B&B Training Associates

Certificate in
Electrotechnical Technology

City & Guilds 2330

Level 3

Unit 3
Installation (Buildings and
Structures) Fault diagnosis and
rectification.

Outcome 1

Select and apply fault diagnosis and

rectification techniques.

Learning Materials for the

Electrical Industry
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Assssoocciiaatteess

For further information contact:

Mrs A Bratley
23 St Pauls Drive,
Tickton, Nr Beverley,
East Yorkshire
HU17 9RN
Tel:-01964 – 543137
Fax:-01964 – 544109
Email:- [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Version 1-2004

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted, in any form or by any means, without written prior permission from
B&B Training Associates.

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Table of contents
Table of contents.................................................................................................................................... 5
Table of figures....................................................................................................................................... 6
Aims and objectives................................................................................................................................ 7
Identification of systems and nature of faults............................................................................... 8
Safe working procedures prior to fault diagnosis ..........................................................................16
Test equipment .......................................................................................................................................18
Isolation devices ................................................................................................................................... 22
Isolation .................................................................................................................................................. 22
Switching off for mechanical maintenance ..................................................................................... 24
Basic principles of fault diagnosis..................................................................................................... 27
Good personal technical knowledge ................................................................................................... 28
Good personal experience ................................................................................................................... 29
Logical approach .................................................................................................................................... 30
List and describe the stages of fault diagnosis and rectification ............................................ 33
Data collection ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Data analysis........................................................................................................................................... 36
Re-energising a supply.......................................................................................................................... 40
Symptoms of faults .............................................................................................................................. 42
Inherent (inbuilt) faults ...................................................................................................................... 42
Faults due to negligence ...................................................................................................................... 45
Other fault areas.................................................................................................................................. 48
Factors affecting repair or replacement ........................................................................................ 53
Access...................................................................................................................................................... 54
Repair or replace? ................................................................................................................................. 55
Installation ............................................................................................................................................. 56
Equipment................................................................................................................................................ 58
Special precautions............................................................................................................................... 60
Fibre optic cabling .................................................................................................................................61
Static ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
Damage to electronic equipment........................................................................................................ 62
IT equipment .......................................................................................................................................... 63
High frequency and capacitance ........................................................................................................ 63
Storage batteries ................................................................................................................................. 64
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Installation and care of lead-acid cells and batteries ................................................................. 66
Alkaline cells........................................................................................................................................... 68

Table of figures
Figure 1 Typical approved voltage indicator.....................................................................................19
Figure 2 Isolation procedure.............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 3 Isolation procedure...............................................................................................................21
Figure 4 Methods of isolation for different supply arrangements ........................................... 23
Figure 5 Laser for fibre optic cable..................................................................................................61
Figure 6 Simple cell .............................................................................................................................. 64
Figure 7 Secondary cell ....................................................................................................................... 65

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Aims and objectives

By the end of this study book you should be able to:-
• Understand the nature of faults and how to find them;
• Use safe methods for diagnosing faults;
• Determine faults that occur within systems and equipment.

This study booklet covers Outcome 1 of Unit 3 of the new C&G 2330 Level 3 Certificate in
Electrical Technology and is broken down into sessions, which are aimed to last a minimum of
1.5hrs (one class). At the end of each session there will be a short assessment aimed at
checking whether you have understood the subject matter. No answers will be provided for
these questions and so you should make sure that you can understand the session before
moving on the next. In many instances, what you learn from one session will be added to in the
next.

In many instances you will come across material that is very similar as you work through other
outcomes. This is intentional. Too often people think that they understand a subject only to
forget much of it when exam time comes around. By looking at similar areas in a variety of
situations more knowledge should ‘stick’ as it is first learned and then applied.

Take your time and don’t skip any areas just because you might be a little bored. At the end of
the booklet there will be a longer assessment that covers the whole of the outcome. You
should achieve at least 85% in this assessment before moving on.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 1

Session

1
Identification of systems and nature of faults
What types of circuit exist within an
electrical installation?
How might faults occur within those
types of circuit?

In this series of sessions we are going to consider the nature of fault finding. It is essential
that you come to this and the following sessions with good technical knowledge, after all how
can you determine whether something is wrong unless you are aware of how it should work?

We will consider type types of circuit and the common equipment that exist in an electrical
installation and then we will consider what types of fault might occur in each area.

Name as many different types of circuit as you can think of.

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We can split the types of circuit, whether they are single-phase or three-phase into a series
of main headings.
• Power circuits:-
o Ring circuits;
o Motor circuits;
o Transformer circuits;
o Power poles;
o Others;
• Lighting circuits:-
o Joint box method;
o Loop-in method;
o Three-plate method;
o Discharge lighting;
o Others;
• Control circuits:-
o Starters;
ƒ Star/delta;
ƒ DOL;
ƒ Electronic;
ƒ Autotransformer;
ƒ Rotor resistance;
o ELV controls;
ƒ Panels;
• Emergency circuits:-
o Fire alarms;
o Emergency lights;
o Call circuits.

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It is not only circuits that have problems, but the accessories and equipment themselves that
can create the problem. These will include:-
• Switches;
• Circuit breakers;
• Socket outlets;
• Plug tops;
• Motors;
• Lights;
• Others.
We can now consider the types of fault that can occur, and the list becomes almost endless.

A cable is run through the fabric of a small domestic installation. What type of fault
could occur and what reasons might explain the fault?

If you have considered the question in the box above you should have been aware of many
factors that could cause a fault on any cable, let alone this one.

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I have a few suggestions why cables get damaged:-
A cable run within the fabric of a building could be damaged by having the insulation
crushed or cut. You could get a short circuit between conductors or low insulation
resistance caused by ‘pressure’. These problems could be caused by crushing by
floorboards, cable burns as cables are pulled in too fast, bends that are too tight,
sharp edges or nails etc. The list can go on, but you get the idea!

Here are a few other areas for you to consider.

Cable connections
Faults occur here for a number of reasons.
• Loose connections. These lead to an increase in heat and hence resistance. This in turn
leads to more heat being generated until either a protective device operates, a cable
open circuits or a fire starts;
• Different metal connections. Aluminium and copper do not like each other chemically.
When they are in direct contact they react with each other and there is a resistance
increase.

Glands and seals

Again there are a number of reasons why faults occur with these. It depends on the type of
cable, but it usually comes down to people not installing things correctly.
• With MIMS cable, if the gland is not sealed properly, water can get in and over time a
fault is created. In addition the pot can rotate if it is not fitted properly and this can
cause a twist to occur with consequent faults;
• With SWA cables glands are sometimes made off with some of the strands not fixed
properly, or worse, with some of them cut out! Any reduction in the armouring is a
reduction in the overall size of the c.p.c and as such is dangerous. In addition links are
not put in and so there is a break in the integrity of the c.p.c.

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Switches etc.
We are now dealing with accessories, and again the list can be endless.
• Switches are incorrectly chosen for the rating of the load leading to heat build up,
shortened life and welding of contacts;
• Sockets are still connected incorrectly with links left out from the front plate to the

rear of the box. Connections that are loose will lead to a build up of heat and a classic

sign is a slight discolouration near the pins;

• Switchgear has similar problems to both sockets and switches, with loose and
incorrect connections. Other problems include incorrect ratings for the connected
load and short circuit ratings;
• Contactors can have the wrong coil fitted; poor overload settings, incorrect ratings,
loose connections, low oil in dampers, wear on contacts etc.
• Electronic devices are usually very reliable, but when they are operated beyond their
design parameters than problems occur. The two specific areas are with dimmer
switches and certain RCD’s, where testing using a 500V d.c. insulation resistance
tester may damage the internal components. Loose connections will also cause
overheating and possible damage.

Instrumentation and metering

The choice of instruments and their associated control gear is very important. Instruments
are used in installations to measure current, voltage, power factor and power. It is common
for current and voltage transformers to be used for this. They have the benefit of allowing
large currents and voltages to be measured whilst using small test instruments and limiting
their effect on the circuit being measured.
• Calibration needs to be maintained as errors in readings can cause problems when
certain processes automatically occur when certain values are reached;
• Correct procedures for maintenance, particularly when dealing with current

transformers. If a current transformer is open-circuited then a very large voltage will

appear on the secondary, with every possibility that this will lead to the destruction

of the winding;

• Wrong instrument chosen for a task will lead to the possible destruction of the
instrument, damage to the circuit being measured and danger to the person using the
instrument.

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Protective devices
Protective devices include fuses, circuit breakers, moulded case circuit breakers, overloads
and RCD’s.
• Fuses can be installed incorrectly, wrong fuse wire used, poor discrimination, poor
breaking capacity and incorrect use. Poor breaking capacity may lead to the fuse not
merely blowing a thin piece of wire, but actually blowing apart and creating shrapnel
when a fault occurs;
• Circuit breakers can have the incorrect rating, the wrong type and a poor breaking
capacity. The poor breaking capacity can lead to the circuit breaker welding the
contacts closed which will mean that it will not open under real fault conditions,
although it will retain the appearance of being fine. The wrong type will lead either to
nuisance tripping when inductive loads are turned (use of Type B instead of C or D) on
or no operation under fault conditions if the fault current cannot be maintained high
enough (use of Type C or D instead of Type B);
• Moulded case circuit breakers have fewer problems associated with them as they
cannot easily be misapplied, and their breaking capacity is usually very high;
• Overloads can be incorrectly set, have the wrong breaking capacity or be of the wrong
type for a specific installation location;
• RCD’s do not operate on overload or short circuit conditions and as such are an earth
leakage or imbalance device. They can have a poor breaking capacity, poor
discrimination and nuisance tripping.

Luminaires
Problems that occur with light fittings include:-
• Loose connections causing overheating;
• Incorrect size of lamp causing overheating, which causes the wires to harden and
become brittle;
• Shades that are too heavy causing strain to be put on wires and connections.

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Flexible cables and cords
Again, there are a number of problems that occur here:-
• Loose connections causing overheating;
• Wrong rating of flex for a specific set of conditions, i.e. heat resistant flex not used
for connection to immersion heater;
• Cores cut out to make it fit. This leads to a build up of heat in the cable;
• Incorrect use of cord grips leaving the connection taking all the strain.

Portable appliances and fixed equipment

Here the list can be almost endless. Portable appliances themselves should be tested at a
maximum of every 12 months. Portable appliances are not strictly part of the installation and
the quickest way to clear a fault created by a portable appliance is to unplug it. Once it is
unplugged then there is no fault, as far as the electrical system is concerned. With fixed
appliances, things are a little different. The appliance is directly connected to the electrical
system and is therefore part of the whole. Care should be given to:-
• Connections;
• Ratings of protective devices;
• Regular maintenance;
• Keeping free of dust etc.

Summary
There are different types of circuits in both three-phase and single-phase supplies.
Power circuits are almost all circuits other than lighting and emergency circuits.
Control circuits deal with controlling motor starters etc.
Lighting circuits are obvious.
Fire alarm and emergency lighting circuit are also easy to recognise.
Faults occur for many different types of reasons. Faults in cables or accessories and
equipment all need to be understood.

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Exercise 1.
1/. You lose the supply to a section of the site. State three items that you might want to
consider.

2/. A cooker appears not to have a supply. How might you approach this problem?

3/. Investigate the nature of a transient voltage – what is it and how is it created. What
type of equipment can generate it?

4/. A socket outlet is showing signs of discolouration: state two possible reasons why this
is happening.

5/. A 16A Type B BSEN 60898 circuit breaker trips when a bank of discharge lights are
switched on. State the probable reason for this.

6/. A 5A switch is used to control a 5A load of fluorescent fittings. Is there any problem
with this? Why?

7/. When a short circuit occurs two protective devices operate. Why is this?

8/. Name the constituent parts of a fluorescent luminaire.

9/. Investigate the nature of power poles. Why are they used and where would you expect
to find them?

10/. A star-delta starter feeds a 10kW three-phase induction motor. How many
conductors would be required between the mains and the starter and between the
starter and the motor?

Now you are ready for session 2.

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Session

2
Safe working procedures prior to fault diagnosis
How is a system to be prepared for safe
working?

Consider the answers you should have got from the previous session in the table over the
page.

The basic principle that we must consider is that you should have a clear understanding of
what you are doing. The EAWR89 (Electricity at Work Regulations) requires that we are
competent. Competence requires that we can apply both technical knowledge and experience.
Competence also implies that you are aware of what you don’t know!

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2

1/. i). Someone has inadvertently switched a circuit breaker off. (Go for the
obvious things first)
ii). Poor discrimination between protective devices (inherent fault).
iii). Incorrect breaking capacity causing catastrophic damage (inherent fault).
Numbers (i) and (ii) are the most likely.

2/. i). Do not assume there is no supply;

ii). Check the protective device (simple things first);
iii). If the protective device is OK then check that there is a supply to the control unit;
iv). If a supply exists then check that it still exists on the load side of the switch;
v). Check the cut-outs at the control unit;
vi). Start to test individual circuits within the cooker.
Notice that the search is progressively fine tuned.

3/. Transient voltage is set up when a load which contains a capacitor or an inductor is switched.
This switching causes an induced e.m.f to be created, which is then added to the supply
voltage creating a voltage spike.

4/. i). Poor contact of the plug top in the socket outlet;
ii). Loose connection within the socket outlet.
Both cause localised overheating.

5/. Type B circuit breaker is unable to handle short term overloads. All discharge lights create
short term overloads and a Type C circuit breaker would be a better choice.

6/. This is inadequate as fluorescent luminaires are highly inductive. This means that any switch
needs to have a higher rating. It is generally accepted that a rating of twice the demand of
the discharge lights is required. As an example a 5A load requires a 10A switch.

7/. Poor discrimination between devices.

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Remember the following two points before isolating:-
• The person who is working must be competent to do the task. Ignorance is no excuse
as far as the law is concerned. If you are in any doubt then don’t do it.
• The task must have been planned in such a way that no live working takes place. The
risks to injury must be limited.

Before any isolation can take place, the correct test equipment must be used. You need to
take precautions!

Test equipment
For the testing of a potentially live source two pieces of test equipment are required. These
are:-
Approved voltage tester;
Voltage proving unit.

A neon screwdriver is not an approved voltage tester; after all who in their right minds would
want to become part of the circuit in the test procedure. A neon screwdriver only works on
the principal that you are touching one end of it and in contact with earth.

To trust in the limited protection that a neon screwdriver provides is foolish in the extreme
and you should be very aware of the danger you are placing yourself in by using them!

GS 38 provides a set of values that should be followed for test leads. In this instance it is
reasonable to assume that an approved voltage tester falls into this criterion. Many of the
following will apply to an approved voltage tester, although not necessarily all. Remember that
GS38 applies to all test leads.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2

List four items required for test leads from GS38.

You can see that a neon screwdriver does not meet any of the above criteria. The picture
below shows the make up of a voltage tester.

Metal tips not to protrude

more than 2mm when in use Spring load insulated sleeves

Finger barrier
Proving unit

Rubber-insulated
flexible cable

Figure 1 Typical approved voltage indicator

Obviously, there are many varieties of voltage tester and as long as they meet the
requirements of GS38 then you will be fine.

A tester is no use if we cannot guarantee its effectiveness. This is where the proving unit
comes into its own. A proving unit is a d.c. voltage source that checks its own status and is
then a known reference voltage against which the voltage tester can test itself. Without this
we cannot guarantee the voltage tester, at which point it is useless.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2
Below is a diagram showing the procedure you should use for the safe isolation of a piece of
equipment or plant.
Unplug any
Plan the job
equipment

Securely isolate it

Prove the test

instrument

Prove that the

equipment is dead

Re-prove the
test instrument

Attach temporary
earth leads if
necessary

Post caution and

warning notices

Ensure you
Consider the need for
understand the job
additional precautions
before you start it

Figure 2 Isolation procedure

This process is essential for the safe isolation of a supply. Don’t be tempted into taking a
short cut. Equally, you should not use a live source other than an appropriate proving unit to
test your voltage tester.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2

Proving the functionality

of the voltage indicator

Checking for a supply

at the fuseboard

Re-proving the voltage indicator making

sure the indicator lights function

Warning notices to be posted

and use of padlocks to securely
lock-off the supply

Figure 3 Isolation procedure

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2

Isolation devices
It is necessary for you to be aware of what makes up an isolation device. There are four
means of switching that you might come across. These are:-
• Isolation;
• Switching off for mechanical maintenance;
• Emergency switching;
• Functional switching.

It is necessary to define the terms that we are going to use so that we can eliminate any
confusion in our terminology.

Isolation
There must always be isolation and it should be designed into the system. An isolator is often
described as a disconnector and it is essential that the isolator can be safely secured
(padlocked) or kept under constant supervision of the person at risk.

Every installation must have a main switch or circuit breaker that is capable of switching the
whole of the installation. The number of poles that need to be isolated varies depending on
the type of earthing arrangements that have been provided. Have a look at the table below.

Location Single Phase Three-phase

Main Switch

TN-S All live conductors Phase conductors only

TN-C-S (Phase and (Brown, Black and Grey

Neutral) Phase)

Other Isolators

TN-S Phase conductor only

TN-C-S (Brown, Black and Grey Phase)

All Locations

TT All live conductors

(Brown, Black, Grey Phases and Neutral)

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2
Have a look at the diagram below.
Ph N

Single-phase
Linked This arrangement for all
types of single-phase supply

Ph N
Double-pole Isolator

Three-phase Three-phase
L1 L2 L3 N L1 L2 L3 N

L1 L2 L3 N L1 L2 L3 N
Triple-pole Isolator Triple-pole and Neutral Isolator
This arrangement for This arrangement
TN-S and TN-C-S for TT only

Figure 4 Methods of isolation for different supply arrangements

Here you can see how this arrangement should operate.

Make sure that you are able to apply this regulation at the appropriate point. Be aware that a
disconnector is an ‘off-load’ switch, however there are a variety of switching devices that can
be used on-load that can also be used for isolation.

Typical isolators could be a plug and socket, a protective device, a fused connection unit, and a
disconnector. There are a series of Regulations found in BS7671:2001 that deal with the
requirements for isolation.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2
The table below provides a brief review of the circuits where isolation is required.

Isolation Commentary

At the origin of an This is usually a main switch or circuit breaker and is

installation. located as near as possible to the installation origin.

For every circuit or group of Group isolation is allowed where appropriate. If the
circuits. isolation device is remote from the equipment then it
must be lockable in the off position.

For every motor (fixed) and If the isolator is remote then it must be capable of being
there associated control lockable in the off position.
gear.

For discharge lighting at high Isolation must be provided to the low voltage circuit, and
voltage. if remote it must be lockable in the off position.

For all distribution boards. Where the isolating device is remote from the board
then it must be capable of being locked off.

For every switchboard. If the isolating device is used in conjunction with a

circuit breaker, they must be interlocked. If the isolator
is remote then it should be capable of being locked off.

Switching off for mechanical maintenance

Mechanical maintenance can include things such as changing a lamp or cleaning machinery. In
most circumstances the isolator acts as the means for this type of switching. This device can
be used by non-technical people and so it must be capable of on and off load switching.

Live parts should not be accessible when switching off for mechanical maintenance. If live
parts are open then isolation must take place. Remember that we are dealing with non-
electrical people.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2
The table below states the main requirements for the switching off for mechanical
maintenance.

Regulation Demand

462-01-02 Identified as to its purpose with an appropriate label.

Located at a suitable position.

462-01-03 If it is remote then it should be capable of being locked off.

537-03-01 It is preferred to be fitted in the main supply to the equipment.

It is allowed to use a control circuit if the BS or CENELEC Standard
permits it, or if an equal level of safety is provided.

537-03-02 Must be operated by hand.

537-03-03 It must not be affected by vibration or impact so that it can turn itself
on again.

537-03-04 It must be capable of switching the load current.

If there are any concerns about this type of switching arrangement than you should move
towards the safe end and provide for isolation, with all that isolation entails.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 2
Summary
In this session we have considered the nature of switching and in particular isolation.
We have used BS7671:2001 to follow some of the basic regulations regarding switching, and in
particular isolation and switching off for mechanical maintenance.
We have reviewed the isolation procedure again.
GS38 is a key requirement regarding test leads.

Exercise 2.
1/. Name four different requirements of GS38.

2/. What is the difference between isolation and switching off for mechanical
maintenance?

3/. A three-phase motor is fed from a distribution board some 24m away. The circuit is
protected by HRC fuses and there is a star/delta starter and local isolator situated
within 5m of the motor. Explain the safety precautions you would consider and
describe how you would safely isolate the circuit.

Now for session 3.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 3

Session

3
Basic principles of fault diagnosis

Why is prior information important?

Where should data be gathered from?

In this session we are going to consider the sensible approaches to fault finding. Too often
the electrician has decided to put in larger and larger fuses until the fault is found by blowing
cables apart. This is unacceptable!

There are three key aspects to good fault finding practice.

• Good personal technical knowledge;
• Good personal experience;
• A logical approach.

What does competence consist of?

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 3

Good personal technical knowledge

You must know the basics of how electrical systems and equipment function if you are to make
correct judgements about what is wrong. Consider an example.

A heater is being tested using an ohmmeter. You gain a reading of 50Ω between the phase
and neutral conductors. Is this piece of equipment functioning properly?

To begin with, you have to start thinking about what it is that you should be expecting. A
heater is going to be mainly a resistor although there will be an element of inductance because
it will probably be coiled. A heater will need to have a resistance that allows a reasonable
amount of current to flow so that it actually heats up. So let’s look at a little bit of Ohm’s law.

We will assume that the supply is 230V, 50Hz a.c. So:-

U 230
I = = = 4.6A
R 50
P = IU = 4.6 × 230 = 1058W

You can see that even with a rough measure we can get a sensible level of power. A 1kW
heater is not unreasonable.

The point to all of this is that you needed to have the technical knowledge to make a
reasonable judgement.

Capacitance, inductance, circuit theory, maths, a.c. theory, three-phase theory, all have their
part to play at relevant moments. Don’t get into the habit of compartmentalising your
knowledge. Apply your technical knowledge at the right moment and your faultfinding will have
a sound base.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 3

Good personal experience

Knowledge left to its own devices can send us off on many a wild goose chase. If all we apply
to any problem is technical knowledge then we can so often miss something. This is where
experience comes in.

Personal experience is not a ‘feeling’ that we get when we don’t know what to do! Personal
experience grows out of many years of doing a job and gaining personal insight into the trade
that you operate within.

Personal experience tells you which floorboards to take up in a house. Personal experience
tells you about certain problems associated with a particular make of contactor. The list could
go on and on.

Just because this experience is not technical does not make it any less valuable and reliable.
So use it!

Describe one experience where you have used experience to help you with a problem.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 3

Logical approach
I have worked with many apprentices over the years. All of them without exception, and I
include me in that list, have made some howling errors with the very best of intentions.

An apprentice spent two days pulling cables in old steel conduit with the electrician. The
electrician left the site for a day and during that day the apprentice who had helped, cut all
the cables short that had just been pulled in. He genuinely thought he was helping! As he
spent the next two days digging a hole he hopefully learned the error of his ways.

A young apprentice thought he was doing his electrician a favour by stripping an old appliance
of the still connected wires. It was only later that I was ‘noisily’ informed that the electrician
had deliberately left the wires connected so he knew how to reconnect it – no circuit diagram
being available.

The point to these stories is that some thought prior to the deed would have prevented our
mistakes. We had a little knowledge and a little experience, and then we did not follow a
logical approach.

Let’s consider an example.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 3
1/. A householder calls you in to investigate a problem. A GLS luminaire has ceased to
function and the 5A fuse protecting that circuit has blown.

Remember that a logical approach is best. Make sure that you apply all your technical
knowledge and all your experience. Go for the obvious. My list is shown below.
• Check that the lamp is not working by trying it in another fitting;
• Check the fuse.

At this point you have not got any test instrument out and it may not be necessary. There are
times when a lamp blowing causes sufficient current to flow, such that a 5A fuse will blow,
especially if the fuse has been there for a long while. You will be aware that BS3036 fuses
deteriorate with age and as such can ‘blow’ for very little reason.
• However, you will need to check for additional wear and tear, particularly within the
luminaire that has blown the lamp. Loose connections could have caused heat to build
up leading to a weakness within the system.

The point with this example is not to tell you how to carry out a test, but to show you that
there are often simple solutions, without having to waste time looking for the complicated
answer.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 3
Summary
In any fault diagnosis process it is essential that the electrician has good technical expertise,
appropriate experience and can apply a logical approach to a problem.

Exercise 3.
1/. A single-phase motor fails to rotate and hums when it is turned on. Give two possible
causes of the problem.

2/. A 3kW water heater is fed from a 230V supply. What resistance would you expect
when testing the element?

3/. A 32A, 30mA RCBO protects a ring circuit in an office. The RCBO is in the habit of
nuisance tripping. Give one possible cause of this problem.

4/. A large transformer is protected by a 50 Type C circuit breaker; occasionally the

circuit breaker nuisance trips. Can you suggest any possible cause?

Now move on to the next session.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4

Session

4
List and describe the stages of fault diagnosis and
rectification
Why is data collection important?
How is the gathered data to be analysed?
How are results to be interpreted?
How is a supply to be reinstated?

No fault diagnosis can occur without some data to work on. This data can come from a variety
of sources, not all of them immediately obvious. When faults have been determined and put
right then the safe re-supplying of the circuit is necessary. In this session we are going to
consider the way in which data is gathered along with the types of data, and we will then look
at how circuit can be made good.

What are the three aspects required when carrying out fault diagnosis?

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
When fault finding the gathering of data is essential. No fault can be located simply by
guessing, unless you have the sort of luck that enables you to pick six numbers!

Data collection
The process of data collection must therefore come first. Where does data came from?
• The client:-
o What happens?
o Flashes/bangs etc?
• Previous test schedule sheets;
• Prior reports;
• Test results;
• Manufacturers’ data sheets.

Client
The client is often the first port of call. They will have called you and with good use of
questions, be able to provide clues as the nature of the fault. The first question should not
be, ‘Have you put the kettle on’?

The unskilled client will be able to provide you with data on:-
• What happened prior to the fault;
• What actions were taken after the fault occurred.
This data commonly needs to be interpreted carefully. The client is not there to provide a
solution but to provide you with clues as to the nature of the fault. So for example a client
might describe an event by saying’ there was a funny smell and then everything went off’.
What they are describing is quite true, but needs to be interpreted in the light of other data.
What type of smell? What specifically went off? You see that questioning provides clarity.

Previous test schedules

Previous test schedules are not immediately useful for a specific fault; however they do give
clues as to the changes that have occurred in a circuit over time. This can be an indicator of
an underlying condition that has not been picked up – perhaps a crushed cable.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
Prior report
You may be called on by the client to fault find based on a Periodic Inspection Report. A
Periodic Inspection Report may have been carried out and a number of inspection items as well
as test results may have provided cause for concern. The report will be able to provide some
data on the nature of the fault. For example, an installation may have been wired in MI cable.
This cable deteriorates over time and the insulation resistance results can worsen. The
worsening insulation resistance results will show up and provide a clue as to the nature of the
problem.

Test results
Test results, as with details from Periodic Inspection Results provides an indication of any
problems that might exist from changes that have taken place over time.

Manufacturers’ data sheets

These are useful when trying to determine the issues with specific items of equipment. For
example an RCBO may be susceptible to test voltages from an insulation resistance tester,
however the manufacturer’s data sheet will confirm this.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4

Data analysis
Once data has been gathered it must then be analysed. What you must never do is dive in and
start to remove covers etc. without having some clear idea of what the problem is.

There is a test result sheet over the page. Consider all the results and comment on the ones
that seem to be a problem.

You should be able to find at least eight problems. These will include test result issues as well
as specific faults. List the problems and comment on what you think has happened in each
instance.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
Overcurrent device Test results
Short circuit
Functional

Earth loop impedance

capacity: Wiring Continuity Insulation resistance
testing
Circuit description 6 kA conductors

Polarity

Zs Ω
Type Rating Live cpc (R1 + R2 ) R2 Live/ Live/ RCD Other
In mm2 mm2 Ω Live Earth time

Ring
Ω
A MΩ MΩ ms

Cooker B 45 10 4.0 0.55 ⁄ ⁄ 0.2 299 √ 0.6 ⁄ √

Upstairs ring circuit B 32 2.5 1.5 0.32 ⁄ √ 299 299 √ 0.58 ⁄ √
Kitchen ring circuit B 32 2.5 1.5 0.24 ⁄ √ 299 299 √ 0.51 45 √
(30mA RCBO)
Downstairs ring circuit B 32 2.5 1.5 0.19 ⁄ × 299 299 √ 0.55 ⁄ √
Water heater B 16 2.5 1.5 0.25 ⁄ ⁄ 3 2.5 √ 0.5 ⁄ √
Upstairs lights B 6 1.5 1.0 0.67 ⁄ ⁄ 299 299 √ 0.96 ⁄ √
Downstairs lights B 6 1.5 1.0 0.54 ⁄ ⁄ 0 299 √ 0.85 ⁄ √

External impedance Z E = 0.25Ω Type of supply:-TN-C-S

Prospective short circuit current I p = 8kA

Nominal voltage U0 = 230V

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
We can see from the table on the previous page that a number of items must be considered.
You should have found:-
1). The breaking capacity of the protective devices is too small;
2). The (R1 + R2 ) value of the cooker circuit or the earth loop impedance value of the

circuit don’t match: Z S = Z E + (R1 + R2 ) ;

3). A reading of 0.2MΩ between phase and neutral of the cooker circuit is too low;
4). The tripping time of the RCBO is too slow;
5). The (R1 + R2 ) value of the downstairs ring final circuit or the earth loop impedance

value of the circuit don’t match: Z S = Z E + (R1 + R2 ) ;

6). The polarity of the downstairs ring final circuit has not been proved;
7). The insulation resistance values of phase to neutral and live conductors to earth is low
on the water heater circuit;
8). There is an apparent short circuit between phase and neutral on the downstairs
lighting circuit.

These are the problems that you should have found, but what do they mean? How do we
interpret the results? It is now that all of your electrical work comes together. You draw on
both your technical knowledge and experience and try to judge what is happening so that a
safe solution can be found.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
Taking each of the problems in turn:-
1). The breaking capacity of the circuit breakers is just too small and they will have to be
changed for 10kA rated devices. The actual rating is shown on the front of the device
in a rectangular box.
2). The earth loop impedance value should come close to matching the
combined (R1 + R2 ) and Z E values. There will rarely be an exact match as minor changes

in how the test is performed will always create some variation; however there should
still be some correlation. In the cooker circuit this gap is too large. It is most likely
that the continuity test has been poorly done with a probable loose connection of the
test probes.
3). It is likely that the cooker circuit has a neon indicator still connected giving a low
resistance reading between phase and neutral of some 200000Ω. This is the common
value for neon indicators.
4). A 30mA RCBO must operate in 40ms when 150mA flows. This has not happened and
the RCBO has failed – it will need to be replaced.
5). The mismatch between the earth loop impedance value and the continuity value could
have occurred for the same reason as the cooker circuit. However, we cannot ignore
the failed polarity test.
6). A ring circuit can fail a polarity test at any socket outlet and commonly occurs
between phase and neutral conductors. This can occur in a socket outlet, but more
commonly happens in a fused connection unit where the load and supply sides get
mixed up. This must be found, and the likelihood is that the mismatch between
continuity and earth loop impedance will also be solved.
7). In the water heater circuit the insulation resistance values are low, but not so low as
to cause the system to fail. In a new installation however, these values are
unacceptable as they may well point to a latent problem. It is likely that a cable is
being crushed somewhere, and this must be found as it will eventually lead to a risk of
fire.
8). With the lighting circuit we can see that there is an apparent short circuit between
phase and neutral. Insulation resistance testers generally show a value of 0Ω when
the reading drops below 10000Ω. The problem could be a fault, but it would be easier
to first look for any lamps that have been left connected. A lamp will show up as a
short circuit when tested with an insulation resistance tester.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
How did you do? Hopefully you can see that the interpretation of the results is as important
as the results themselves.

Re-energising a supply
It is essential when dealing with any faults in an electrical installation that a set process is
followed. We cannot simply turn on a supply and wait for the ‘bang’! The order in which events
should occur is simple:-
• Find the fault;
• Rectify the fault;
• Re-test prior to any further progression.

There are a few issues that need considering before you turn a supply back on. I will list them
for convenience sake.
1/. Check. You must make sure that all covers are back on and screwed back. Many a fault
has been put on by people screwing back front covers and catching a conductor
sheath. If you turn something on, then you are responsible! So check.

2/. Switch off loads. Loads can cause a protective device to trip or blow because the
inrush current causes a very large level of current to flow for a short duration of
time. This can be in the order of 25 times the normal full load current, and is more
than capable of operating the devices. In addition, loads left in can cause switches to
arc, causing people to ‘jump’. This in turn leads to a reduction in the life of the switch.

3/. Never put a fuse in when a load is connected. This can cause an arc to occur for
the same reasons listed in (1 above) and the danger to the person putting it in.

4/. Try to avoid making a circuit breaker when a load is connected. Although this is
less of a problem than with fuses, it can still cause someone a surprise, particularly if
a breaker trips at the same time as you are trying to turn it on.

5/. Remember. Remember that turning a supply on is no substitute for a proper inspection
and test of an installation. Merely waiting for a fuse or circuit breaker to operate to
show up a fault is dangerous and criminally negligent.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 4
Summary
Many of the elements in this session are new. They have required you to apply what you have
learnt in class and at work.
In any fault diagnosis process the evidence must be gathered. This comes from the client,
test sheets, reports, testing and manufacturers’ data.
Once evidence has been gathered it must be analysed and interpreted. This requires the
application of technical knowledge and experience.
When a fault has been found it must be rectified and re-tested before putting the circuit
back into commission.
When turning a supply back on care should be taken to not simply turn things on without taking
into account the context.

Exercise 4.
For the following four situations state what evidence you would gather and how you would
gather it. Once you have shown how you would gather the evidence explain what you believe
the problem to be and suggest a solution.

1/. A single-phase capacitor start induction motor is running normally. It is turned off for
a short period of time and when it is turned back on it fails to run, although it is
humming.

2/. You are carrying out an insulation resistance test on an installation from a mains
distribution board. You find that there appears to be three faults. One fault seems to
be a short circuit, phase to neutral; the second appears to be a short circuit phase to
earth; the third appears to be a short circuit neutral to earth.

3/. A three-phase motor turns on, but seems to be ‘sluggish’ and does not make the right
sound. After a period of time the overloads in the starter operate.

4/. You have recently installed banks of high pressure sodium luminaires in a bus garage.
They are controlled by a small number of contactors and protected by 16A Type B
circuit breakers. The circuit breakers keep tripping for no apparent reason.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 1: Session 5

Session

5
Symptoms of faults
How are the nature of faults to be
understood?

In the last session we considered the way in which evidence is gathered analysed and
interpreted. In this session we are going to consider the nature of faults and then consider
specific problems with various items of equipment.

Inherent (inbuilt) faults

Faults can occur for an almost infinite variety of reasons. Again we will make use of a list to
detail many of these. The types of fault that follow here relate to inherent faults. That is
faults that are designed into the installation.

Complete loss of supply

Loss of a supply can occur for one of two reasons.
• There is a power cut, or a fault on the supply system and power has just been lost.
There is nothing you can do about this;
• The installation has been designed badly and there is no discrimination between the
supply authority’s main cut out and the consumer’s protective devices.

These are both inherent faults and in the immediate aftermath of a loss of supply all that you
can do is advise the client to call the supply authority to replace their main cut out, and to
reduce the overall load that is connected.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 5
Localised loss of supply
This loss of supply will cause part of an installation to lose a supply, not just an individual
circuit. We can assume that it is on a sub-main. This is unlikely to be due to the supply
authority.
• Badly designed overcurrent protection with poor discrimination will lead to localised
supply loss;
• Clients loading their system beyond the design parameters may cause the same
problem;
• Overcurrent devices take no account of the nature of the load and switching on of
highly inductive loads may cause nuisance operation;
• RCD’s incorrectly set so that earth leakage becomes an issue.
All of these may cause the supply loss to an area.

Nuisance operation of overcurrent devices

This has been covered in the previous two examples.
• Poor discrimination;
• No account taken of the nature of loads;
• Overload and short circuit devices not properly considered as part of a whole system.

Transient voltages
These are caused by switching. When equipment that contains inductors and capacitors are
regularly switched then a short-term voltage spike (transient voltage) is injected onto the
system. This voltage can be very high and is more than capable of causing damage. There is no
fault, but there is a problem. Transient voltages are a natural function of the switching of
capacitive and inductive devices.
• This can cause damage to computer systems, injecting a signal onto data cables;
• It can cause arcing at switch contacts with consequent overheating.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 5
Insulation failure
There are a number of reasons why the insulation may fail.
• Wear and tear may cause cables to just outlive themselves;
• The wrong type of cables have been installed in a particular set of conditions. The
cable may need additional protection for temperature or chemicals etc. As an
example, PVC cables rot when they are in contact with oil-based products such as
polystyrene.;
• MIMS cable can be damaged by transient voltages created when it is used in
discharge lights. Small holes appear in the sheath caused by the very high voltages
that can be present.

Plant, equipment or component failure

Inherent faults in plant etc. are usually created pre-delivery, or when installed with too little
thought.
• Motor is made to run beyond its design capacity;
• Overload settings are too high;
• Incorrect choice of protective device for the nature of the plant;
• Switches too small for load being switched on and off, remembering that the inductive
effects of a load are worst when they are being switched off;
• Load is too close to control device and causes overheating etc.

You will appreciate that these are just some of the types of fault that are inherent. They are
designed into the installation, where, with a little more care, they could have been designed
out of the installation.

Great care needs to be given here, particularly in the light of EAWR89. Regulation 4.1 of the
EAWR89 requires that:-
All systems shall be at all times be of such construction as to prevent, so far as is reasonably
practicable, danger.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 5
What this means is that consideration needs to be given the suitability of the electrical
construction, not only for the present, but also for the future. In particular consideration
needs to be given to:-
• Manufacturer’s certified equipment;
• Likely load and fault conditions;
• Appropriate protective devices;
• Fault levels at the point of supply and at other relevant positions;
• Fault level variations caused by motor;
• Environmental conditions which affect the mechanical strength of the system;
• The user’s requirements;
• The way in which inspection, testing and maintenance is carried out.

This, as you can see, is quite a wide range of responsibilities. This is a requirement of the law!

Faults due to negligence

We have looked at some typical faults generated due to poor design and other factors. We
are now going to consider those faults that are created due to lack of thought, general misuse
of equipment and the client not knowing what they are doing.

You are already aware that under the HASWA74 you have a responsibility to yourself and
those that your work affects.

Ignorance is no excuse!
When work is carried out in such a way that safety is compromised then accidents will happen.
Of course they are not really accidents! If you install wiring, plant or equipment in such a way
that you know something could go wrong, or in contravention of BS7671:2001 and other
guidance, then there is no accident.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 5
You do not set the standards, neither do you and your fellow workers decide what is
necessary. It has taken many years, and many deaths to get the current standards to their
present state. It is unacceptable for you to decide to leave something out just because you
might decide that it is too much hassle, and can therefore be ignored. In addition, you need to
keep yourself up to date with current standards and regulations. The old cliché that ignorance
is no excuse in law is no less true because it is a cliché.

The implication is that it is up to you to know what your limitations are and to remain within
them. No one has a grasp of everything. The more you know, the more you know what you don’t
know! (Think about it!)

Name as many things that you can that you would consider negligent when working on
electrical systems or equipment.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 5
The list of what makes up negligent actions is as varied as the people that do them. I have
made up my own list.
Leaving switches and sockets off;
Leaving spanners in busbar chambers;
Using a neon screwdriver;
Hitting cables with hammers;
Stripping cable sheath back when it is live;
Working in a board when it is live;
Working on battery panels with bare metal tools;
Not fixing socket and switch boxes back to the wall properly;
Increasing the size of a fuse until one is found that doesn’t blow;
Shorting out a protective device to make something work;
Tapping a connection for power tools straight off the mains;
Leaving greensleeving off bare copper conductors;
Not tightening connections;
Not knowing what you are doing before you start!

As you can see the list is a long one, and I have only made a few points here. Try and think up
some of your own, you’ve probably done some of them.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 5

Other fault areas

Faults occur. We cannot avoid them. Sometimes they are caused by unforeseen circumstances,
although less than might be assumed. There are circumstances where faults occur other than
with plant etc.

Cable connections
Faults occur here for a number of reasons.
• Loose connections. These lead to an increase in heat and hence resistance. This in turn
leads to more heat being generated until either a protective device operates, a cable
open circuits or a fire starts;
• Different metal connections. Aluminium and copper do not like each other chemically.
When they are in direct contact they react with each other and there is a resistance
increase.

Glands and seals

Again there are a number of reasons why faults occur with these. It depends on the type of
cable, but it usually comes down to people not installing things correctly.
• With MIMS cable, if the gland is not sealed properly, water can get in and over time a
fault is created. In addition the pot can rotate if it is not fitted properly and this can
cause a twist to occur with consequent faults;
• With SWA cables glands are sometimes made off with some of the strands not fixed
properly, or worse, with some of them cut out! Any reduction in the armouring is a
reduction in the overall size of the c.p.c and as such is dangerous. In addition links are
not put in and so there is a break in the integrity of the c.p.c.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 5
Switches etc.
We are now dealing with accessories, and again the list can be endless.
• Switches are incorrectly chosen for the rating of the load leading to heat build up,
shortened life and welding of contacts;
• Sockets are still connected incorrectly with links left out from the front plate to the

rear of the box. Connections that are loose will lead to a build up of heat and a classic

sign is a slight discolouration near the pins;

• Switchgear has similar problems to both sockets and switches, with loose and
incorrect connections. Other problems include incorrect ratings for the connected
load and short circuit ratings;
• Contactors can have the wrong coil fitted; poor overload settings, incorrect ratings,
loose connections, low oil in dampers, wear on contacts etc.
• Electronic devices are usually very reliable, but when they are operated beyond their
design parameters than problems occur. The two specific areas are with dimmer
switches and certain RCD’s, where testing using a 500V d.c. insulation resistance
tester may damage the internal components. Loose connections will also cause
overheating and possible damage.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 5
Protective devices
Protective devices include fuses, circuit breakers, moulded case circuit breakers, overloads
and RCD’s.
• Fuses can be installed incorrectly, wrong fuse wire used, poor discrimination, poor
breaking capacity and incorrect use. Poor breaking capacity may lead to the fuse not
merely blowing a thin piece of wire, but actually blowing apart and creating shrapnel
when a fault occurs;
• Circuit breakers can have the incorrect rating, the wrong type and a poor breaking
capacity. The poor breaking capacity can lead to the circuit breaker welding the
contacts closed which will mean that it will not open under real fault conditions,
although it will retain the appearance of being fine. The wrong type will lead either to
nuisance tripping when inductive loads are turned (use of Type B instead of C or D) on
or no operation under fault conditions if the fault current cannot be maintained high
enough (use of Type C or D instead of Type B);
• Moulded case circuit breakers have fewer problems associated with them as they
cannot easily be misapplied, and their breaking capacity is usually very high;
• Overloads can be incorrectly set, have the wrong breaking capacity or be of the wrong
type for a specific installation location;
• RCD’s do not operate on overload or short circuit conditions and as such are an earth
leakage or imbalance device. They can have a poor breaking capacity, poor
discrimination and nuisance tripping.

Luminaires
Problems that occur with light fittings include:-
• Loose connections causing overheating;
• Incorrect size of lamp causing overheating, which causes the wires to harden and
become brittle;
• Shades that are too heavy causing strain to be put on wires and connections.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 5
Flexible cables and cords
Again, there are a number of problems that occur here:-
• Loose connections causing overheating;
• Wrong rating of flex for a specific set of conditions, i.e. heat resistant flex not used
for connection to immersion heater;
• Cores cut out to make it fit. This leads to a build up of heat in the cable;
• Incorrect use of cord grips leaving the connection taking all the strain.

Portable appliances and fixed equipment

Here the list can be almost endless. Portable appliances themselves should be tested at a
maximum of every 12 months. Portable appliances are not strictly part of the installation and
the quickest way to clear a fault created by a portable appliance is to unplug it. Once it is
unplugged then there is no fault, as far as the electrical system is concerned. With fixed
appliances, things are a little different. The appliance is directly connected to the electrical
system and is therefore part of the whole. Care should be given to:-
• Connections;
• Ratings of protective devices;
• Regular maintenance;
• Keeping free of dust etc.

Summary
The particular problems relating to specific items of equipment will vary according to many
different factors.
Faults can be listed under a series of main headings as inherent faults, faults caused by
negligence and other.
Inherent faults relate to the nature of the installation itself.
Negligence relates to installation faults, where people have done something wrong.
Other types of fault may relate to faulty components or circumstances outside the control of
the designer or installer.

Now try the next exercise.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 5
Exercise 5.
1/. Carry out an inspection of an electrical installation. Make a list of those items that
you believe are at fault and then highlight those that are inherent faults and those
that are caused by negligence.

2/. You have been called out to a fish dock at 5a.m. The supply has failed to the area that
you are working in. A number of other electricians have been called out. How will you
proceed? Is this likely to be an inherent fault or another type of fault?

3/. Take a look at a typical fluorescent fitting. Highlight the possible range of faults that
can exist. State whether the fault would lead to a fault current or would simply cause
the fitting not to operate correctly.

Now move on to the next session.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 6

Session

6
Factors affecting repair or replacement
What factors affect the decision to repair or
replace a faulty item of equipment?

In the previous session we considered the symptoms of particular faults. With any faulty
equipment a key question will be, ‘should I replace or repair the equipment’? This is important
and there are a number of thoughts that should pass through your mind. It is these that we
will consider in this session.

What factors will affect your decision to repair or replace an item of equipment?

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 6

Access
Before we consider whether equipment should be replaced or repaired, or even before we
begin fault finding itself we must be aware that the work we do, we do for a customer and the
wishes of the customer are key. For example, imagine that you are called to an office with lots
of computers etc. You cannot simply start turning circuits off without recognising the
customers’ own business depends on the work being maintained. Data must be saved and people
must be kept busy.

What choices are open to you when wanting to access a busy office to find a fault or
carry out some repair?

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 6
Your answer should include late working, provision of a standby supply and weekend working.

An electrician was called to a generator fault in a large clothing retailer in Glasgow. He turned
the supply off without informing anyone and the computer controlling the whole of the point
of sale system was turned off. No sales could be made and the electrician was marched off
the premises.

Repair or replace?
There comes a point when looking at a piece of equipment that you need to be absolutely
convinced that it is worth repairing. In the same way when a fault appears on an installation
the problems may be so complicated that the only recommendation is for a rewire.

There are a number of factors that we need to consider when coming to any judgement about
these issues. These are:-
• Cost of replacement – not only how much will it cost, but also how much will the cost
of labour be. Assuming that the replacement might not be immediately essential, what
will be the cost of doing nothing?
• Availability of replacement – how quickly can the item be found? Is it an off-the-shelf
item or will a special order need to be made?
• Downtime during the fault and repair – how much production is lost? If the production
cost is too great, how can the repair be time-managed?
• Availability of staff and resources – is the labour in place to safely and efficiently
repair the fault?
• Legal responsibility – this includes warranties and the requirements of licensing
authorities and H&S legislation.
• Is the replacement item compatible with existing equipment?

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 6

Installation
When you are called to an installation it is usual to go for a repair. A number of the factors
listed above do apply however.

The cost of replacing an installation varies depending on the size, but a full rewire can run into
millions of pounds.

The issue of downtime is important within a production or commercial environment. It may be

that downtime leads to the destruction of products, and on farms this can include animal
deaths where chickens require fans running to maintain cool enough temperatures.

In those circumstances it is often quicker and easier to simply replace damaged items rather
than spending too much time on finding the actual fault directly.

Staff availability for the repair is also relevant. Not every electrician is comfortable in every
situation when fault finding. In addition the employer has to manage his staff. People cannot
be stood around just waiting for something to happen, unless of course someone is willing to
pay for that time.

In many industrial and commercial environments access can only be gained at certain times.
This may be due to health and safety reasons or just because of the processes and work
patterns involved. When access times vary then the electrician has to fit around the client.

Access to parts of the installation will be affected by how much can be turned off and this
depends on the nature of the organisation of the switchgear. It is normal to be able to isolate
sections. However, you do need to be aware that simply disconnecting circuits may not be wise.
Remember that disconnection of c.p.c’s when other circuits are still live can lead to dangerous
potentials appearing across the c.p.c should a separate earth fault occur elsewhere on the
installation.

Certain aspects of an installation may require that an emergency or standby supply comes into
operation. This must be taken into account when isolating is taking place and where it can
reasonably be expected that this will lead to the standby supplies activating.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 6
The final aspect that must always be considered is the legal responsibilities. The Electricity
at Work Regulations 1989 (EAWR89), place responsibilities on a number of people, including
the electrician. When a fault occurs and nothing is done about it by the client, then he is
responsible in law for himself, his workers and anyone who might visit the site or place of
operation. This is a throwback to the HASWA74 (Health and Safety at Work Act 1974). If a
client calls an electrician out to a fault and then refuses access to those areas necessary to
the finding and repairing of the fault, then the client is responsible in law for the fault and
any problems that arise from it.

If a client calls out an electrician and lets him get on with the jab of finding and repairing the
fault then all the responsibility falls on the electrician. The electrician automatically becomes
the ‘authorised person’ (duty holder). This means he is responsible for those parts of the
installation that are under his control, and not only for those areas of the installation that he
is working on but also those parts that he affects by his working.

Very careful judgements need to be made when looking at any fault in an installation.

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 Unit 2: Outcome 2: Session 6

Equipment
The judgements to be made with a piece of equipment are similar but with some necessary
complications.

The cost of replacement becomes a major factor when thinking about repairing an item of
equipment. Manufacturing processes today mean that it is often more cost efficient to
replace an item of equipment than repair it. You are charged out at a set rate by your
employer, that rate can reasonably be in the region of £20-45/hour. The question of whether
to repair a £20 piece of equipment with something new or repair it is quite an easy one to
answer. In the same way many smaller motors are cheaper to replace than repair, even
thought they are quite expensive. The cost of rewinding motors makes the decision debatable.

The availability of replacement with a like for like item is also problematical when the
equipment is a number of years old. You may end up having to repair because that equipment is
absolutely necessary and so replacement is not an option. Alternatively a replacement for
something more modern might be considered.

An item of equipment might be easy to repair whilst it is in situ, however, the loss of
production may more than outweigh the cost of replacement, and so replacement becomes the
only option. In fact in most maintenance departments they will have certain items of
equipment duplicated just so they can replace with a minimum of downtime.

The same legal responsibilities apply for items of equipment as for whole installations. For this
reason PAT testing of portable appliances has become prevalent.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 6
Summary
In this session we have considered the factors which influence the repair or replacement of
systems or equipment as well as some of the factors that affect the rectification of a fault.
Factors to consider are labour and capital costs, availability of replacement parts, downtime
and the impact of the fault on safety, warranties and licensing requirements.
Factors controlling the rectification of a fault will include access to the circuit, impact on
current workers, labour availability, need for a supply as well as health and safety.

Exercise 6.
1/. A large commercial office contains approximately fifty (50) personal computers, five
laser printers and two inkjet printers. The supplies for the computers are fed from
eight circuits with the printers all fed from the same circuit. All circuit are protected
by 32A 30mA RCBO’s. The client has called you to complain that at certain times the
RCBO’s trip for no apparent reason.
a). What factors will affect how you approach this problem?
b). What is the likely problem?
c). Suggest possible solutions to the client.
d). How might your chosen solution be put into effect with the minimum of
disruption?

2/. The motor on a conveyor system is running hot.

a). What are the possible causes of a motor overheating?
b). How would the problem be investigated with the minimum disruption?
c). How would you solve the problem?

Now move on to the next session.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

Session

7
Special precautions

Under what circumstances do special

precautions need to be taken?

In the last session we considered the factors that affect the way in which problems are dealt
with. We took account of costs, availability of replacements etc. In this final session of this
outcome we are going to consider some of the particular situations where special precautions
need to be taken. We are going to consider six specific areas where additional precautions
need to be considered.
• Fibre optic cabling;
• Static;
• Electronic equipment;
• IT equipment;
• High frequency and capacitance;
• Storage batteries.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

Fibre optic cabling

Fibre optics is the carrying of information over long distances in thin fibres of very pure
glass. The first optical fibre telephone link was working in Britain in 1977. Optical fibre cables
are lighter, smaller and easier to handle than normal copper cables.

The light used is infrared radiation just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. The
infrared is generated by a very small semiconductor laser made from gallium, aluminium and
arsenic.
Photons emitted as a
concentrated beam of light Dielectric strengthening
material
Atoms Electrodes
Cladding

Fibre core
Outer jacket
Mirror Protective buffer
Photons Semi-silvered
or coating
Power source mirror
Laser generator Fibre optic cable

Figure 5 Laser for fibre optic cable

The problems associated with fibre optic cables are:-

• Bend radius. When the fibre optic cable is bent too tightly the light does not get
reflected internally and loss of signal occurs;
• Joints. There needs to be a perfect end connection to link lengths of fibre optic cable
together. This requires special equipment and training;
• Looking down the end of a fibre optic cable when the light is on is not wise as far as
eyes are concerned.

There are some new applications of fibre optic cables for lighting purposes. These have a
different light source and are not used for carrying signals. The light coming from a light box
some distance away.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

Static
Static is caused for a variety of reasons. When you walk across a nylon carpet and then touch
something metal you may well find that you receive an electric shock. This electric shock has
been caused by the charge that you have built up, suddenly discharging through you when you
touch something that conducts. This shock can have quite a high voltage, and can be dangerous
to certain electronic circuits, particularly circuits containing chips.

Before you work on any circuitry, you should always discharge yourself to some earthed
metalwork or wear a discharge band on your wrist to make sure that you are at a low potential
relative to the circuitry.

Capacitance however appears in many areas, without a capacitor being present. As long as
there are two conductors separated by an insulator, then there will be a capacitive effect.

MIMS cables after they have been tested often retain sufficient charge to give a shock.
Cables that run parallel for long distances, such as transmission lines, gain a certain level of
capacitance. There is even a capacitive effect between the windings of coils, although it is
very small and is swamped by the size of the inductor, it is still there.

Damage to electronic equipment

Damage to electronic components can occur either because of incorrect use of test
instruments or static electricity.

As stated on the previous page, static electricity is eliminated by strapping the body to the
chassis of the equipment and tying that to earth.

The use of an insulation resistance tester on certain components is guaranteed to cause

problems. Most electronic components have been designed to operate at extra low voltage,
whilst an insulation resistance tester commonly injects 500V into a circuit.

Correct preparation for hands-on work to ensure that there is no static and no use of
insulation resistance testers is vital.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

IT equipment
The shutdown of IT equipment can lead to many people turning prematurely bald! This usually
occurs when vast amounts of data have just been wiped because it hasn’t been saved. It is
never acceptable to just switch off a supply and start working when computer systems have
not been backed up. Many businesses only operate because there are computers and as such it
is important to liaise with the client to ensure that shutdown only occurs at acceptable times.
This will usually be just after a major back up of all their systems

High frequency and capacitance

Variations in frequency can cause major problems to items of equipment, and the use of
systems that create high frequencies can lead to damage. High frequency supplies can also
cause burns.

In addition, certain items of office equipment, such as power supplies, can have very large
capacitors present. These capacitors can contain enough energy to cause real risk to those
working on it. It is necessary to discharge any capacitors before work is carried out on a
power supply.

In most areas of an installation where you might reasonably expect to see capacitors, such as
with power factor correction capacitors, you will find that they have a resistor connected
across them to ensure that they discharge over a short period of time.

Do not take risks!

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

Storage batteries
In 1789 an Italian, Luigi Galvani, noticed that frogs’ legs twitched when they were touched by
two dissimilar metals. Another Italian, Allessandro Volta, showed that the electric current
that produced the muscular spasm was not due to the limb itself, but to the moisture in it. In
1799 he developed a simple battery, comprising of copper and zinc discs separated by a
saltwater soaked cloth. This type of assembly is known as a ‘voltaic pile’

When electric current passes through an electrolyte (a liquid that allows ions to move freely
across it, ions being electrically charged atoms) it ‘breaks down’ and hydrogen ions (positive)
are collected at the cathode. Sulphate ions (negative) are collected at the anode: the anode
and cathode merely being the two dissimilar metals. The passing of current through an
electrolyte is called ‘charging’.

Load
- +
Cathode Anode

Electrolyte

Simple cell

Figure 6 Simple cell

If a load is connected between the plates then current will flow from the anode to the
cathode. Chemically, the opposite occurs to what has just occurred with charging. The delivery
of current to a load is called ‘discharging’.

There are two types of cell (battery) in general use. (A battery is a collection of cells). These
are ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ cells. A primary cell can be used only the once and cannot be
recharged. A secondary cell can be recharged. There are two types of secondary cell; ‘lead-
acid’ and ‘alkaline’.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7
Negative terminal
post
Positive terminal Separators
post (Hold the plates
in position)

Electrolyte Plates Container

Figure 7 Secondary cell

The energy supplied may be used to supply a load but will only be sufficient for a limited time,
as the chemical qualities of the electrolyte deteriorate with use.

When a battery or cell gives out a current the density of the electrolyte is reduced and when
a battery is recharged the density of the electrolyte is restored. This means that if the
density of the electrolyte can be measured then the level of charge can be estimated.

The instrument used for measuring the level of charge is called the ‘hydrometer’, and
measures the ‘specific gravity’ of the electrolyte. Any diagram for a hydrometer would be
dated at best. Have a look in a local Halfords and see the range of hydrometers there are!

For a lead-acid cell the range of values of specific gravity should be as the table below shows.

Specific % of Charge
Gravity
1.28 100
1.25 75
1.22 50
1.19 25
1.18 Should not drop below this point
1.16 Fully discharged

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

Installation and care of lead-acid cells and batteries

Installation
• Room must be well ventilated.
• No naked lights or smoking.
• Make sure of the correct terminal connections.
• Metalwork to be painted with bitumastic paint.
• Warning signs to be posted.
• Accessible for maintenance.
• In large battery installations inter-connections must be burnt on after the following
precautions are taken:
• Cells must have stood for 2 hours after change,
• Vent plugs must be removed on all cells within a 0.5m radius, and air blown in to dispel
gases.
• These cells must be covered in a wet linen cloth.
• Cells must be numbered starting at the positive end.
• The rooms where cells are stored must be clean and dry.
• Polarity must be checked.
• Terminals and connections must be located using petroleum jelly (Vaseline).

There is no short cut for experience however. Remember to be very careful. When batteries
are being charged then hydrogen is given off. If you make a mistake then an explosion can
occur. You will find those rooms that are used for the charging of lead-acid batteries have a
reasonable ventilation system.

Regulation 562-01-06 in BS7671:2001 states:-

The location of the source shall be properly and adequately ventilated so that any exhaust
gases, smoke or fumes from the source cannot penetrate, to a hazardous extent, areas
occupied by persons.

This lays a duty on the electrician or business to make sure that the batteries under charge
are not going to cause a problem.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7
Below is a list of things to do to keep the batteries in good condition.
Care
• Records must be kept.
• Battery must be kept clean and dry.
• Vent plugs checked and cleaned.
• Terminals checked for tightness.
The following must be checked:-
• Voltage per cell,
• Terminal voltage,
• Specific gravity,
• Temperature of the electrolyte,
• If the battery is on charge readings of both voltage and current are to be recorded.
• Cells should not be left in a discharged condition. If a cell is to be stored it should be
charged and the electrolyte removed.
• Cells should be charged at the recommended rate.
• When mixing the electrolyte the acid should be added to the water not vice versa.
The electrolyte must be allowed to cool before pouring into the battery.
• Protective clothing and eye shields must be worn and any spillage dealt with.
• Hydrometers must be cleaned after use.
• Equipment for lead-acid and alkaline batteries should be kept apart.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7

Alkaline cells
There are two types of alkaline cells in use; the nickel-iron (NiFe), and the nickel-cadmium
(NiCad).

Both types are housed in a steel case and the electrolyte is caustic potash (potassium
hydroxide – KOH) and distilled water. This gives a specific gravity of about 1.15 to 1.2,
depending on the type of cell and the conditions of service. The specific gravity does not alter
during charge or discharge however and as such a hygrometer will not help to determine the
level of charge.

The plates are separated by insulating rods and mounted in non-metallic crates to insulate the
cells from each other.

Major advantages of the alkaline battery are:

• It has a strong mechanical construction and can therefore withstand a large amount
of vibration.
• It is free from the problems of sulphating and can therefore be left in any stage of
charge for long periods.
• It can withstand large overloads without suffering damage to plates etc.

Major disadvantages are:

• It is costlier than the standard lead-acid cell.
• Its average p.d. is 1.2-1.4V compared to 2V for the lead-acid and therefore, an
increase in the number of cells is of the order of 60%, again increasing costs.

Summary
In this brief final session we have considered some special instances where particular
precautions need to be taken.
The specific areas touched on include fibre optic cabling, static, damage to electronic devices,
shut down of IT equipment, high frequency and large capacitor circuits and the presence of
storage batteries.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1: Session 7
Exercise 7.
1/. Name two particular problems associated with storage batteries.

2/. Using any sources available to you, investigate how sensitive electronic equipment can
be protected from lightning strikes.

3/. A 100mH inductor has a resistance of 65Ω. The supply is 230V, 50Hz.
a). What will be the current drawn from the supply?
b). If the frequency were to double what would happen to the current drawn
from the supply?
c). How would this change in frequency affect the power available?
[I know you have not looked at you’re a.c. work in a while – now is the time to revise it!]

4/. A large storage capacitor has been charged from a 500V d.c. source. If the
capacitance is 15µF and the energy stored in a capacitor can be calculated using

CU 2
W = , determine the amount of energy available. What voltage will be available at
2
the terminals of the capacitor?

Now move on to the final exercise.

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1

B&B Training Associates

Engineering Learning Materials
Attempt all questions.
All marks are shown in the right-hand margin.
You should aim to pass with a 85% minimum mark.
Anything less than this mark should lead you to re-read the text.

1/. State two conditions where you could reasonably expect to work live. 2
2/. What is competence? 2
3/. State four requirements of an approved test lead. 4
4/. How might you isolate a circuit? 5
5/. Define the terms isolation and switching off for mechanical maintenance. 2
6/. What process would you follow when turning the supply back on in an
installation? 4
7/. What is an inherent fault? 2
8/. Give four examples of inherent faults. 4
9/. State four common areas of fault. 4
10/. When diagnosing a fault what is required? 3
11/. A room is to be used to store batteries. What precautions would you
take if you were called to investigate a fault in it? 4
12/. You are called to a fault on a motor. The client tells you that one moment
it was working and the next it wasn’t. After further questioning it
becomes apparent that the motor has smelt ‘funny’ for a period of time
and that it has not been working as well as normal. It is a three-phase
induction motor. What will you do? 10
13/. An old school has had its lights originally wired in bare MIMS cable. You
are called in to carry out a periodic inspection and test. After carrying
out an insulation resistance test to earth you realise that the readings
are lower than 0.8MΩ. What is the one major problem and what will you
do? 8

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 Unit 3: Outcome 1
14/. A public school is having its dormitories renovated and turned into small
study rooms for groups of four pupils. You have recently been running in
long lengths of PVC/MIMS cable. The cable has not been stored too well
and it appears to have a small lump at one point in it. After making off
two ends of the MIMS you test it and note that there is a short circuit
between the conductors. You check the ends and test again with no
change in the results. What will you do? 8
15/. A motor is installed in a feed mill. It is very dusty and a DOL starter is
used. You test and commission the installation and leave the site. After
two months you are called back to the feed mill with a complaint that the
motor is hot and that it keeps tripping out. On investigation you can see
that they have covered the starter with a wooden box to keep out the
dust and the motor vents are covered with dust. State one inherent
fault and two problems. What will you do? 8
Total 70

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