Teaching Quantum Formalism and Postulates to First-Year Undergraduates

Jeremy Levy and Chandralekha Singh

Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260 USA.
(Dated: December 2, 2024)
Traditional approaches to undergraduate-level quantum mechanics require extensive mathematical
preparation, preventing most students from enrolling in a quantum mechanics course until the third
year of a physics major. Here we describe an approach to teaching quantum formalism and postulates
that can be used with first-year undergraduate students and even high school students. The only
pre-requisite is a familiarity with vector dot products. This approach enables students to learn
Dirac notation and core postulates of quantum mechanics at a much earlier stage in their academic
career, which can help students prepare for careers in quantum science and engineering and advance
the Second Quantum Revolution.

INTRODUCTION proach to quantum mechanics to help students appreciate

the mathematical structure of quantum mechanics[5, 6],
Quantum mechanics is arguably the most important while setting the stage for learning about quantum in-
course that an undergraduate physics major will take. formation. Two-state quantum systems are not just
It is central to understanding many aspects of physics, spins, but also “qubits” which can be used to store
including astrophysics, particle physics, solid-state and quantum information. Dirac notation is generally not
materials science, photonics, and, more recently, quan- introduced in modern physics courses that cover quan-
tum information science, engineering, and technology. tum mechanics; introductory quantum textbooks have
There is enormous enthusiasm for lowering the entry tended to use Dirac notation sparingly, although some
barriers for quantum science and engineering, in order to more modern textbooks do employ Dirac notation more
prepare a new generation of students to address the chal- thoroughly [7, 8].
lenges of the Second Quantum Revolution [1, 2]. Many Efforts to make quantum mechanics more accessible to
educational activities are aimed at younger and less- students, so that they can be introduced to the subject
technically-advanced students, with the hope of prepar- at an earlier state, have been described by, for example,
ing them for future careers in quantum industries. Zollman et al. [9]. Rudolf has developed an accessible
In most university curricula, quantum mechanics is guide to quantum concepts (Q is for Quantum, Ref. [10])
taught as a one-semester or two-semester course, pref- which are necessary for quantum computing. Hands-on
aced by modern physics and a full year of introductory approaches often involve visualization of wavefunctions
physics. In preparation for learning quantum mechan- and de-emphasize the formal aspects of learning quan-
ics, students must first take courses in advanced calcu- tum mechanics. Other efforts to introduce quantum me-
lus, complex analysis, differential equations, and linear chanics include the development of a variety of quantum-
algebra. themed games [11–24] designed to teach various aspects
Why do we wait so long to teach quantum mechanics? of quantum mechanics.
Apart from curricular inertia, there is a broad consensus Here we describe an approach to teaching quantum me-
that students simply cannot learn quantum mechanics chanics to students who have no more than one semester
at an earlier stage of their academic career. In the early of introductory physics. The material was developed as
days of quantum theory (i.e., the dawn of the First Quan- a one-credit course that gives students an introduction
tum Revolution), quantum mechanics was not taught to to how quantum mechanics works and provides a sound
undergraduates, nor was it offered as a core graduate foundation for future studies. We create a bridge to
course[3]. One of the reasons why quantum education learning Dirac formalism by extending the vector nota-
was delayed until the advanced graduate level was that tion that students learn in an introductory calculus-based
the mathematical notation at the time was not well devel- physics course. This extension enables a one-to-one map
oped. Dirac provided a pedagogical service to the physics with Dirac notation, including the representation of oper-
community by creating his namesake “Dirac notation” ators. Elements of quantum theory are illustrated using
[4], which helped to codify and simplify operations that a “Bloch cube”, which is a simplified version of the Bloch
are often obscured by representation-specific approaches sphere. The Bloch cube enables introductory students to
or matrix-only representations of the Time-Dependent manipulate quantum states with their hands, thus build-
Schrödinger Equation (TDSE). However, despite this im- ing intuition about many advanced quantum concepts.
proved notation, a century after the introduction of quan- This approach was developed and refined over a three-
tum mechanics, it is still a highly challenging course for year period with three groups of 5-10 first-year under-
students. graduate students by J.L. in collaboration with C.S. Stu-
Many introductory textbooks adopt a “spins-first” ap- dents have consistently provided very positive feedback
 2

in post-instruction surveys regarding this approach.

Û |ψ(0)⟩ = |ψ(t)⟩ (2)

BREAKING DOWN THE SCHRÖDINGER
EQUATION assuming that Ĥ is time-independent. Eq. 2 serves as
a substitute for Eq. 1, which students do not need to
It is helpful to break down the TDSE (Eq. 1) into five learn how to solve until later in their academic career.
components, which correspond roughly to five mathemat- While understanding the TDSE is essential to under-
ical pre-requisites, summarized in Table I. standing the physical mechanisms by which states are
transformed, students at earlier stages in their physics
education can learn to work with the operators (in this
∂ |ψ⟩ work, rotation operators) that represent these transfor-
iℏ = Ĥ |ψ⟩ (1)
∂t mations. Sec. VI shows how the rotation operator is
introduced and illustrated with the Bloch cube. Then
in Sec. VII-VIII, we outline the lecture sequence for this
TABLE I. Breaking down the TDSE. one-credit course and show how it compares to traditional
TDSE Component Mathematical Requirements instruction.
i Complex numbers
ℏ Algebra VECTORS AND DOT-VECTORS
∂/∂t Calculus, differential equations
|ψ⟩ Vectors Introductory students learn about unit vectors and
Ĥ Linear algebra scalar products, which are used to convert vector equa-
tions into a set of scalar equations. Here we review and
i: Complex arithmetic, multiplication, and complex then extend the notation to make it more compatible
conjugation are taught in calculus-based or honors intro- with Dirac “bra-ket” notation. We will restrict ourselves
ductory physics courses. to two dimensions, which is sufficient for mapping onto
ℏ: The Planck constant is just a number (with units), two-state quantum systems. Unit vectors obey the stan-
emblematic of symbolic representation of numbers, and dard set of orthogonality relations: x̂ · x̂ = 1, x̂ · ŷ = 0,
ordinary algebraic manipulations. ⃗ can be written as:
ŷ · x̂ = 0, ŷ · ŷ = 1. A general vector V
∂/∂t: Calculus is often a co-requisite in introductory
physics courses. At a more advanced stage, students ⃗ = Vx x̂ + Vy ŷ
V (3)
learn about coupled and partial differential equations.
|ψ⟩: Vectors are used extensively in introductory where Vx = x̂ · V ⃗ and Vy = ŷ · V ⃗ . Complete sets of
physics to describe the position and dynamics of objects, orthonormal unit vectors define coordinate systems.
and other fields (e.g., magnetic, electric) in three spatial To help students understand bra-ket notation, we start
dimensions. Non-calculus-based courses often skip the by introducing a new type of vector, called the “dot-
concept of unit vectors, whereas in calculus-based curric- vector”, in which the “·” is attached to the unit vec-
ula they are well developed and used. tors to define a new vector space. The dot-vector can be
H : Operators, linear algebra and matrix manipulation disarmingly introduced by making reference to the Dr.
are usually avoided in introductory physics courses. Seuss story about Sneetches [25]. In that children’s story,
To introduce quantum mechanics to introductory there are two kinds of Sneetches: Star-Bellied Sneetches
physics students, we need to choose what is essential and and Plain-Bellied Sneetches. Other than the fact that one
what can be left for more advanced instruction. Of the sports a star on its belly, they look identical. By analogy,
mathematics skill requirements just outlined, the skills we can define, for every unit vector x̂ or ŷ, a correspond-
least likely to be possessed by introductory students are ing dot-vector x̂· and ŷ·, as shown in Figure 1. A general
linear algebra and differential equations. dot-vector W ⃗ · in the two-dimensional dot-vector space
The linear algebra required to use Dirac notation can can be written as:
be introduced by making an explicit analogy with unit
⃗ · = Wx x̂ · +Wy ŷ·
W (4)
vectors. This analogy can be used not only to teach about
inner products, but also outer products and identity and where Wx and Wy are scalar coefficients. The scalar
rotation operators, as described in Sec. III-IV. The Bloch ⃗ · and V
⃗ is given by:
product between W
cube is introduced in Sec. V to provide a tangible repre-
sentation of quantum, states and the Born rule. ⃗ ·V
W ⃗ = (Wx x̂ · +Wy ŷ·)(Vx x̂ + Vy ŷ) = Wx Vx + Wy Vy (5)
The requirement for differential equations is eliminated
because the TDSE can be “integrated out” to yield uni- where we have taken advantage of the orthonormality
tary operators Û = exp[−iĤt/ℏ] with the property that relations defined above. The class of operations that
 3

students learn to manipulate vectors applies similarly to

dot-vectors. In this sense, the distinction between vec-
tors and dot-vectors is superficial, not unlike the stars
that some Sneetches wear on their bellies.

√
FIG. 2. Effect of R operator on (a) x̂, (b) ŷ, (c) (x̂ + ŷ)/ 2.

Dot vector Vector

(a) (b)

FIG. 1. Dot-Vec notation developed to help introduce Dirac

notation. (a) Dot-vector x̂·. (b) vector ŷ. Products of dot- FIG. 3. Unit vectors can represent states of matter. Operator
vectors and vectors can yield scalars or operators, depending F flips the state of a coin.
on their relative ordering.

By combining vectors and dot-vectors in the opposite DIRAC NOTATION

order, we can create operators which transform vectors
into other vectors. An extremely useful operator is the After extending the existing vector notation to include
identity operator, which can be written as follows: dot-vectors (which we will refer to as “Dot-Vec” nota-
tion), the analogy with Dirac (bra-ket) notation can be
1 = x̂x̂ · +ŷ ŷ· (6)
introduced. Ket states are associated with unit vectors,
Acting the identity operator 1 on the vector V ⃗ yields: and Bra states are associated with unit dot-vectors. The
⃗ = x̂x̂ · V
⃗ + ŷ ŷ · V
⃗ = Vx x̂ + Vy ŷ. (7) scalar products defined for x̂ and ŷ are mapped onto the
(x̂x̂ · +ŷ ŷ·)V
scalar product relations for Dirac bras and kets. The
where Vx = x̂ · V ⃗ and Vy = ŷ · V
⃗ . The identity oper- analogy is summarized in Table II.
ator provides an explicit method for resolving a vector
into components, which is something that introductory
students are often asked to do when solving vector equa- Operators
tions.
Another type of operator is one that produces a rota- With this identification, we can use some of the tools
tion in the xy plane. For example, the operator R rotates developed for vectors to resolve a general state |ψ⟩ into
vectors counterclockwise by 90◦ .

R = ŷx̂ · −x̂ŷ· (8) TABLE II. Dot-Vec / Bra-Ket notation analogy.

The rotation properties can be seen by its effect on Dot-Vec Bra-Ket

three test vectors, illustrated in Fig. 2. x̂ |+z⟩
An important conceptual leap which is necessary for ŷ |−z⟩
understanding quantum mechanics is the mapping be- x̂ · x̂ = 1 ⟨+z|+z⟩ = 1
tween orthogonal vectors and distinct states of a system. x̂ · ŷ = 0 ⟨+z|−z⟩ = 0
Unit vectors in quantum mechanics can represent mu- ŷ · x̂ = 0 ⟨−z|+z⟩ = 0
tually distinguishable states and not just directions in ŷ · ŷ = 1 ⟨−z|−z⟩ = 1
space. For example, we can imagine that x̂ represents x̂x̂· |+z⟩⟨+z|
the “heads” state of a coin, while ŷ represents the “tails”
x̂ŷ· |+z⟩⟨−z|
state.
ŷx̂· |−z⟩⟨+z|
The action of flipping over a coin can be described by
the operator F = x̂ŷ · +ŷx̂·. ŷ ŷ· |−z⟩⟨−z|
 4

FIG. 4. Bloch sphere and Bloch cube. (a) Bloch sphere. (b)
Top view of Bloch cube. (c) Bottom view of Bloch cube. (d)
Fold-out pattern of Bloch cube.

components along |+z⟩ and |−z⟩ using the identity op-

FIG. 5. Bloch Cubes. The smaller ones are made from blank
erator 1̂ = |+z⟩⟨+z| + |−z⟩⟨−z|. ceramic cubes and covered with laser-printed labels. The
larger Bloch Cubes use a different “qubit” labeling in which
|+z⟩ = |0⟩ and |−z⟩ = |1⟩, and other states are expressed in
1̂ |ψ⟩ = |+z⟩ ⟨+z|ψ⟩ + |−z⟩ ⟨−z|ψ⟩ = ψ+ |+z⟩ + ψ− |−z⟩ this basis.
(9)
where ψ+ = ⟨+z|ψ⟩ and ψ− = ⟨−z|ψ⟩.
When students are comfortable with scalar products those which are situated on opposite faces of the Bloch
and operators using Dirac notation, it is possible to dis- Cube. There are many opportunities for instructors to
cuss how it relates to quantum physics. In keeping with emphasize this crucial point during instruction, but the
a “spins-first” approach, we restrict our attention to the Bloch Cube can help remind students of this.
two-dimensional space spanned by |+z⟩ and |−z⟩, which The Bloch Cube can be used to represent the quantum
can also labeled |0⟩ and |1⟩ in the context of quantum in- state of two-state system. We will work with a conven-
formation and qubits, to describe a physical system that tion that the state of a Bloch Cube is whatever side is
can be in one of two possible distinct states. We avoid de- facing upwards. This convention is useful for students
scribing any specific physical system, e.g., spin-1/2, since who are working with the Bloch Cubes themselves. The
these concepts can increase the cognitive load of students. convention can be adjusted if one is giving instruction to
Additionally, in the first semester of college-level intro- a class, in which the side of the Bloch Cube that is facing
ductory physics, students have not been exposed to the the students can serve as the Bloch Cube state.
idea of magnetic fields or spins. The abstract nature of
the labels used to describe the two-state system is com-
pensated by a “hands-on” approach involving a Bloch Quantum Measurements and the Born Rule
Cube, which is described in the next Section below.
The Born rule predicts the likelihood of a measurement
outcome, and it can be presented as a postulate. If the
BLOCH CUBE system is in a state |ψ⟩, the probability of measuring it
to be |ϕ⟩ is given by
Quantum states in two dimensions are often repre-
2
sented in terms of the Bloch sphere (Figure 4(a)). Here P (|ψ⟩ → |ϕ⟩) = |⟨ϕ|ψ⟩| (10)
we simplify the Bloch sphere by fashioning it into a six-
sided “Bloch cube” (Figure 4(b,c)). Opposite faces of To illustrate this idea with the Bloch cube, we can
the cube represent distinct states, and are labeled |±n⟩, define (according to standard conventions) the following
n = x, y, z. The allowed states are restricted to the six superposition states (Eq. 11):
possible states represented on the Bloch cube. While
only certain states are represented, the set is sufficiently 1
rich to illustrate most of the important quantum con- |+x⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ + |−z⟩) (11a)
2
cepts. Bloch cubes (Figure 5), like a deck of cards, can 1
be used in multiple exercises or games to illustrate im- |−x⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ − |−z⟩) (11b)
2
portant quantum concepts.
1
It is important for students to understand that, even |+y⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ + i |−z⟩) (11c)
though we work with states labeled |+x⟩, |+y⟩, and |+z⟩, 2
none of these states are “orthogonal” to each other. Stu- 1
|−y⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ − i |−z⟩) (11d)
dents should be told over and over that distinct states are 2
 5

TABLE III. Born rule probabilities | ⟨□|□⟩ |2 for Bloch cube

states.
Initial State
Question Final State |+z⟩ |−z⟩ |+x⟩ |−x⟩ |+y⟩ |−y⟩
Z ⟨+z| 100% 0% 50% 50% 50% 50%
Z ⟨−z| 0% 100% 50% 50% 50% 50%
X ⟨+x| 50% 50% 100% 0% 50% 50% FIG. 6. Example illustrating measurement using the Bloch
X ⟨−x| 50% 50% 0% 100% 50% 50% cube. The initial state is |−x⟩, and the Y Question is asked.
Y ⟨+y| 50% 50% 50% 50% 100% 0% A coin is flipped and if it lands heads, the Bloch cube is
oriented to the |+y⟩ state; if it lands tails, the Bloch cube is
Y ⟨−y| 50% 50% 50% 50% 0% 100%
oriented in the |−y⟩ state.

If a system is in the |+x⟩ state, students can calculate

with the unit vectors and dot-vectors from before. A
that the probability of measuring +z is given by
unitary operator will in general take the form Û =
2 1 eiϕ+ |+u⟩⟨+z|+eiϕ− |−u⟩⟨−z|, so that Û |+z⟩ = eiϕ+ |+u⟩
P (|+x⟩ → |+z⟩) = |⟨+z|+x⟩| = (12)
2 and Û |−z⟩ = eiϕ− |−u⟩, where {|+u⟩ , |−u⟩} form an or-
The full set of probabilities for measurement is summa- thonormal basis. However, if the initial and final states
rized in Table III. The rationale behind Eq. 11 is not pro- are restricted to the six faces of the Bloch cubes, this con-
vided to students by default, but students can be asked strains the rotation angles to be integer multiples of 90◦ .
to work out the entries in Table III based on those defi- Using this restriction, there is no need to teach students
nitions, and can be asked to think about alternative def- about the TDSE or to define unitary operators. The re-
initions that would be consistent with Table III. sulting system is simple enough to be readily understood
To simulate the measurement process with a Bloch and yet rich enough to illustrate how operators transform
cube, students first choose an initial state, which by con- states.
vention can be the face-up state of the Bloch cube after We begin by defining rotation operators that rotate
rolling. One of three possible questions can be asked the Bloch cube about the X, Y , and Z axes by 90◦ in
(Eq. 13(a-c)). the clockwise direction (Figure 7). We can represent the
Ẑ unitary operation corresponding to 90◦ rotation about
X Question: |+x⟩ state or |−x⟩ state? (13a) the Z axis in two equivalent ways:
Y Question: |+y⟩ state or |−y⟩ state? (13b)
Z Question: |+z⟩ state or |−z⟩ state? (13c) Ẑ = |+z⟩⟨+z| + i |−z⟩⟨−z| (14a)
Ẑ = −i |+z⟩⟨+z| + |−z⟩⟨−z| (14b)
If the question matches the state (e.g., Z question for
|+z⟩ state), then the state is unchanged. If the ques-
The two forms of Ẑ differ only by a constant multiplica-
tion type differs from the face-up state (e.g., X question
tive factor, which we explain is an arbitrary mathemat-
for |+z⟩ state), the Bloch Cube is rolled and the state
ical choice with no physical effects, similar to the choice
changes to |+x⟩ if the roll lands on a positive face; other-
of zero potential energy in classical mechanics problems.
wise, the state changes to |−x⟩. A flowchart is illustrated
Note that with these definitions, Ẑ 4 = +1; this is the
in Figure 6. An alternative to using a Bloch Cube to gen-
rotation operator for a Bloch cube and not for a spin-1/2
erate a probabilistic outcome would be to flip a coin.
state. Acting with Ẑ or its inverse Ẑ −1 on |+z⟩ and |−z⟩,
does not change the state except for a factor of ±i. The
QUANTUM DYNAMICS fact that |+z⟩ and |−z⟩ are eigenstates of Ẑ is intuitively
seen because the Bloch cube is being rotated about the
Solving the TDSE, even with a two-state quantum sys- Z axis and hence does not transform into another state.
tem, generally involves calculus, differential equations, To understand the effect of Ẑ on the other four Bloch
and matrices, which are beyond the reach of most stu- cube states, one can rotate the Bloch cube 90◦ clockwise
dents taking introductory physics. However, the TDSE about the Z axis. In general, Ẑ permutes the states as
can be integrated to yield unitary operators that rep- follows: |+x⟩ → |+y⟩ → |−x⟩ → |−y⟩ → |+x⟩. Students
resent the formal solutions of the TDSE and corre- can see this mathematically by rewriting the Ẑ operator
spond to physical rotations. We represent unitary op- in terms of its action on, for example, the |+x⟩ and |−x⟩
erators as Û , where the “hat” is not to be confused basis states. Students can also show mathematically that
 6

5. Dirac notation and analogy with Dot-Vec notation

6. Bloch cube and representation of quantum states
7. Bloch cube and Born rule
8. Bloch cube and quantum dynamics
9. Proving that unitary operators are represented by
Bloch cube rotation
10. Final assessment
Additional suggestions about how instructors may fol-
◦
FIG. 7. Illustration of Bloch cube clockwise 90 rotations low the approach described here are given in the Sup-
about X, Y , and Z axes. plementary Material. Additional topics that cover more
advanced topics can be taught using Bloch Cubes, includ-
ing density matrix formalism, electron spin resonance,
Ẑ can be expressed as follows: quantum key distribution, and elements of quantum field
theory. These topics require the use of multiple Bloch
Ẑ = |+y⟩⟨+x| + |−y⟩⟨−x| (15a)
Cubes. For example, the density matrix is represented
Ẑ = |−x⟩⟨+y| + |+x⟩⟨−y| (15b) by a set of Bloch cubes that represent the possible states
and their respective probabilities. The completely mixed
Expressions like these are readily understood by exam-
state would have half of the Bloch Cubes in a |+z⟩ state
ining the Bloch cube and remembering the definition for
and half in the |−z⟩ state. Quantum key distribution
the Ẑ unitary rotation. Similar expressions can be found
(BBM92 type [26]) would use Bloch Cubes to represent
for rotations about the x and y directions.
photon states measured Alice and Bob, as well as the
In general, the Bloch cube serves as a “quantum aba-
outcome of joint measurements. Electron spin resonance
cus” for computing a series of unitary operations. Stu-
involves rotations of states, which can be simulated using
dents can discover, for example, the non-commutative
Bloch Cubes. Inhomogeneous dephasing can be repre-
nature of these operations by writing down a sequence of
sented “digitally” by allowing some states to rotate faster
operations in various orders and showing that the Bloch
than others and advance by one quarter turn. A “pi
cube ends up in a different state depending on the order
pulse” applied to all the spins followed by more spinning
of operations.
will cause refocusing and spin-echo phenomena to be-
come apparent. Quantum field theory requires an array
LECTURE SEQUENCE of Bloch Cubes with particle existence represented by a
|z⟩ state and its absence represented by |−z⟩ state.
This approach to teaching quantum mechanics was
used in a one-credit course, but the level of detail can COMPARISON WITH TRADITIONAL
be expanded or compressed depending on the amount INSTRUCTION
of time available. The development of this course took
place with students who participated in a program ti- The approach to teaching quantum mechanics de-
tled “First Experiences in Quantum” (FEQ), held in the scribed here carefully postpones some topics. Specifi-
Spring semester at the University of Pittsburgh. Most cally, the TDSE is not explicitly solved, and the unitary
students were first-year undergraduates who were also operators that represent time evolution are not derived
signed up to work on a project in the research group of from the TDSE. Hamiltonians, which appear promi-
a willing faculty member for 1-2 course credits. Because nently during traditional instruction, do not appear any-
any grade was assigned by the research advisor, the only where. The main reason for this choice is that calculus,
course assessment was a midterm test; there was no final and the more complex mathematics surrounding expo-
exam and no out-of-class assignemnts. Below is a list of nentiation of operators and coupled ordinary differential
topics covered in the lectures. equations, is generally too advanced for introductory stu-
1. Introduction and overview dents. However, the concept of eigenstates is introduced
to students. In terms of the Bloch Cube, the eigenstates
2. Vectors and unit vectors in two dimensions of the rotation operator are the two states that lie on
3. Dot products and introduction to Dot-Vec notation the axis about which (unitary) rotation takes place. In
the approach described here, unitary evolution takes in-
4. More examples of Dot-Vec notation and coordinate tellectual precedence over the Hamiltonians that gener-
transformations ate them. From a pedagogical perspective, it is fairly
 7

standard to introduce momentum conservation for a free AUTHOR DECLARATIONS

particle and then later on “derive” it by showing that
the momentum operator is the generator of translation Conflict of Interest
in space. Similar pedagogical choices are made in intro-
ductory physics, where the forces involved in completely
inelastic collsions are “integrated out”, yielding a mo- All authors declare that they have no conflicts of in-
mentum conservation law that does not depend on the terest.
details of the collision. This approach to quantum me-
chanics is not a substitute for traditional approaches to
teaching quantum mechanics–it is instead an introduc-
tion that can empower students to understand core quan-
[1] A. Asfaw, A. Blais, K. R. Brown, J. Candelaria,
tum concepts years before they learn them in a standard C. Cantwell, L. D. Carr, J. Combes, D. M. Debroy, J. M.
physics sequence. Donohue, S. E. Economou, E. Edwards, M. F. J. Fox,
S. M. Girvin, A. Ho, H. M. Hurst, Z. Jacob, B. R. John-
son, E. Johnston-Halperin, R. Joynt, E. Kapit, J. Klein-
CONCLUSION Seetharaman, M. Laforest, H. J. Lewandowski, T. W.
Lynn, C. R. H. McRae, C. Merzbacher, S. Michalakis,
P. Narang, W. D. Oliver, J. Palsberg, D. P. Pappas,
Here we introduced an approach to teaching quantum M. G. Raymer, D. J. Reilly, M. Saffman, T. A. Sear-
mechanics to students who have some exposure to vec- les, J. H. Shapiro, and C. Singh, “Building a quantum
tors and only limited experience with physics. Dirac bra- engineering undergraduate program,” IEEE transactions
ket notation is introduced through a close analogy with on education 65, 220–242 (2022).
[2] C. Singh, A. Asfaw, and J. Levy, “Preparing students
unit vectors, requiring one extension that can be used to
to be leaders of the quantum information revolution,”
create dot-vec operators. The Bloch cube simplifies the Physics Today (2021).
number of quantum states, and eliminates the need for [3] S. Coben, “The scientific establishment and the transmis-
calculus. A number of exercises, more than are described sion of quantum mechanics to the united states, 1919-32,”
here, can be paired with Bloch cubes, and calculations The American historical review 76, 442 (1971).
can be verified and made intuitive through manipula- [4] P. A. M. Dirac, “A new notation for quantum mechan-
tion of the Bloch cube. The knowledge and intuition ics,” Mathematical proceedings of the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society 35, 416–418 (1939).
derived from this approach can support students in more
[5] J. S. Townsend, “A modern approach to quantum me-
advanced introductory quantum courses, and can help chanics, second edition,” (2013).
democratize quantum science and engineering by broad- [6] D. H. McIntyre, Quantum mechanics: A paradigms ap-
ening its appeal at an earlier stage of intellectual devel- proach (Cambridge University Press, 2023).
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Following are example comments from first-year college dergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (Springer Interna-
students on instructor evaluation: tional Publishing, 2018).
[8] A. I. Lvovsky, Quantum Physics: An Introduction Based
on Photons, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
• “I loved how we learned about different things using (Springer, 2018).
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DMR-2225888. CS gratefully acknowledges funding sup- introduces quantum gates to young learners,” in Proceed-
port from NSF PHY-2309260. We thank Robert Devaty ings of the 54th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer
for helpful feedback in writing the manuscript. Science Education V. 1 (ACM, 2023).
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(2010). introduce quantum entanglement,” The physics teacher
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 Supplemental Materials
Teaching Quantum Formalism and Postulates to First-Year Undergraduates

I. NOTES FOR INSTRUCTORS other vectors. These objects are referred to as “oper-
ators” because of the way they operate on vectors to
Here we list some specific exercises that can be used produce other vectors. It is important for students to
to introduce quantum mechanics to first-year undergrad- understand that the operators act linearly. The action
uate students. of the sum of operator terms can be decomposed and
calculated individually.
An example students can explore is defined by R(θ) =
A. Vectors and unit vectors in two dimensions cos θx̂x̂·− sin θx̂ŷ·+ sin θŷx̂·+ cos θŷ ŷ· which corresponds
to an operator that rotates vectors by angle θ about the
A general vector V ⃗ can be expressed as V⃗ = Vx x̂+Vy ŷ. origin. This exercise can be made more concrete by writ-
⃗ ⃗
Suppose we have two vectors V1 and V2 . We can write ing R(θ) for specific values of θ, e.g., 90◦ . Students can
use graph paper to create a series of vectors, and explore
V⃗1 = V1x x̂ + V1y ŷ and V⃗2 = V2x x̂ + V2y ŷ. If V⃗1 = V⃗2 ,
how this operator transforms the vectors. They can be
students can be asked to show that V1x = V2x and V1y =
asked if these operators conform to their intuition about
V2y . Similar relations can be inferred if V⃗1 = −V⃗2 or how objects rotate in the xy plane.
V⃗1 = 3V⃗2 . Other reviews of vectors, unit vectors, and A second example of an operator F = x̂ŷ · +ŷx̂· sim-
their properties would be appropriate here. ulates the action of flipping over a coin. If x̂ represents
the heads state of a coin and ŷ represents the tails state
of a coin, then F acts to flip the state from heads to tails
B. Dot products and introduction to “Dot-Vec”
and vice-versa. Students can calculate F 2 to show that it
notation
equals the identity operator 1 = x̂x̂·+ŷ ŷ·, corresponding
to two flips of the coin which does not change the state.
⃗ can be written as:
A general vector V

⃗ = Vx x̂ + Vy ŷ
V (1)
D. Dirac notation and analogy with Dot-Vec
where Vx = x̂ · V ⃗ and Vy = ŷ · V
⃗ . Unit vectors obey the notation
standard set of orthogonality relations: x̂· x̂ = 1, x̂· ŷ = 0,
ŷ · x̂ = 0, ŷ · ŷ = 1.
⃗ = There is a one-to-one analogy between Dot-Vec nota-
A similar expression can be written for a vector U
⃗ ⃗ tion and Dirac notation. To help reinforce this relation-
Ux x̂ + Uy ŷ. As an exercise, students can calculate U · V ship, students can be asked to fill in the missing parts of
by means of the orthogonality relations for x̂ and ŷ. This Table I:
exercise can be conducted with the abstract expressions
for U ⃗ and V ⃗ , or with specific values of the components
for the vectors. TABLE I. Dot-Vec / Bra-Ket notation analogy. Fill in the
To help make a connection with Dirac notation, we blank fields.
define a new type of “dot-vector” W ⃗ · with the property Dot-Vec Bra-Ket
W⃗ · when left-multiplied by V ⃗ yields W ⃗ ·V⃗ , the scalar x̂ |+z⟩
product defined previously. ŷ |−z⟩
As an exercise, students can show that if W ⃗ 1· = W
⃗ 2 ·,
x̂ · x̂ = 1
⃗ ⃗
where W1 · = W1x x̂ · +W1y ŷ· and W2 · = W2x x̂ · +W2y ŷ·, ⟨+z|−z⟩ = 0
then W1x = W2x and W1y = W2y . Similar calculations
ŷ · x̂ = 0
demonstrating how linear combinations of dot-vectors
can be constructed using the same rules that apply to ⟨−z|−z⟩ = 1
vectors, will help students become comfortable with dot- x̂x̂·
vectors. |z⟩⟨−z|
ŷx̂·
|−z⟩⟨−z|
C. More examples of Dot-Vec notation and
coordinate transformations
Another exercise can ask students to identify what
Objects which have the form ûv̂·, where û is a unit is wrong with various expressions, e.g., |w⟩ = a |+z⟩ +
vector, and v̂· is a unit dot-vector, transform vectors into b ⟨−z|, or D = ⟨+z|+z⟩ + |−z⟩⟨−z|.
 2

E. Bloch Cube and representation of quantum form the |±x⟩ and |±y⟩ states. Students can demonstrate
states these properties for themselves with their Bloch Cubes.

After handing out a Bloch Cube to every student (they

can be made from blank acrylic dice and permanent H. Proving that unitary operators are
markers), the upper face and orientation of a Bloch Cube represented by Bloch Cube rotation
can be identified with 24 states (which are not distinct),
given by {1, i, −1, −i} ⊗ {|±x⟩ , |±y⟩ , |±z⟩}. Opposite These transformations can be visualized by spinning
faces of the cube represent distinct pairs of states, e.g., the Bloch Cube about the Z axis by a quarter turn and
|+z⟩ and |−z⟩ or |+x⟩ and |−x⟩. Students can be asked noticing how the sides of the cube transform. The oper-
whether |z⟩ and |x⟩ are distinct states (they are not). A ator corresponding to this operation can be represented
set of useful formulae can be given to represent the states as: Z = |+z⟩⟨+z| + i |−z⟩⟨−z|, and students can be asked
in the Z basis: to show that Z ′ = |+y⟩⟨+x| + |−y⟩⟨−x| is a valid re-
expression (i.e., Z ′ = Z ), using the definitions in Eq. 2.
1
|+x⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ + |−z⟩) (2a)
2
II. SOME ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1
|−x⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ − |−z⟩) (2b)
2 Useful Formulae:
1
|+y⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ + i |−z⟩) (2c) 1
2 |+x⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ + |−z⟩)
1 2
|−y⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ − i |−z⟩) (2d) 1
2 |−x⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ − |−z⟩)
2
It can be pointed out to students that |+x⟩ has “some” 1
|+y⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ + i |−z⟩)
of |+z⟩ in it, and therefore is not distinct from |+z⟩. 2
States of the Bloch Cube that are joined by an edge are 1
in general not distinct. Only opposite faces are distinct. |−y⟩ = √ (|+z⟩ − i |−z⟩)
2
1. Answering the “Z question”. Take one of your
F. Bloch Cube and Born rule Bloch cubes and roll it. For the state that is facing
up (call it the “w” state), calculate the probabil-
The Born rule determines the probabilistic outcome ity that for the |w⟩ state you will collapse into the
of measurement. With Bloch Cubes, there are only |+z⟩ and |−z⟩ state after asking the Z question.
three types of questions (“X Question”, “Y Question”, You should do this with help from the Bloch cube,
“Z Question”). First we consider the Z Question. Stu- and also by rewriting the |w⟩√state in the Z basis.
dents take their Bloch Cubes and roll them to a random (e.g., |+x⟩ = (|+z⟩ + |−z⟩)/ 2. The probability
initial state. We can label that initial state the |w⟩ state. of collapsing into |+z⟩ is given by | ⟨w|+z⟩ |2 and
Asking the Z Question causes the state to “collapse” into the probability of collapsing into |−z⟩ is given by
the |+z⟩ state with probability | ⟨w|+z⟩ |2 , and into into | ⟨w|−z⟩ |2 .
the |−z⟩ state with probability | ⟨w|−z⟩ |2 . Students can
verify that | ⟨w|−z⟩ |2 + | ⟨w|−z⟩ |2 = 1. With these for- 2. Roll two Bloch cubes (call them |w⟩ and |v⟩), and
mulae, students can calculate that if w = z, the outcome write the state |w⟩ in the V (= X, Y, or Z) ba-
of a measurement of Z is deterministic. If w ̸= z, then sis. For example, to write |−y⟩ in the X ba-
the probability of collapsing into |z⟩ and |−z⟩ are both sis, you multiply by 1̂ = |+x⟩⟨+x| + |−x⟩⟨−x|.
50%. That is, |−y⟩ = (|+x⟩⟨+x| + |−x⟩⟨−x|) |−y⟩ =
(⟨x|−y⟩ |+x⟩+⟨−x|−y⟩ |−x⟩. To evaluate ⟨+x|−y⟩,
you can write it in a common basis like the Z ba-
G. Bloch Cube and quantum dynamics sis, using the Useful Formula above: ⟨+x|−y⟩ =
(⟨+z| + ⟨−z|)(|+z⟩ + i |−z⟩) = (1 + i)/2.
Quantum evolution is governed by Unitary operators
that take the form U = |+v⟩⟨+u| + |−v⟩⟨−u|. The act 3. We showed in class that R̂ = |+y⟩⟨+x| +
of transforming a state via Unitary evolution can be il- |−y⟩⟨−x| can be rewritten as R̂′ = |+z⟩⟨+z| +
lustrated with the Bloch Cube. Rotation of the Bloch i |−z⟩⟨−z|. Show explicitly that R̂ |z⟩ = |z⟩ by
Cube about the Z axis does not transform the |+z⟩ or writing everything in the Z basis.
|−z⟩ states, except for a phase. However, it does trans-