Electrical Installation (Buildings and Structures) Fault diagnosis and rectification.
Electrical Installation (Buildings and Structures) Fault diagnosis and rectification.
Certificate in
Electrotechnical Technology
Unit 3
Installation (Buildings and
Structures) Fault diagnosis and
rectification.
Outcome 1
PPrroodduucceedd bbyy
BB&
&BB T
Trraaiinniinngg A
Assssoocciiaatteess
Mrs A Bratley
23 St Pauls Drive,
Tickton, Nr Beverley,
East Yorkshire
HU17 9RN
Tel:-01964 – 543137
Fax:-01964 – 544109
Email:- [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Version 1-2004
Table of contents
Table of contents.................................................................................................................................... 5
Table of figures....................................................................................................................................... 6
Aims and objectives................................................................................................................................ 7
Identification of systems and nature of faults............................................................................... 8
Safe working procedures prior to fault diagnosis ..........................................................................16
Test equipment .......................................................................................................................................18
Isolation devices ................................................................................................................................... 22
Isolation .................................................................................................................................................. 22
Switching off for mechanical maintenance ..................................................................................... 24
Basic principles of fault diagnosis..................................................................................................... 27
Good personal technical knowledge ................................................................................................... 28
Good personal experience ................................................................................................................... 29
Logical approach .................................................................................................................................... 30
List and describe the stages of fault diagnosis and rectification ............................................ 33
Data collection ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Data analysis........................................................................................................................................... 36
Re-energising a supply.......................................................................................................................... 40
Symptoms of faults .............................................................................................................................. 42
Inherent (inbuilt) faults ...................................................................................................................... 42
Faults due to negligence ...................................................................................................................... 45
Other fault areas.................................................................................................................................. 48
Factors affecting repair or replacement ........................................................................................ 53
Access...................................................................................................................................................... 54
Repair or replace? ................................................................................................................................. 55
Installation ............................................................................................................................................. 56
Equipment................................................................................................................................................ 58
Special precautions............................................................................................................................... 60
Fibre optic cabling .................................................................................................................................61
Static ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
Damage to electronic equipment........................................................................................................ 62
IT equipment .......................................................................................................................................... 63
High frequency and capacitance ........................................................................................................ 63
Storage batteries ................................................................................................................................. 64
Copyright © B&B Training Associates Page No.5
Unit 3: Outcome 1
Installation and care of lead-acid cells and batteries ................................................................. 66
Alkaline cells........................................................................................................................................... 68
Table of figures
Figure 1 Typical approved voltage indicator.....................................................................................19
Figure 2 Isolation procedure.............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 3 Isolation procedure...............................................................................................................21
Figure 4 Methods of isolation for different supply arrangements ........................................... 23
Figure 5 Laser for fibre optic cable..................................................................................................61
Figure 6 Simple cell .............................................................................................................................. 64
Figure 7 Secondary cell ....................................................................................................................... 65
This study booklet covers Outcome 1 of Unit 3 of the new C&G 2330 Level 3 Certificate in
Electrical Technology and is broken down into sessions, which are aimed to last a minimum of
1.5hrs (one class). At the end of each session there will be a short assessment aimed at
checking whether you have understood the subject matter. No answers will be provided for
these questions and so you should make sure that you can understand the session before
moving on the next. In many instances, what you learn from one session will be added to in the
next.
In many instances you will come across material that is very similar as you work through other
outcomes. This is intentional. Too often people think that they understand a subject only to
forget much of it when exam time comes around. By looking at similar areas in a variety of
situations more knowledge should ‘stick’ as it is first learned and then applied.
Take your time and don’t skip any areas just because you might be a little bored. At the end of
the booklet there will be a longer assessment that covers the whole of the outcome. You
should achieve at least 85% in this assessment before moving on.
Session
1
Identification of systems and nature of faults
What types of circuit exist within an
electrical installation?
How might faults occur within those
types of circuit?
In this series of sessions we are going to consider the nature of fault finding. It is essential
that you come to this and the following sessions with good technical knowledge, after all how
can you determine whether something is wrong unless you are aware of how it should work?
We will consider type types of circuit and the common equipment that exist in an electrical
installation and then we will consider what types of fault might occur in each area.
A cable is run through the fabric of a small domestic installation. What type of fault
could occur and what reasons might explain the fault?
If you have considered the question in the box above you should have been aware of many
factors that could cause a fault on any cable, let alone this one.
rear of the box. Connections that are loose will lead to a build up of heat and a classic
• Switchgear has similar problems to both sockets and switches, with loose and
incorrect connections. Other problems include incorrect ratings for the connected
load and short circuit ratings;
• Contactors can have the wrong coil fitted; poor overload settings, incorrect ratings,
loose connections, low oil in dampers, wear on contacts etc.
• Electronic devices are usually very reliable, but when they are operated beyond their
design parameters than problems occur. The two specific areas are with dimmer
switches and certain RCD’s, where testing using a 500V d.c. insulation resistance
tester may damage the internal components. Loose connections will also cause
overheating and possible damage.
appear on the secondary, with every possibility that this will lead to the destruction
of the winding;
• Wrong instrument chosen for a task will lead to the possible destruction of the
instrument, damage to the circuit being measured and danger to the person using the
instrument.
Luminaires
Problems that occur with light fittings include:-
• Loose connections causing overheating;
• Incorrect size of lamp causing overheating, which causes the wires to harden and
become brittle;
• Shades that are too heavy causing strain to be put on wires and connections.
Summary
There are different types of circuits in both three-phase and single-phase supplies.
Power circuits are almost all circuits other than lighting and emergency circuits.
Control circuits deal with controlling motor starters etc.
Lighting circuits are obvious.
Fire alarm and emergency lighting circuit are also easy to recognise.
Faults occur for many different types of reasons. Faults in cables or accessories and
equipment all need to be understood.
2/. A cooker appears not to have a supply. How might you approach this problem?
3/. Investigate the nature of a transient voltage – what is it and how is it created. What
type of equipment can generate it?
4/. A socket outlet is showing signs of discolouration: state two possible reasons why this
is happening.
5/. A 16A Type B BSEN 60898 circuit breaker trips when a bank of discharge lights are
switched on. State the probable reason for this.
6/. A 5A switch is used to control a 5A load of fluorescent fittings. Is there any problem
with this? Why?
7/. When a short circuit occurs two protective devices operate. Why is this?
9/. Investigate the nature of power poles. Why are they used and where would you expect
to find them?
10/. A star-delta starter feeds a 10kW three-phase induction motor. How many
conductors would be required between the mains and the starter and between the
starter and the motor?
Session
2
Safe working procedures prior to fault diagnosis
How is a system to be prepared for safe
working?
Consider the answers you should have got from the previous session in the table over the
page.
The basic principle that we must consider is that you should have a clear understanding of
what you are doing. The EAWR89 (Electricity at Work Regulations) requires that we are
competent. Competence requires that we can apply both technical knowledge and experience.
Competence also implies that you are aware of what you don’t know!
1/. i). Someone has inadvertently switched a circuit breaker off. (Go for the
obvious things first)
ii). Poor discrimination between protective devices (inherent fault).
iii). Incorrect breaking capacity causing catastrophic damage (inherent fault).
Numbers (i) and (ii) are the most likely.
3/. Transient voltage is set up when a load which contains a capacitor or an inductor is switched.
This switching causes an induced e.m.f to be created, which is then added to the supply
voltage creating a voltage spike.
4/. i). Poor contact of the plug top in the socket outlet;
ii). Loose connection within the socket outlet.
Both cause localised overheating.
5/. Type B circuit breaker is unable to handle short term overloads. All discharge lights create
short term overloads and a Type C circuit breaker would be a better choice.
6/. This is inadequate as fluorescent luminaires are highly inductive. This means that any switch
needs to have a higher rating. It is generally accepted that a rating of twice the demand of
the discharge lights is required. As an example a 5A load requires a 10A switch.
Before any isolation can take place, the correct test equipment must be used. You need to
take precautions!
Test equipment
For the testing of a potentially live source two pieces of test equipment are required. These
are:-
Approved voltage tester;
Voltage proving unit.
A neon screwdriver is not an approved voltage tester; after all who in their right minds would
want to become part of the circuit in the test procedure. A neon screwdriver only works on
the principal that you are touching one end of it and in contact with earth.
To trust in the limited protection that a neon screwdriver provides is foolish in the extreme
and you should be very aware of the danger you are placing yourself in by using them!
GS 38 provides a set of values that should be followed for test leads. In this instance it is
reasonable to assume that an approved voltage tester falls into this criterion. Many of the
following will apply to an approved voltage tester, although not necessarily all. Remember that
GS38 applies to all test leads.
You can see that a neon screwdriver does not meet any of the above criteria. The picture
below shows the make up of a voltage tester.
Finger barrier
Proving unit
Rubber-insulated
flexible cable
Obviously, there are many varieties of voltage tester and as long as they meet the
requirements of GS38 then you will be fine.
A tester is no use if we cannot guarantee its effectiveness. This is where the proving unit
comes into its own. A proving unit is a d.c. voltage source that checks its own status and is
then a known reference voltage against which the voltage tester can test itself. Without this
we cannot guarantee the voltage tester, at which point it is useless.
Securely isolate it
Re-prove the
test instrument
Attach temporary
earth leads if
necessary
Ensure you
Consider the need for
understand the job
additional precautions
before you start it
This process is essential for the safe isolation of a supply. Don’t be tempted into taking a
short cut. Equally, you should not use a live source other than an appropriate proving unit to
test your voltage tester.
Isolation devices
It is necessary for you to be aware of what makes up an isolation device. There are four
means of switching that you might come across. These are:-
• Isolation;
• Switching off for mechanical maintenance;
• Emergency switching;
• Functional switching.
It is necessary to define the terms that we are going to use so that we can eliminate any
confusion in our terminology.
Isolation
There must always be isolation and it should be designed into the system. An isolator is often
described as a disconnector and it is essential that the isolator can be safely secured
(padlocked) or kept under constant supervision of the person at risk.
Every installation must have a main switch or circuit breaker that is capable of switching the
whole of the installation. The number of poles that need to be isolated varies depending on
the type of earthing arrangements that have been provided. Have a look at the table below.
Main Switch
Other Isolators
All Locations
Single-phase
Linked This arrangement for all
types of single-phase supply
Ph N
Double-pole Isolator
Three-phase Three-phase
L1 L2 L3 N L1 L2 L3 N
L1 L2 L3 N L1 L2 L3 N
Triple-pole Isolator Triple-pole and Neutral Isolator
This arrangement for This arrangement
TN-S and TN-C-S for TT only
Make sure that you are able to apply this regulation at the appropriate point. Be aware that a
disconnector is an ‘off-load’ switch, however there are a variety of switching devices that can
be used on-load that can also be used for isolation.
Typical isolators could be a plug and socket, a protective device, a fused connection unit, and a
disconnector. There are a series of Regulations found in BS7671:2001 that deal with the
requirements for isolation.
Isolation Commentary
For every circuit or group of Group isolation is allowed where appropriate. If the
circuits. isolation device is remote from the equipment then it
must be lockable in the off position.
For every motor (fixed) and If the isolator is remote then it must be capable of being
there associated control lockable in the off position.
gear.
For discharge lighting at high Isolation must be provided to the low voltage circuit, and
voltage. if remote it must be lockable in the off position.
For all distribution boards. Where the isolating device is remote from the board
then it must be capable of being locked off.
Live parts should not be accessible when switching off for mechanical maintenance. If live
parts are open then isolation must take place. Remember that we are dealing with non-
electrical people.
Regulation Demand
537-03-03 It must not be affected by vibration or impact so that it can turn itself
on again.
If there are any concerns about this type of switching arrangement than you should move
towards the safe end and provide for isolation, with all that isolation entails.
Exercise 2.
1/. Name four different requirements of GS38.
2/. What is the difference between isolation and switching off for mechanical
maintenance?
3/. A three-phase motor is fed from a distribution board some 24m away. The circuit is
protected by HRC fuses and there is a star/delta starter and local isolator situated
within 5m of the motor. Explain the safety precautions you would consider and
describe how you would safely isolate the circuit.
Session
3
Basic principles of fault diagnosis
In this session we are going to consider the sensible approaches to fault finding. Too often
the electrician has decided to put in larger and larger fuses until the fault is found by blowing
cables apart. This is unacceptable!
A heater is being tested using an ohmmeter. You gain a reading of 50Ω between the phase
and neutral conductors. Is this piece of equipment functioning properly?
To begin with, you have to start thinking about what it is that you should be expecting. A
heater is going to be mainly a resistor although there will be an element of inductance because
it will probably be coiled. A heater will need to have a resistance that allows a reasonable
amount of current to flow so that it actually heats up. So let’s look at a little bit of Ohm’s law.
You can see that even with a rough measure we can get a sensible level of power. A 1kW
heater is not unreasonable.
The point to all of this is that you needed to have the technical knowledge to make a
reasonable judgement.
Capacitance, inductance, circuit theory, maths, a.c. theory, three-phase theory, all have their
part to play at relevant moments. Don’t get into the habit of compartmentalising your
knowledge. Apply your technical knowledge at the right moment and your faultfinding will have
a sound base.
Personal experience is not a ‘feeling’ that we get when we don’t know what to do! Personal
experience grows out of many years of doing a job and gaining personal insight into the trade
that you operate within.
Personal experience tells you which floorboards to take up in a house. Personal experience
tells you about certain problems associated with a particular make of contactor. The list could
go on and on.
Just because this experience is not technical does not make it any less valuable and reliable.
So use it!
Describe one experience where you have used experience to help you with a problem.
Logical approach
I have worked with many apprentices over the years. All of them without exception, and I
include me in that list, have made some howling errors with the very best of intentions.
An apprentice spent two days pulling cables in old steel conduit with the electrician. The
electrician left the site for a day and during that day the apprentice who had helped, cut all
the cables short that had just been pulled in. He genuinely thought he was helping! As he
spent the next two days digging a hole he hopefully learned the error of his ways.
A young apprentice thought he was doing his electrician a favour by stripping an old appliance
of the still connected wires. It was only later that I was ‘noisily’ informed that the electrician
had deliberately left the wires connected so he knew how to reconnect it – no circuit diagram
being available.
The point to these stories is that some thought prior to the deed would have prevented our
mistakes. We had a little knowledge and a little experience, and then we did not follow a
logical approach.
Remember that a logical approach is best. Make sure that you apply all your technical
knowledge and all your experience. Go for the obvious. My list is shown below.
• Check that the lamp is not working by trying it in another fitting;
• Check the fuse.
At this point you have not got any test instrument out and it may not be necessary. There are
times when a lamp blowing causes sufficient current to flow, such that a 5A fuse will blow,
especially if the fuse has been there for a long while. You will be aware that BS3036 fuses
deteriorate with age and as such can ‘blow’ for very little reason.
• However, you will need to check for additional wear and tear, particularly within the
luminaire that has blown the lamp. Loose connections could have caused heat to build
up leading to a weakness within the system.
The point with this example is not to tell you how to carry out a test, but to show you that
there are often simple solutions, without having to waste time looking for the complicated
answer.
Exercise 3.
1/. A single-phase motor fails to rotate and hums when it is turned on. Give two possible
causes of the problem.
2/. A 3kW water heater is fed from a 230V supply. What resistance would you expect
when testing the element?
3/. A 32A, 30mA RCBO protects a ring circuit in an office. The RCBO is in the habit of
nuisance tripping. Give one possible cause of this problem.
Session
4
List and describe the stages of fault diagnosis and
rectification
Why is data collection important?
How is the gathered data to be analysed?
How are results to be interpreted?
How is a supply to be reinstated?
No fault diagnosis can occur without some data to work on. This data can come from a variety
of sources, not all of them immediately obvious. When faults have been determined and put
right then the safe re-supplying of the circuit is necessary. In this session we are going to
consider the way in which data is gathered along with the types of data, and we will then look
at how circuit can be made good.
What are the three aspects required when carrying out fault diagnosis?
Data collection
The process of data collection must therefore come first. Where does data came from?
• The client:-
o What happens?
o Flashes/bangs etc?
• Previous test schedule sheets;
• Prior reports;
• Test results;
• Manufacturers’ data sheets.
Client
The client is often the first port of call. They will have called you and with good use of
questions, be able to provide clues as the nature of the fault. The first question should not
be, ‘Have you put the kettle on’?
The unskilled client will be able to provide you with data on:-
• What happened prior to the fault;
• What actions were taken after the fault occurred.
This data commonly needs to be interpreted carefully. The client is not there to provide a
solution but to provide you with clues as to the nature of the fault. So for example a client
might describe an event by saying’ there was a funny smell and then everything went off’.
What they are describing is quite true, but needs to be interpreted in the light of other data.
What type of smell? What specifically went off? You see that questioning provides clarity.
Test results
Test results, as with details from Periodic Inspection Results provides an indication of any
problems that might exist from changes that have taken place over time.
Data analysis
Once data has been gathered it must then be analysed. What you must never do is dive in and
start to remove covers etc. without having some clear idea of what the problem is.
There is a test result sheet over the page. Consider all the results and comment on the ones
that seem to be a problem.
You should be able to find at least eight problems. These will include test result issues as well
as specific faults. List the problems and comment on what you think has happened in each
instance.
Polarity
Zs Ω
Type Rating Live cpc (R1 + R2 ) R2 Live/ Live/ RCD Other
In mm2 mm2 Ω Live Earth time
Ring
Ω
A MΩ MΩ ms
3). A reading of 0.2MΩ between phase and neutral of the cooker circuit is too low;
4). The tripping time of the RCBO is too slow;
5). The (R1 + R2 ) value of the downstairs ring final circuit or the earth loop impedance
6). The polarity of the downstairs ring final circuit has not been proved;
7). The insulation resistance values of phase to neutral and live conductors to earth is low
on the water heater circuit;
8). There is an apparent short circuit between phase and neutral on the downstairs
lighting circuit.
These are the problems that you should have found, but what do they mean? How do we
interpret the results? It is now that all of your electrical work comes together. You draw on
both your technical knowledge and experience and try to judge what is happening so that a
safe solution can be found.
in how the test is performed will always create some variation; however there should
still be some correlation. In the cooker circuit this gap is too large. It is most likely
that the continuity test has been poorly done with a probable loose connection of the
test probes.
3). It is likely that the cooker circuit has a neon indicator still connected giving a low
resistance reading between phase and neutral of some 200000Ω. This is the common
value for neon indicators.
4). A 30mA RCBO must operate in 40ms when 150mA flows. This has not happened and
the RCBO has failed – it will need to be replaced.
5). The mismatch between the earth loop impedance value and the continuity value could
have occurred for the same reason as the cooker circuit. However, we cannot ignore
the failed polarity test.
6). A ring circuit can fail a polarity test at any socket outlet and commonly occurs
between phase and neutral conductors. This can occur in a socket outlet, but more
commonly happens in a fused connection unit where the load and supply sides get
mixed up. This must be found, and the likelihood is that the mismatch between
continuity and earth loop impedance will also be solved.
7). In the water heater circuit the insulation resistance values are low, but not so low as
to cause the system to fail. In a new installation however, these values are
unacceptable as they may well point to a latent problem. It is likely that a cable is
being crushed somewhere, and this must be found as it will eventually lead to a risk of
fire.
8). With the lighting circuit we can see that there is an apparent short circuit between
phase and neutral. Insulation resistance testers generally show a value of 0Ω when
the reading drops below 10000Ω. The problem could be a fault, but it would be easier
to first look for any lamps that have been left connected. A lamp will show up as a
short circuit when tested with an insulation resistance tester.
Re-energising a supply
It is essential when dealing with any faults in an electrical installation that a set process is
followed. We cannot simply turn on a supply and wait for the ‘bang’! The order in which events
should occur is simple:-
• Find the fault;
• Rectify the fault;
• Re-test prior to any further progression.
There are a few issues that need considering before you turn a supply back on. I will list them
for convenience sake.
1/. Check. You must make sure that all covers are back on and screwed back. Many a fault
has been put on by people screwing back front covers and catching a conductor
sheath. If you turn something on, then you are responsible! So check.
2/. Switch off loads. Loads can cause a protective device to trip or blow because the
inrush current causes a very large level of current to flow for a short duration of
time. This can be in the order of 25 times the normal full load current, and is more
than capable of operating the devices. In addition, loads left in can cause switches to
arc, causing people to ‘jump’. This in turn leads to a reduction in the life of the switch.
3/. Never put a fuse in when a load is connected. This can cause an arc to occur for
the same reasons listed in (1 above) and the danger to the person putting it in.
4/. Try to avoid making a circuit breaker when a load is connected. Although this is
less of a problem than with fuses, it can still cause someone a surprise, particularly if
a breaker trips at the same time as you are trying to turn it on.
5/. Remember. Remember that turning a supply on is no substitute for a proper inspection
and test of an installation. Merely waiting for a fuse or circuit breaker to operate to
show up a fault is dangerous and criminally negligent.
Exercise 4.
For the following four situations state what evidence you would gather and how you would
gather it. Once you have shown how you would gather the evidence explain what you believe
the problem to be and suggest a solution.
1/. A single-phase capacitor start induction motor is running normally. It is turned off for
a short period of time and when it is turned back on it fails to run, although it is
humming.
2/. You are carrying out an insulation resistance test on an installation from a mains
distribution board. You find that there appears to be three faults. One fault seems to
be a short circuit, phase to neutral; the second appears to be a short circuit phase to
earth; the third appears to be a short circuit neutral to earth.
3/. A three-phase motor turns on, but seems to be ‘sluggish’ and does not make the right
sound. After a period of time the overloads in the starter operate.
4/. You have recently installed banks of high pressure sodium luminaires in a bus garage.
They are controlled by a small number of contactors and protected by 16A Type B
circuit breakers. The circuit breakers keep tripping for no apparent reason.
Session
5
Symptoms of faults
How are the nature of faults to be
understood?
In the last session we considered the way in which evidence is gathered analysed and
interpreted. In this session we are going to consider the nature of faults and then consider
specific problems with various items of equipment.
These are both inherent faults and in the immediate aftermath of a loss of supply all that you
can do is advise the client to call the supply authority to replace their main cut out, and to
reduce the overall load that is connected.
Transient voltages
These are caused by switching. When equipment that contains inductors and capacitors are
regularly switched then a short-term voltage spike (transient voltage) is injected onto the
system. This voltage can be very high and is more than capable of causing damage. There is no
fault, but there is a problem. Transient voltages are a natural function of the switching of
capacitive and inductive devices.
• This can cause damage to computer systems, injecting a signal onto data cables;
• It can cause arcing at switch contacts with consequent overheating.
You will appreciate that these are just some of the types of fault that are inherent. They are
designed into the installation, where, with a little more care, they could have been designed
out of the installation.
Great care needs to be given here, particularly in the light of EAWR89. Regulation 4.1 of the
EAWR89 requires that:-
All systems shall be at all times be of such construction as to prevent, so far as is reasonably
practicable, danger.
This, as you can see, is quite a wide range of responsibilities. This is a requirement of the law!
You are already aware that under the HASWA74 you have a responsibility to yourself and
those that your work affects.
Ignorance is no excuse!
When work is carried out in such a way that safety is compromised then accidents will happen.
Of course they are not really accidents! If you install wiring, plant or equipment in such a way
that you know something could go wrong, or in contravention of BS7671:2001 and other
guidance, then there is no accident.
The implication is that it is up to you to know what your limitations are and to remain within
them. No one has a grasp of everything. The more you know, the more you know what you don’t
know! (Think about it!)
Name as many things that you can that you would consider negligent when working on
electrical systems or equipment.
As you can see the list is a long one, and I have only made a few points here. Try and think up
some of your own, you’ve probably done some of them.
Cable connections
Faults occur here for a number of reasons.
• Loose connections. These lead to an increase in heat and hence resistance. This in turn
leads to more heat being generated until either a protective device operates, a cable
open circuits or a fire starts;
• Different metal connections. Aluminium and copper do not like each other chemically.
When they are in direct contact they react with each other and there is a resistance
increase.
rear of the box. Connections that are loose will lead to a build up of heat and a classic
• Switchgear has similar problems to both sockets and switches, with loose and
incorrect connections. Other problems include incorrect ratings for the connected
load and short circuit ratings;
• Contactors can have the wrong coil fitted; poor overload settings, incorrect ratings,
loose connections, low oil in dampers, wear on contacts etc.
• Electronic devices are usually very reliable, but when they are operated beyond their
design parameters than problems occur. The two specific areas are with dimmer
switches and certain RCD’s, where testing using a 500V d.c. insulation resistance
tester may damage the internal components. Loose connections will also cause
overheating and possible damage.
Luminaires
Problems that occur with light fittings include:-
• Loose connections causing overheating;
• Incorrect size of lamp causing overheating, which causes the wires to harden and
become brittle;
• Shades that are too heavy causing strain to be put on wires and connections.
Summary
The particular problems relating to specific items of equipment will vary according to many
different factors.
Faults can be listed under a series of main headings as inherent faults, faults caused by
negligence and other.
Inherent faults relate to the nature of the installation itself.
Negligence relates to installation faults, where people have done something wrong.
Other types of fault may relate to faulty components or circumstances outside the control of
the designer or installer.
2/. You have been called out to a fish dock at 5a.m. The supply has failed to the area that
you are working in. A number of other electricians have been called out. How will you
proceed? Is this likely to be an inherent fault or another type of fault?
3/. Take a look at a typical fluorescent fitting. Highlight the possible range of faults that
can exist. State whether the fault would lead to a fault current or would simply cause
the fitting not to operate correctly.
Session
6
Factors affecting repair or replacement
What factors affect the decision to repair or
replace a faulty item of equipment?
In the previous session we considered the symptoms of particular faults. With any faulty
equipment a key question will be, ‘should I replace or repair the equipment’? This is important
and there are a number of thoughts that should pass through your mind. It is these that we
will consider in this session.
What factors will affect your decision to repair or replace an item of equipment?
Access
Before we consider whether equipment should be replaced or repaired, or even before we
begin fault finding itself we must be aware that the work we do, we do for a customer and the
wishes of the customer are key. For example, imagine that you are called to an office with lots
of computers etc. You cannot simply start turning circuits off without recognising the
customers’ own business depends on the work being maintained. Data must be saved and people
must be kept busy.
What choices are open to you when wanting to access a busy office to find a fault or
carry out some repair?
An electrician was called to a generator fault in a large clothing retailer in Glasgow. He turned
the supply off without informing anyone and the computer controlling the whole of the point
of sale system was turned off. No sales could be made and the electrician was marched off
the premises.
Repair or replace?
There comes a point when looking at a piece of equipment that you need to be absolutely
convinced that it is worth repairing. In the same way when a fault appears on an installation
the problems may be so complicated that the only recommendation is for a rewire.
There are a number of factors that we need to consider when coming to any judgement about
these issues. These are:-
• Cost of replacement – not only how much will it cost, but also how much will the cost
of labour be. Assuming that the replacement might not be immediately essential, what
will be the cost of doing nothing?
• Availability of replacement – how quickly can the item be found? Is it an off-the-shelf
item or will a special order need to be made?
• Downtime during the fault and repair – how much production is lost? If the production
cost is too great, how can the repair be time-managed?
• Availability of staff and resources – is the labour in place to safely and efficiently
repair the fault?
• Legal responsibility – this includes warranties and the requirements of licensing
authorities and H&S legislation.
• Is the replacement item compatible with existing equipment?
Installation
When you are called to an installation it is usual to go for a repair. A number of the factors
listed above do apply however.
The cost of replacing an installation varies depending on the size, but a full rewire can run into
millions of pounds.
In those circumstances it is often quicker and easier to simply replace damaged items rather
than spending too much time on finding the actual fault directly.
Staff availability for the repair is also relevant. Not every electrician is comfortable in every
situation when fault finding. In addition the employer has to manage his staff. People cannot
be stood around just waiting for something to happen, unless of course someone is willing to
pay for that time.
In many industrial and commercial environments access can only be gained at certain times.
This may be due to health and safety reasons or just because of the processes and work
patterns involved. When access times vary then the electrician has to fit around the client.
Access to parts of the installation will be affected by how much can be turned off and this
depends on the nature of the organisation of the switchgear. It is normal to be able to isolate
sections. However, you do need to be aware that simply disconnecting circuits may not be wise.
Remember that disconnection of c.p.c’s when other circuits are still live can lead to dangerous
potentials appearing across the c.p.c should a separate earth fault occur elsewhere on the
installation.
Certain aspects of an installation may require that an emergency or standby supply comes into
operation. This must be taken into account when isolating is taking place and where it can
reasonably be expected that this will lead to the standby supplies activating.
If a client calls out an electrician and lets him get on with the jab of finding and repairing the
fault then all the responsibility falls on the electrician. The electrician automatically becomes
the ‘authorised person’ (duty holder). This means he is responsible for those parts of the
installation that are under his control, and not only for those areas of the installation that he
is working on but also those parts that he affects by his working.
Very careful judgements need to be made when looking at any fault in an installation.
Equipment
The judgements to be made with a piece of equipment are similar but with some necessary
complications.
The cost of replacement becomes a major factor when thinking about repairing an item of
equipment. Manufacturing processes today mean that it is often more cost efficient to
replace an item of equipment than repair it. You are charged out at a set rate by your
employer, that rate can reasonably be in the region of £20-45/hour. The question of whether
to repair a £20 piece of equipment with something new or repair it is quite an easy one to
answer. In the same way many smaller motors are cheaper to replace than repair, even
thought they are quite expensive. The cost of rewinding motors makes the decision debatable.
The availability of replacement with a like for like item is also problematical when the
equipment is a number of years old. You may end up having to repair because that equipment is
absolutely necessary and so replacement is not an option. Alternatively a replacement for
something more modern might be considered.
An item of equipment might be easy to repair whilst it is in situ, however, the loss of
production may more than outweigh the cost of replacement, and so replacement becomes the
only option. In fact in most maintenance departments they will have certain items of
equipment duplicated just so they can replace with a minimum of downtime.
The same legal responsibilities apply for items of equipment as for whole installations. For this
reason PAT testing of portable appliances has become prevalent.
Exercise 6.
1/. A large commercial office contains approximately fifty (50) personal computers, five
laser printers and two inkjet printers. The supplies for the computers are fed from
eight circuits with the printers all fed from the same circuit. All circuit are protected
by 32A 30mA RCBO’s. The client has called you to complain that at certain times the
RCBO’s trip for no apparent reason.
a). What factors will affect how you approach this problem?
b). What is the likely problem?
c). Suggest possible solutions to the client.
d). How might your chosen solution be put into effect with the minimum of
disruption?
Session
7
Special precautions
In the last session we considered the factors that affect the way in which problems are dealt
with. We took account of costs, availability of replacements etc. In this final session of this
outcome we are going to consider some of the particular situations where special precautions
need to be taken. We are going to consider six specific areas where additional precautions
need to be considered.
• Fibre optic cabling;
• Static;
• Electronic equipment;
• IT equipment;
• High frequency and capacitance;
• Storage batteries.
The light used is infrared radiation just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. The
infrared is generated by a very small semiconductor laser made from gallium, aluminium and
arsenic.
Photons emitted as a
concentrated beam of light Dielectric strengthening
material
Atoms Electrodes
Cladding
Fibre core
Outer jacket
Mirror Protective buffer
Photons Semi-silvered
or coating
Power source mirror
Laser generator Fibre optic cable
There are some new applications of fibre optic cables for lighting purposes. These have a
different light source and are not used for carrying signals. The light coming from a light box
some distance away.
Static
Static is caused for a variety of reasons. When you walk across a nylon carpet and then touch
something metal you may well find that you receive an electric shock. This electric shock has
been caused by the charge that you have built up, suddenly discharging through you when you
touch something that conducts. This shock can have quite a high voltage, and can be dangerous
to certain electronic circuits, particularly circuits containing chips.
Before you work on any circuitry, you should always discharge yourself to some earthed
metalwork or wear a discharge band on your wrist to make sure that you are at a low potential
relative to the circuitry.
Capacitance however appears in many areas, without a capacitor being present. As long as
there are two conductors separated by an insulator, then there will be a capacitive effect.
MIMS cables after they have been tested often retain sufficient charge to give a shock.
Cables that run parallel for long distances, such as transmission lines, gain a certain level of
capacitance. There is even a capacitive effect between the windings of coils, although it is
very small and is swamped by the size of the inductor, it is still there.
As stated on the previous page, static electricity is eliminated by strapping the body to the
chassis of the equipment and tying that to earth.
Correct preparation for hands-on work to ensure that there is no static and no use of
insulation resistance testers is vital.
IT equipment
The shutdown of IT equipment can lead to many people turning prematurely bald! This usually
occurs when vast amounts of data have just been wiped because it hasn’t been saved. It is
never acceptable to just switch off a supply and start working when computer systems have
not been backed up. Many businesses only operate because there are computers and as such it
is important to liaise with the client to ensure that shutdown only occurs at acceptable times.
This will usually be just after a major back up of all their systems
In addition, certain items of office equipment, such as power supplies, can have very large
capacitors present. These capacitors can contain enough energy to cause real risk to those
working on it. It is necessary to discharge any capacitors before work is carried out on a
power supply.
In most areas of an installation where you might reasonably expect to see capacitors, such as
with power factor correction capacitors, you will find that they have a resistor connected
across them to ensure that they discharge over a short period of time.
Storage batteries
In 1789 an Italian, Luigi Galvani, noticed that frogs’ legs twitched when they were touched by
two dissimilar metals. Another Italian, Allessandro Volta, showed that the electric current
that produced the muscular spasm was not due to the limb itself, but to the moisture in it. In
1799 he developed a simple battery, comprising of copper and zinc discs separated by a
saltwater soaked cloth. This type of assembly is known as a ‘voltaic pile’
When electric current passes through an electrolyte (a liquid that allows ions to move freely
across it, ions being electrically charged atoms) it ‘breaks down’ and hydrogen ions (positive)
are collected at the cathode. Sulphate ions (negative) are collected at the anode: the anode
and cathode merely being the two dissimilar metals. The passing of current through an
electrolyte is called ‘charging’.
Load
- +
Cathode Anode
Electrolyte
Simple cell
If a load is connected between the plates then current will flow from the anode to the
cathode. Chemically, the opposite occurs to what has just occurred with charging. The delivery
of current to a load is called ‘discharging’.
There are two types of cell (battery) in general use. (A battery is a collection of cells). These
are ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ cells. A primary cell can be used only the once and cannot be
recharged. A secondary cell can be recharged. There are two types of secondary cell; ‘lead-
acid’ and ‘alkaline’.
The energy supplied may be used to supply a load but will only be sufficient for a limited time,
as the chemical qualities of the electrolyte deteriorate with use.
When a battery or cell gives out a current the density of the electrolyte is reduced and when
a battery is recharged the density of the electrolyte is restored. This means that if the
density of the electrolyte can be measured then the level of charge can be estimated.
The instrument used for measuring the level of charge is called the ‘hydrometer’, and
measures the ‘specific gravity’ of the electrolyte. Any diagram for a hydrometer would be
dated at best. Have a look in a local Halfords and see the range of hydrometers there are!
For a lead-acid cell the range of values of specific gravity should be as the table below shows.
Specific % of Charge
Gravity
1.28 100
1.25 75
1.22 50
1.19 25
1.18 Should not drop below this point
1.16 Fully discharged
There is no short cut for experience however. Remember to be very careful. When batteries
are being charged then hydrogen is given off. If you make a mistake then an explosion can
occur. You will find those rooms that are used for the charging of lead-acid batteries have a
reasonable ventilation system.
This lays a duty on the electrician or business to make sure that the batteries under charge
are not going to cause a problem.
Alkaline cells
There are two types of alkaline cells in use; the nickel-iron (NiFe), and the nickel-cadmium
(NiCad).
Both types are housed in a steel case and the electrolyte is caustic potash (potassium
hydroxide – KOH) and distilled water. This gives a specific gravity of about 1.15 to 1.2,
depending on the type of cell and the conditions of service. The specific gravity does not alter
during charge or discharge however and as such a hygrometer will not help to determine the
level of charge.
The plates are separated by insulating rods and mounted in non-metallic crates to insulate the
cells from each other.
Summary
In this brief final session we have considered some special instances where particular
precautions need to be taken.
The specific areas touched on include fibre optic cabling, static, damage to electronic devices,
shut down of IT equipment, high frequency and large capacitor circuits and the presence of
storage batteries.
2/. Using any sources available to you, investigate how sensitive electronic equipment can
be protected from lightning strikes.
3/. A 100mH inductor has a resistance of 65Ω. The supply is 230V, 50Hz.
a). What will be the current drawn from the supply?
b). If the frequency were to double what would happen to the current drawn
from the supply?
c). How would this change in frequency affect the power available?
[I know you have not looked at you’re a.c. work in a while – now is the time to revise it!]
4/. A large storage capacitor has been charged from a 500V d.c. source. If the
capacitance is 15µF and the energy stored in a capacitor can be calculated using
CU 2
W = , determine the amount of energy available. What voltage will be available at
2
the terminals of the capacitor?
1/. State two conditions where you could reasonably expect to work live. 2
2/. What is competence? 2
3/. State four requirements of an approved test lead. 4
4/. How might you isolate a circuit? 5
5/. Define the terms isolation and switching off for mechanical maintenance. 2
6/. What process would you follow when turning the supply back on in an
installation? 4
7/. What is an inherent fault? 2
8/. Give four examples of inherent faults. 4
9/. State four common areas of fault. 4
10/. When diagnosing a fault what is required? 3
11/. A room is to be used to store batteries. What precautions would you
take if you were called to investigate a fault in it? 4
12/. You are called to a fault on a motor. The client tells you that one moment
it was working and the next it wasn’t. After further questioning it
becomes apparent that the motor has smelt ‘funny’ for a period of time
and that it has not been working as well as normal. It is a three-phase
induction motor. What will you do? 10
13/. An old school has had its lights originally wired in bare MIMS cable. You
are called in to carry out a periodic inspection and test. After carrying
out an insulation resistance test to earth you realise that the readings
are lower than 0.8MΩ. What is the one major problem and what will you
do? 8