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Working Memory Model and Language Learning

Article in Shanlax International Journal of Education · September 2021

DOI: 10.34293/education.v9iS2-Sep.4366

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 Shanlax
International Journal of Education shanlax
#SINCE1990

Working Memory Model and Language

Learning
Bora Demir
OPEN ACCESS Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8187-3206
Volume: 9
Abstract
Special Issue: 2 Working Memory (WM) is an essential concept of cognitive science since many aspects of human
learning depend on it. Primarily proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) and developed by Baddeley
Month: September (1986), the concept of WM comprises the number of subsystems involved during the process and
the considerable emphasis on its key role in cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and
comprehension. As a complex and limited cognitive system, by enabling the input to be temporarily
Year: 2021 stored, monitored and manipulated understanding the sub mechanism under the WM model is
crucial in specifying the factors that affect learning languages. By taking Baddeley’s model of
E-ISSN: 2582-1334 WM (2012) as reference, the aim of this study is to dicuss the model of WM and demonstrate the
relationship between its components and the processes that play an important role in understanding
the underlying cognitive processes for language learning.
Received: 10.07.2021 Keywords: Working memory, Phonological loop, Episodic buffer.

Accepted: 25.08.2021
Introduction
Learning, defined as “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result
Published: 15.09.2021
of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future
Citation: learning” (Ambrose et al., 2010, p.3), is based on the functioning of cognitive
Demir, Bora. “Working processing of the human mind. Among many other aspects of cognitive
Memory Model and processing involving mental procedures, memory is closely related to learning.
Language Learning.” As an essential component of learning, memory enables people to store and
Shanlax International retrieve the information they learn.
Journal of Education, Memory has long been classified as Short Term Memory (STM) and Long
vol. 9, no. S2, 2021, Term Memory (LTM). However, researchers in the field of educational and
pp. 1–8. cognitive psychology have been discussing a relatively new term which is called
Working Memory (WM). According to Dehn (2008), WM supports human
DOI: cognitive processing as an interface between perception, STM, LTM, and
https://doi.org/10.34293/
goal-directed actions. According to Conway et al., (2007, p. 3), “WM concept
education.v9iS2-Sep.4366
reflects fundamentally a form of memory, but it is more than memory, for it is
memory at work, in the service of complex cognition.” Similarly, Baddeley and
Logie (1999, p. 15) defined the term as “… storing and processing information
while performing higher-order cognitive tasks such as comprehension, learning
This work is licensed and reasoning.”
under a Creative Commons Although both STM and WM is conceptualised as distinct components
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 of a general memory system, some researchers have used the two terms as
International License interchangeable or consider one a subtype of the other (McDougall, Hulme,
Elllis, & Monk, 1994). Other theorists and researchers argue that WM and STM
are distinguishable constructs (Gathercole, 1998; Unsworth & Engle, 2007;
Dehn, 2008). Nevertheless, it is generally acknowledged that the two concepts
are distinct. While STM passively holds information, WM has stronger
relationships with academic learning and with higher-level cognitive functions.

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Contemporary Research in Education 2021

A growing body of research has demonstrated The recognition of memory in learning goes
WM is a crucial factor in learning languages. back to the ancient Greeks. However, it was the
Despite its limited capacity, WM is anessential mid-twentieth century when psychologists were
memory mechanism related to processing linguistic able to identify and work on distinct dimensions and
tasks including,overall language proficiency (van functions of memory (Dehn, 2008). As a result of the
den Noort, Bosch & Hugdahl 2006), vocabulary debate on the types and functioning of the concept
development (Daneman & Green,1986), grammar of memory, a whole range of memory models
learning (Williams & Lovatt 2003), reasoning was proposed during the 1960s. These models
(Baddeley & Logie 1999), note taking (Kiewra & were composed of three types of memory namely,
Benton, 1988), writing (Kellog, 2016), sentence sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
processing (Felser & Roberts, 2007), speaking memory. The model which received more attention
(O’Brien et al. 2006), listening comprehension (Juffs was Atkinson and Shiffrin’s 1968 model (Fig.1),
& Harrington, 2011), reading comprehension (Kane and it contained a detailed analysis concerning
et al., 2004; Alptekin & Erçetin, 2009), inferential the structure and functioning of human memory.
understanding (Alptekin & Erçetin, 2010; 2011), This system is considered capable of manipulating
second language aptitude (Dörnyei & Skehan; 2003). information and relating it to long-term storage.
In studies investigating individual differences in Without it, the learning of new material would be
WM capacity, Engle et al. (1999) and Engle, Tuholski impossible. (Baddeley, 1999)
et al. (1999) reported that WM is significantly related
to various aspects of second language learning as;
reading, decoding, reading comprehension, language
comprehension, spelling, following directions,
vocabulary development, note-taking, written
expression, reasoning, complex learning, and grade
point average (as cited in Dehn, 2008, p.93).
Today, there is sufficient evidence about the Figure 1: Multi-Store Model of Memory by
presence of astrong relationship between WM and the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
second language learning process. Therefore, describing
the underlying mechanisms of WM is crucial for Following that, in a later study, Atkinson and
defining its role in foreign/second language learning Shiffrin (1971) proposed that the flow of information
research (Jackson, 2020). Thus, to understand the through the short-term storage and the subject’s
subsystems underlying the complex and dynamic control of that flow of information were central to the
structure of the WM model (Baddeley, 2000), this system underlying human memory. They explained
study is an attempt to draw implications about the the concept of WM as a system in decision making,
WM model and second/foreign language learning. problem solving, and directing information flow.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) postulated the concept
Defining Working Memory of WM to overcome the problems in the early models.
Memory is one of the most important concepts According to Baddeley and Hitch, this system can
of cognitive science since many aspects of human store and process information simultaneously.
life depend on it. Rather than a single unitary According to Baddeley and Hitch (1974), WM
system, memory is an array of interacting systems, temporarily stores and manipulates inputto process
each capable of encoding or registering information, complex tasks. Furthermore, it involves several
storing it, and making it available by retrieval. subsystems, each related to the specific nature of the
Without this capability for information storage, information to be processed (Baddeley, 1986).
we could not perceive adequately, learn from our
past, understand the present, or plan for the future
(Baddeley, 1999).

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researchers that it comprises those mechanisms or

processes that are involved in the control, regulation,
and active maintenance of task-relevant information
in the service of complex cognition. Hulme and
Figure 2: A schematic representation of model of Mackenzie (1992) defined the concept as the use
WM (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) of temporarily stored information to perform more
complex cognitive tasks. In general, WM is viewed
As mentioned above, the concept of WM was as a comprehensive system that unites various short-
initially proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) and and long-term memory subsystems and functions
developed by Baddeley (1986). Baddeley and Hitch (Baddeley, 1986).
proposed the model to expand a more accurate model One of the greatest accomplishments of the
of STM. This model was different from Atkinson human mind is perhaps its ability to mentally
and Shiffrin (1968) model since it offers a far more maintain information in an active and readily
flexible definition of STM. accessible state, and selectively process new
There have been conflicting views among information simultaneously (Conway, Jarrold, Kane,
cognitive psychologists and memory researchers on Miyake & Towse, 2007). In this context, WM refers
the definition and conceptualism of STM and WM. to the mental processes responsible for the temporary
According to Baddeley (1996), the concept of WM storage and manipulation of information in the
represents a modification and extension of an earlier course of on-going processing (Juffs & Harrington,
concept, short-term memory proposed by Atkinson 2011).
and Shiffrin (1968). Baddeley differentiates the
concept of WM from STM in two respects: the The Working Memory Model and Learning
number of subsystems involved during the process Memory models in modern terms first started
and the considerable emphasis on its functional role with the Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of
in other cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, Memory (1968) as an elaboration of the information
and comprehension. processing model proposed by Broadbent (1958) and
There have been numerous efforts to conceptualise was followed by the Levels of Processing Model of
and define WM. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argued Memory (Craig & Lockhart, 1972), and finally the
that WM is a flexible and limited-resource system Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974).
with storage and processing capabilities that exist in a According to Baddeley (1986), WM is a system
traded off fashion. WM is also defined as a cognitive that holds and manipulates input when performing
system that contains a limited computational space in cognitive tasks such as language learning (Baddeley,
which materials can be temporarily stored, monitored 1986). According to Baddeley and Hitch (1974),
and manipulated (Baddeley, 1986; Just & Carpenter, during the performance of a task that involves two
1992). According to Juffs and Harrington (2011), different systems, such as the articulatory control
WM is not an isolated term within the concept of system and the visuospatial sketchpad, they can
memory. process both together interactively, or they can do
The restricted capacity of WM limits cognitive either on its own. Baddeley and Hitch provide this
performance (Conway et al., 2007). Individuals argument as evidence that supports the idea that WM
with larger capacity typically perform better is composed of different components. The separation
than individuals with smaller capacity on several of storage from processing is the key feature that
cognitive tasks including, complex learning, reading distinguishes the WM model from other models: the
and listening comprehension. Oberauer et al. (2003) phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and
also define WM as a set of limiting factors for the central executive, which controls the other two
performance in complex cognitive tasks. As said by subsystems, referred to as slave systems.
Miyake and Shah (1999), although there is the variety
of definitions of WM, there is consensus among WM

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Contemporary Research in Education 2021

speech coding. Baddeley separated this aspect of

memory from the rest and postulated the PL as a
slave system (Baddeley, 1999).

Figure 3: Conceptualization of WM model

(Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

In 2012, Baddeley and Hitch expanded this

Figure 5: The Phonological Loop Model
model with a new component, multimodal episodic
(Baddeley, 1986)
buffer. According to Baddeley and Hitch (1974),
one of these buffers is for verbal, one for spatial
Today, it is well established that much more than
information, one for visual, and one for episodic
a slave system, the PL may have a significant role in
information (Baddeley, 2012). The model comprises
vocabulary acquisition. Also, it is vital for learning a
three subcomponents, namely the visuospatial
second language (Miyake and Shah, 1999). Besides,
sketchpad, the episodic buffer, and the phonological
the PL has a central role in language processing,
loop. Figure 4 illustrates Baddeley’s 2012 model of
literacy, and learning by facilitating the acquisition
WM that contextualises the theoretical framework of
of a language (Baddeley, 2003a).
the present study.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad
The Visuospatial Sketchpad (VS) can be defined
as a slave system that functions for the processing of
visual and spatial input (Morris & Gruneberg, 2005).
While the PL deals with speech-based information,
the VS deals with visual information. Baddeley
(1986) hypothesised the existence of a temporary
visuospatial store that is capable of retaining and
manipulating images. The VS is a cognitive construct
and mental process of temporarily storing visual and
Figure 4: Baddeley’s model of WM (2012)
spatial information for online use in operations of
WM. The sketchpad also displays and manipulates
The Phonological Loop
visual and spatial information held in long-term
The PL is one of the three essential mechanisms
memory. According to Baddeley (2002), the VS
of the WM Model. Particularly, it is responsible for
functions as an interface between visual and spatial
the processing of verbal and acoustic input during
information by connecting similar input together.
language learning. The terminology of the term
According to Baddeley (2003), the VS is a system
has been evolved since the earlier conception of
that is involved in everyday reading tasks, where it
the component was named by Baddeley and Hitch
may be involved in maintaining a representation of
(1974) as ‘phonemic buffer’ and as ‘articulatory
the page and its layout that will remain stable and
loop’ by Baddeley (1986). Basically, as a part of the
facilitate tasks such as moving the eyes accurately
WM, the PL handles phonological information and
between the lines. According to Dehn (2008), the
rehearses verbal input. According to most models
visuospatial sketchpad plays an important role
of short-term memory, one characteristic frequently
during reading by visually encoding printed letters
assigned to short-term memory is its reliance on
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and words, allowing the readers to backtrack and This limited capacity can be used to regulate and
keep their place in the text for better comprehension. coordinate the flow of information within WM
besides performing processing and storage operations
The Episodic Buffer (Morris & Gruneberg, 1994).
Baddeley described several problems for the Researchers presume the term CE as the most
WM model, which stem from the need to integrate complex and powerful component of the WM that
information from the subsidiary systems and the LTM controls the phonological loop and the visuospatial
by allowing active holdingand operation (Baddeley, sketchpad and relates them to long-term memory
2012). After observing some patients with amnesia, (Morris & Gruneberg, 1994). As the central
who could not encode new information in long- mechanism of the model, it plays the role of attending
term memory, Baddeley realized that these patients to and switching attention from one cognitive
retrieved stories that could not be storedin the PL. As process to another. The executive is considerably
a result, Baddeley added a fourth component to the more complex than either of the two slave systems,
model as the third slave system, called the Episodic which makes it significantly harder to investigate
Buffer (EB). (Baddeley, 1996).
According to Baddeley (2000), the EB deals both This system is responsible for the specific
with visual and speech-based information. Baddeley functions of learning a language such as a strategy
(2019, p. 289) defined the EB as a connector and put switching, selective attention, retrieval from long-
it: “…visual and verbal information together with term memory and dual-task coordination, which
their semantic associates.” As for Dehn (2008), EB represent higher-level cognition tasks. Hence, the
increases semantic information stored and processed multi-component structure of the model provides a
in WM. By underlying the importance of the EB, basic theoretical framework for understanding how
Dehn (2008, p. 25) stated that “The episodic buffer higher-level cognition is supported by the human
is important for learning because it uses multimodal WM system (Baddeley, 1996).
codes to integrate representations from components
of WM and long-term memory into unitary Conclusion
representations.” This study aims to describe how WM and language
Baddeley (2000) assumes the executive to be learning are related concepts resulting from cognitive
a purely attentional system with a role extending processing. For more than forty years, cognitive
beyond memory function, whereas he assumes psychologists and educational researchers have
the EB to be purely mnemonic in character. The investigated the link between memory mechanisms
information retrieved from the buffer is through and language learning. Starting from childhood,
conscious awareness allowing multiple sources of people have to store information and retrieve it when
information to be processed simultaneously that is necessary owing to the memory representation in
crucial during learning a language. the human brain. However, as a complex process,
learning a language has not been fully explained,
The Central Executive including its cognitive mechanisms. Today, it is
As the main component of the WM Model, the well established that individuals’ memory capacity
Central Executive (CE) was first introduced by is a robust indicator of success or failure in language
Baddeley and Hitch in 1974 as a complex system learning.
used both for the storage of information along the As a relatively new concept when compared
computational processing of that information. with STM and LTM, WM has been proved to be
They defined the central executive as a workspace associated with language learning presented by a
that is flexible but limited in capacity. Since the large body of research. The contribution of WM
CE is used for both storing and processing, greater studies in the field of language learning is precious
effort is required to process information as less in explaining how the human brain functions when
capacity remains for the storage of that information. engaging in specific language learning practices such

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Contemporary Research in Education 2021

as reading, listening, vocabulary learning, writing, the everyday phenomena and do not go deep enough
speaking, note-taking, and language comprehension. to find answers to the questions of deep functioning
The WM model proposed by Baddeley (2012) is of memory.
essential for cognitive psychologists and language The third weakness of the model is related to the
educators in understanding the concept of WM in CE since it remains the least understood component
a deeper sense and in underlying the importance of of the model. With a framework that describes
WM capacity in explaining the reasons for success or the organisation of CE in detail, developing
failure in learning another language. experimental tasks which tap a particular aspect of
By the research on the sub-mechanism of WM, executive function, or even tasks that tap the slave
its components, slave systems, function in various systems without imposing on the executive would
aspects of language learning, PL, for instance, has a facilitate researchers to reach more reliable findings.
role in the acquisition of vocabulary. Moreover, VS is Besides the underspecified nature of the CE, another
involved in reading tasks which is a part of learning a issue under criticism is the lack of specification of
language. Furthermore, EB helps to integrate visual the role of the CE in rehearsal. The CE component of
and verbal information from STM and LTM to allow the WM model should be redesigned to answer the
active maintenance and manipulation together with question of whether rehearsal is purely a function of
their semantic associates. Finally, as the central the slave systems, a function of the slave systems that
mechanism of the model, the CE coordinates the PL, are initiated and monitored by the CE, or a function
the VS and the EB to regulate and coordinate the solely of the CE (Richardson, 1984).
flow of information to switch attention from one task
to another. References
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Author Details
Dr. Bora Demir, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey, Email ID: [email protected].

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