination is a selection of object from a particular group of n objects in which the order of
arrangements of the objects in each selection is no matter. i.e.: the order does not count. The
n!
number of combinations of r objects chosen from n different objects is nCr we can
(n r )!r!
n
n
. Cr is sometimes denoted by Cn or n Cr or orCn, r .
Pr n
write nCr
r
r! r
Notice:
1. The objects selected to be in group are regarded as indistinguishable (unlike).
2. n
Cr nCn r orCnr Cnn r .
3. n
Cn nCn 1 nC0 1
Examples:
1. From a group of 5 men and 7 women, how many different committees consisting of 2
men and 3 women can be formed?
Solution:
Number of ways of selecting 2 men from 5 men is
5! 5! 5 4 3! 20
C2
5
10 .
(5 2)!2! 3!2! 3!2! 2
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Number of ways of selecting 3 women from 7 women is
7! 5! 7 6 5 4! 210
7
C3 35 .
(7 3)!3! 3!2! 4!3! 6
The number of ways of selecting a committee of 2 men and 3 women from 5 men and 7
women is Number of ways of selecting 2 men from 5 men is 5C2 7 C3 10 35 350 .
2. In how many ways can 5 cards be selected at random from an ordinary deck of 52 cards?
Solution:
52! 52! 52 51 50 49 48 47! 52 51 50 49 48
52
C 5 2598960 .
(52 5)!5! 47!5! 47!5! 5 4 3 2 1
Activity:
1. In how many ways can a committee of 5 men and 3 women be formed from a group
consisting of 12 men and 8 women?
2. Evaluate:
i. 10
C2 8 vii. n
C0
iv.
ii. 6
C4 4
n
v. Cn r
9
iii.
5
n
vi. C1
n 1
3. Show that C p 1 n 1C p nC p , 0 p n .
3.
p
4. Solve for n C n
Properties of combinations
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Binomial theorem (binomial expansion)
For every integer n 1
a bn
n n nk k n n n n n
a b or C na n k b k a n a n 1b a n 2b 2 ... b n .
k
k 0 k k 0 0 1 2 n
Example:
x y 4 4C0 x40 y0 4C1x41 y1 4C2 x4 2 y 2 4C3 x43 y3 4C4 x44 y 4
4! 4 4! 3 4! 2 2 4! 1 3 4! 4
x x y x y xy y x 4 x 3 y x 2 y 2 xy 3 y 4 .
0!4! 1!3! 2!2! 3!1! 4!0!
The following properties of a bn should be observed:
1. There are n 1 terms
2. The sum of exponents of a and b in each term is n .
3. The exponent of a decrease term by term from n to 0, and the exponents of b increase
term by term from 0 to n.
4. The coefficients of any term is nCr where r is the exponent of either a or b.
5. The coefficients with terms equidistant from the end are equal.
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 215
Example 1:
Example 2:
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 216
Example 3:
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 217
Example 4:
6
1
Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of x 2 .
3
x
Solution:
The term in x r will be given by the general formula
r
6
Cr x 2 6r 1
1 Cr x
r6 2
12 2 r
.x r 1 .6 Cr x12 3r . So
r
x
x12 3r x3 12 3r 3 3r 9, r 3 .
The coefficients of this term is 1 6C3 20 .
3
Example 5:
Find the term independent of x in the expansion of
12 9
2 1 2 1
i. 2x ii. 2x
x x
Solution:
i. The term is independent of x if the exponent of x is 0. The general formula for
expansion is
r
Cr 2 x 1
1 Cr 2 x x r 1 212 r 12 Cr x 24 3r . So
12 2 12 r r 12 12 r 24 2 r r
x
x 24 3r x0 24 3r 0 3r 24, r 8 . Thus, the term independent of x in
this expansion is 1 24 12 C8 16
12!
7920 .
8
4!8!
ii. We need to find the coefficient of x 0 . The general term is
r
9
Cr 2 x 2 9r 1 12
Cr 2 x
9r 18 2 r
x r 29 r 9 Cr x18 3r . Then
x
x18 3r 0 18 3r 0, 3r 18 r 6 . Therefore the coefficient is
23 9C3 672 .
Activity:
Find the term independent of x in the expansion of each of the following
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 218
10 12 6 10
iv. 1 x 2 2 x
1 4 3 1
i. 3x ii. 2 x 2 iii. 2 2 x
x x x x
Unit 16: Elementary probability.
Definitions:
1. Probability is the chance that something will happen.
2. Deterministic experiments are certain experiments produce the same results when
performed repeatedly under the same conditions.
3. Random experiments are experiments do not yield the same results no matter how
carefully they are repeated under the same conditions. Familiar examples are:
- Flipping coins/tossing coins
- Rolling dice
- Drawing a ball from a box.
Discrete sample space
- Firstly, the number of possible outcomes is finite
- Secondly, the number of possible outcomes is countably infinite.
As the definition of sample space is the set of all elementary outcomes of a random experiment
which is denoted by
A particular outcome is called a sample point. Thus, when we roll a die, we know that the set of
possible outcomes, the sample space is 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Events
An event is a set of all elementary outcomes. That is, a subset of the sample space. An event
consisting of a single element is called a simple event.
Remarks:
An elementary outcome is sometimes called a simple event whereas a compound event
is made up of at least two elementary outcomes.
To be precise, we should distinguish between the elementary outcome , which is the
element of and the elementary event .
The events are denoted by A, B, C, and so on.
Example: Consider the experiment that consists in rolling a die and recording the number that
shows up. Let A be the event “the even number is shown” and B be the event “the odd number
less than 5”. Define the events A and B.
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 219
Solution:
The sample space is 1,2,3,4,5,6. The event A 2,4,6 and B 1,3
Definitions of certain terms
1. Two or more events which have an equal probability of occurrence are said to be equally
likely.
2. Two events A and B are said to be incompatible (or mutually exclusive) if their
intersection is empty. We then write that A B .
3. Two events A and B are said to be exhaustive if they satisfy the condition A B .
4. Certain events: An event which is sure to occur at every performance of an experiment
is called a certain event connected with an experiment. For example, “Head” or “Tail” is
a certain event with tossing a coin.
5. An event which cannot occur at any performance of experiment is called an impossible
event.
e.g.: i) “seven” in case of throwing a die.
ii) “sum=13” in case of throwing a pair of die
6. Two events are said to be equivalent or identical if one of them implies and implied by
other. That is, the occurrence of one event implies the occurrence of the other and vice
versa. For example, “Even face” and “face 2” or “face 4” or “face 6” are two identical
events.
7. The outcomes which make necessary the happening of an event in a trial are called
favourable events. For example, if two dice are thrown, the number of favourable events
of getting a sum 5 is four i.e: (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2) and (4, 1).
Example:
Consider the experiment that consisting in rolling a die and recording the number that shows up.
We have that 1,2,3,4,5,6. We define the events :
A 1,2,4, B 2,4,6, C 3,5, D 1,2,3,4, E 3,4,5. We have A B 1,2,4,6 ,
A B 2,4, A C and D E . Therefore, A and C are incompatible events, D and E
are exhaustive events. Moreover, we may write that A 3,5,6, where the symbol A denotes
the complement of the event A. this suggests the following definition: If E is an event then E
is the event which occur when E does not occur.
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 220
Probability of an event.
Given a sample space e1 ,e 2 .......en to each simple event e i , we assign real number denoted
by P(ei ) , that is called the probability of event e i . The following two conditions are satisfied.
1. If e i is a simple event, then 0 P(ei ) 1 .
2. P(e1 ) P(e2 ) ..... P(en ) 1 , that is the sum of the probabilities of all simple events in
the sample space is 1. We define the probability of an arbitrary event E denoted by P (E )
as follows:
i. If E is the empty set then P( E ) 0 .
ii. If E is the union of two or more simple events then P (E ) is the sum of
probabilities of the simple events whose union is E.
3. If E then P() 1
We use numerical values to express the probability of an event (A) happening.
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝑛(𝐴)
Probability (A)= 𝑝(𝐴) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 = . The favorable outcomes are
𝑛(𝑆)
different ways in which an event A can take place while the number of all possible outcomes is
the sample space. The total number of all possible outcomes can never be less than the favorable
outcomes; this explains why the probability of any event can never be greater than one. We have
0 𝑛(𝐴) 𝑛(𝑆) 𝑛(𝐴)
that0 ≤ 𝑛(𝐴) ≤ 𝑛(𝑆). From there we can have𝑛(𝑆) ≤ ≤ 𝑛(𝑆). This gives0 ≤ ≤1 ↔
𝑛(𝑆) 𝑛(𝑆)
0 ≤ 𝑝(𝐴) ≤ 1
Example:
1. Consider a class of 40 students where 20 students do not like pepper. Find the probability
that a students selected at random like pepper.
Solution: Possible outcomes 𝑛(𝑆) = 40. Favorable outcomes 𝑛(𝐴) = 20
20 1
Let x be the event “student likes pepper.” Then P ( x)
40 2
2. In drawing 5 cards from a deck od 52 cards without replacement, what is the probability
of getting 5spede?
Solution: The sample space is such that n()52C5 . Let E “be the event of drawing 5
n( E ) 13 C 5
spades”. Since n( E ) C5 , therefore P( E )
13
0.0005 .
n() 52 C5
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 221
3. The board members of a University is made up of 12 men and 16 women. If a committee
of 6 is chosen at random, what is the probability that it will contain 3 men and 3 women?
Solution: Let E be “the event of choosing 3 men and 3 women”. The number of all
people is 28. Number of all possible outcomes is 28C6 376740 .
The number of ways of choosing 3 men from 12 men is 12C3 220 .
The number of ways of choosing 3 women from 26 women is 16C3 560 .
The number of favourable outcomes is 12C3 16 C3 220 560 123200 .
123200
Therefore P( E ) 0.327
376740
4. If 5 cards are selected at random from an ordinary deck of 52 cards. Find the probability
that exactly 2 of them are aces.
Solution:
Tree and Venn diagram and sample space
Tree diagrams and total number outcomes
A tree diagram is a simply a way of representing a sequence of events. Tree diagrams are
particularly useful in probability since they record all possible outcomes in a clear and
uncompleted manner. It has branches and sub-branches, which help us to see the sequence of
events and all possible outcomes at each stage. Tree diagrams, allow us to see all the possible
outcomes of an event and calculate their probability. Each branch in a tree diagram represents a
possible outcome. If two events are independent, the outcome of one has no effect on the
outcome of the other.
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 222
Example 3:
Let's take a look at a simple example, flipping a coin and then rolling a die. We might want to
know the probability of getting a Head and a 4. If we wanted, we could list all the possible
outcomes:(H,1) (H,2) (H,3) (H,4) (H,5) (H,6)(T,1) (T,2) (T,3) (T,4) (T,5) (T,6) Probability of
1
getting a Head and a 4: P(H,4)
12
Here is one way of representing the situation using a tree diagram. To save time, I have chosen
not to list every possible die throw (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) separately, so I have just listed the outcomes
"4" and "not 4":
Note: Tossing one coin n times is the same as tossing n coins at once. For example, the
outcomes for tossing 3 coins at once is the same as the number of outcomes for tossing one coin
three times.
Beware: HIV and AIDS can spread from infected persons to others in a chain similar to a tree
diagram. This is because one person can infected many people who in turn infect others and so
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 223
on. Abstain and be safe
Exercises:
1. A bag contain 3 yellow balls and 4 pink balls. Uwase picked two balls one after the other.
With tha aid of a tree diagram show all possible outcomes. How many outcomes are
there?
2. A bag contains 6 yellow ball and 4 pink balls. Higiro picked 3 balls one after the other.
Draw tree diagram to show all possible outcomes. How many outcomes are there?
Determining the probability by using tree diagram and Venn diagram
a) Use the tree diagrams to determine probabilities
Each path represents a possible outcome, and the fractions indicate the probability of travelling
along that branch. For each pair of branches, the sum of the probabilities adds to
1."And" Means Multiply.
"And" only means multiply if events are independent, that is, the outcome of one event does not
affect the outcome of another. This is certainly true for our example, since flipping the coin has
no impact on the outcome of the die throw. "Or" Means Add
Now let's consider the probability of getting a Head or a 4.
We are using the word "or" in its mathematical sense to mean "Head or 4 or both", as opposed to
the common usage which often means "either a Head or a 4":
Example:
Coin and a die are tossed at the same time. Find the probability of getting a head and a 4.
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
P(H,4)=𝟐 × 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟐
Example 2:
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 224
Mutoni spins 2 spinners, one of which is coloured red, yellow and blue, and the other is coloured
green, white and purple.
a. Draw a tree diagram for the experiment.
b. What is the probability that the spinners stop at “B” and “G”?
c. Find the probability that the spinners do not stop at “B” and “G”
d. What is the probability that the first spinner does not stop at “R”?
Solution:
1
b) Number of all possible outcomes is 9, then P(B,G)= 9
1 8
c) Probability that spinners do not stop at (𝐵, 𝐺) = 1 − 9 = 9
3 1
d) The probability that the first spinner stop at “R” is 9 = 3. Therefore the probability that
1 2
the first spinner do not stop at “R” is 1 − 3 = 3.
Exercises:
1. A bag contains 4 cards numbered 2,4,6,9. A second bag contains 3 cards numbered 2,3
and 6. One card is drawn at random from each bag.
a. Draw a tree diagram for the experiment.
b. With the help of the tree diagram, calculate the probability that the two numbers
obtained:
i. Have different values
ii. Are both even
iii. Are both prime
iv. Have a sum greater than 5
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 225
v. Have a product greater than 16.
2. A hat contains 3 red, 4blue and 5green tickets. If one ticket is chosen at random, what is
the probability that it is:
i. Red
ii. Blue
iii. Green
Determining probability using Venn diagrams
A Venn diagram refers to representing mathematical or logical sets pictorially as circles or
closed curves within an enclosing rectangle (the universal set), common elements of the sets
represented by intersection of the circles.
When you have data and you are to use the Venn diagram to solve the problem, always
remember the following tips:
a) Always start with the most specific information you have
b) If you can’t use a piece of information yet, pass over it and try again later.
c) As you interpret the information, remember:
i. And implies intersection
ii. Or implies union
iii. Not implies complement
Examples:
1. A survey involving 120 people about their preferred breakfast showed that; 55 eat eggs
for breakfast; 40 drink juice for breakfast; 25 eat both eggs and juice for breakfast.
(a) Represent the information on the Venn diagram
(b) Calculate the following probabilities:
i. A person selected at random takes only one type for breakfast
ii. A person selected at random takes neither eggs nor juice for breakfast
Solution:
Let A be the event “a person eats eggs only” and B be the event “a person drinks juice only and
Z be the event “a person takes neither eggs nor juice”.
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 226
a)
𝑥 = 55 − 25 = 30. 30 people took eggs only.
𝑦 = 40−25=15. 15 people took juice only.
Hence 30+25+15+z=12↔ 𝑧 = 120 − 70 = 50. 50 people took neither eggs nor juice.
b) I) n(A)=30, n(B)=15, n(S)=120, n(Z)=50
𝑛(𝐴)+𝑛(𝐵) 30+15 45 3
𝑃(𝑒𝑔𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑢𝑖𝑐𝑒) = = = 120 = 8.
𝑛(𝑆) 120
𝑛(𝑍) 50 5
ii) 𝑃(𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑔𝑔𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑢𝑖𝑐𝑒) = 𝑛(𝑆) = 120 = 12
2. In a survey of 150 Rwandan people about which newspaper they read, 83 read the new
times, 58 read the Imvaho nshya. 36 read neither of those two newspapers. Represent the
data on the Venn diagram and find the chance that a person selected at random reads both
papers.
Solution:
Let M represents Imvaho nshya, T represents New times. And let x be the event “a person reads
New Times only.” Z be the event “a person reads both papers” and y be the event “a person reads
Imvaho nshya.”
83 x z z 83 x
hence 83 x 58 y x y 25 also x y z 36 150 but
58 z y z 58 y
x z 83 so we have 83 y 36 150 y 150 83 36 31 .
From(1) x 25 y x 25 31 56 substituting x and y by their values we have z 27 .
n( Z ) 27 9
P( Z ) .
n( S ) 150 50
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 227
Exercises:
1. In a survey of 50 people about which hotel they patronize among Hilltop, Serena and
Lemigo. We find that 15 people eat at Hilltop, 30 people eat at Serena; 19 people eat
at Lemigo, 8 people eat at Hilltop and Serena; 12 people eat at Hilltop and Lemigo; 7
people eat at Serena and Lemigo; 5 people eat at Hilltop, Serena and Lemigo.
(a) What is the chance that a person selected at random eats only at Hilltop?
(b) How many people do not it at Hilltop and Serena, but not at Lemigo?
(c) How many people do not it at any of these three hotels?
(d) What is the probability that a person selected at random do not eat at any of the
hotel mentioned?
2. We survey 600 adults about which modes of transportation they have used in the past
year; we find that: 100 travelled by plane but not train; 150 by train but not plane; 120
by bus but not by a train or plane; 100 by both bus and plane; 40 by all three; 440 by
bus or train.
(a) Represent the data on Venn diagram
(b) Find the probability that a person selected at random travels by only one mode.
Mutually exclusive events
Definition of a mutually exclusive event
If event A happens, then event B cannot, or vice-versa. The two events "it rained on Tuesday"
and "it did not rain on Tuesday" are mutually exclusive events. When calculating the
probabilities for exclusive events you add the probabilities.
Example of a mutually exclusive event
What happens if we want to throw 1 and 6 in any order? This now means that we do not mind if
the first die is either 1 or 6, as we are still in with a chance. But with the first die, if 1 falls
uppermost, clearly It rules out the possibility of 6 being uppermost, so the two Outcomes, 1 and
6, are exclusive. One result directly affects the other. In this case, the probability of throwing 1
or 6 with the first die is the sum of the two probabilities, 1/6 + 1/6 = 1/3.
The probability of the second die being favourable is still 1/6 as the second die can only be one
specific number, a 6 if the first die is 1, and vice versa.
Therefore, the probability of throwing 1 and 6 in any order with two dice is 1/3 x 1/6 = 1/18.
Note that we multiplied the last two probabilities as they were independent of each other!!!
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 228
Independent events
The outcome of event A, has no effect on the outcome of event B. Such as "It rained on
Tuesday" and "My chair broke at work". When calculating the probabilities for independent
events you multiply the probabilities. You are effectively saying what is the chance of both
events happening bearing in mind that the two were unrelated.
So, if A and B are mutually exclusive, they cannot be independent. If A and B are independent,
they cannot be mutually exclusive. Simple isn't it? Or is it? This is where a lot of people go
wrong in trying to work out probabilities as sometimes the status of two sets of probabilities are
not as clear cut as it seems.
If A and B are two independent events, the probability of them occurring together is the product
of their individual probabilities. That is P( A B) P( A) P( B) . If A, B and C are three events
then P( A B C ) P( A) P( B) P(C ) . This is known as the multiplication law of probability.
Example 1:
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 229
Example 2:
Exercises:
1. A boy throws a fair coin and a regular tetrahedron with its four faces marked 1,2,3 and 4.
Find the probability that he gets a 3 on the tetrahedron and a head on the coin.
2. A bag contains 7 black and 3 white balls. If two balls are drawn from the bag, what is the
probability that
(a) One is black and one is white?
(b) They are of the same colour?
References
1. Advanced mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools learner’s book 4
2. A Level Mathematics Senior 4 Student's Book
3. A Level Mathematics Senior 5 Student's Book
S4 MATHEMATICS Page 230
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