Part - 8

Non-traditional Machining Processes

Nov 2023
Outline:
Introduction

Ultrasonic Machining

Electro Discharge Machining

Electro Chemical Machining

Electron and Laser Beam Machining

Plasma Arc Machining and

Water Jet Machining.

 1. Introduction
— Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that are harder than the

materials themselves.

— New and novel materials because of their greatly improved chemical, mechanical and thermal

properties are sometimes impossible to machine using traditional machining processes.

— Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials like ceramics and

composites or machining under very tight tolerances as in micromachined components.

— Generally, extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining

processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling.

 Cont’d…
Unconventional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes

that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical,

thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but

do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional

manufacturing processes.

Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation

may take place. For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case

of ECM material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution a atomic

level.
 Cont’d…
Nontraditional machining processes, also called advanced machining processes, are

employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or

economical due to special reasons as outlined below.

> Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining

> When the work piece is too flexible or slender

> When the shape of the part is too complex.

Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra

required machining conditions.

When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages over non-

traditional machining processes

Need for Unconventional Machining Processes
Most of these processes did immerse after the World War 2.

During world war the situation was, the manufacturing activities needed to be fast. The products

requirements were tremendous and the time for production were very less. Therefore, there was a

need for processes that can produce the products at a very faster rate.

In order to cope up with increased demand and rapid production of sophisticated and more

durable products and to be competitive, the new processes were developed.

The advent of new materials such as metal matrix composites, super alloys, ceramics aluminates

and high performance polymers called for development of newer manufacturing processes.

Another stringent requirement to machine complex geometrical shapes, which high precision

and accuracy.
 Important Characteristic of
UCM processes
 Performance is independent of strength barrier.

 Performance depends on the thermal, electrical, magnetic or/and

chemical properties of workpiece materials.

 Use different kinds of energy in direct form.

 In general, low MRR but better quality products.

 Comparatively high initial investment cost of machine tools and

high–operating cost.
 Classification of UCM Processes
• Based on the type of energy used for material removal:
1. Mechanical Processes:

I. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

II. Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

III. Water Jet Machining (WJM)

IV. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

2. Electrochemical Processes:

I. Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

II. Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)

III. Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)

3. Electro-Thermal Processes:

I. Electro-discharge machining (EDM)

II. Laser Jet Machining (LJM)

III. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

4. Chemical Processes:

I. Chemical Machining (CM)

II. Photochemical Milling (PCM)

 1. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to

erode holes or cavities on hard or brittle work piece by using shaped tools,

high frequency mechanical motion and an abrasive slurry.

USM offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials

such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing

complex operations to provide intricate shapes and work piece profiles.

It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are

difficult to machine by traditional manufacturing processes.

 Cont’d…

The hard particles in slurry are accelerated toward the surface of the work piece by a

tool oscillating at a frequency up to 100 KHz - through repeated abrasions, the tool

machines creates a cavity of a cross section identical to its own.

 Cont’d…

# USM is primarily targeted for the machining of hard and brittle materials

such as boron carbide, ceramics, titanium carbides, quartz, etc.

# USM is a versatile machining process as far as properties of materials are

concerned.

# This process is able to effectively machine all materials whether they are

electrically conductive or insulator.

 Cont’d…

For an effective cutting operation, the following parameters need to be

carefully considered:

1) The machining tool must be selected to be highly wear resistant,

such as high-carbon steels.

2) The abrasives (25-60 μm in dia.) in the (water-based, up to 40%

solid volume) slurry includes: Boron carbide, silicon carbide and

aluminum oxide.
 Process Parameters
With an increase in frequency of the tool head the
• The important parameters which affect
MRR should increase proportionally.
the process are the:
When the amplitude of the vibration increases the
1) Frequency
MRR is expected to increase.
2) Amplitude
Increase in static loading, the MRR tends to increase.
3) Static loading (feed force)
However, at higher force values of the tool head due to
4) Hardness ratio of the tool and
grain crushing decreases the MRR.
the workpiece
MRR should also rise proportionately with the mean
5) Grain size
grain diameter ‘d’.
6) Concentration of the abrasive
When ‘d’ becomes too large, the crushing tendency
in the slurry
increases.
 Applications
> The beauty of USM is that it can make non round shapes in hard and

brittle materials.

> Ultrasonically machined non round-hole part is shown in Figure 2.

Advantage of USM

> USM process is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the

microstructures, chemical or physical properties of the work piece and

offers virtually stress free machined surfaces.

> Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity

> Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials

> Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher

structural integrity.

> USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface.
 Disadvantages of USM
> USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal

rates than traditional fabrication processes.

> Tool wears fast in USM.

> Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

Summary of USM
 2. Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-

traditional machining processes.

The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as

metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique

utilizes thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the work

piece by a series of discrete electrical sparks between the workpiece and the

electrode.
 Cont’d…

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove

the softer material whereas non-traditional machining processes such as EDM uses

electrical spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired

shape.

So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process
 Cont’d…
A schematic of an EDM process is shown in Figure 4, where the tool and the
workpiece are immersed in a dielectric fluid.

EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored

in a capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the
workpiece (anode).
 Working principle of EDM
As shown in Figure 4, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across

the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece.

This high voltage induces an electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow

gap between electrode and workpiece.

This cause conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of

strongest electrical field.

When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high,

the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid,

removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.

 Cont’d…

The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the

range of 10−6 𝑡𝑜 10−3 𝑚𝑚3 .

The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following

formula:

Where, I is the current amp, Tm is the melting temperature of workpiece in

oC.
Dielectric fluids
Dielectric fluids used in EDM process are hydrocarbon oils, kerosene and

deionised water.

The functions of the dielectric fluid are to:

# Act as an insulator between the tool and the workpiece

# Act as coolant

# Act as a flushing medium for the removal of the chips.

The electrodes for EDM process usually are made of graphite, brass, copper and

copper-tungsten alloys.
 Design considerations for EDM process

 Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided.

 The surface smoothness value should not be specified too fine.

 Rough cut should be done by other machining process. Only

finishing operation should be done in this process as MRR for this

process is low.
Advantages of EDM
> By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined.

> No burrs are left in machined surface.

> Thin and fragile/brittle components can be machined without distortion.

> Complex internal shapes can be machined.

Limitations of EDM:

> This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials;

> Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared to conventional machining

processes;

> Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur;

> Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.

 Application of EDM
The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine materials.

Parts with complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools, extrusion dies, difficult

internal shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be made by EDM process.

Some of the shapes made by EDM process are shown in Figure.

3. Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the

principle of reverse electroplating.

In this process, particles travel from the anodic material (workpiece)

toward the cathodic material (machining tool).

A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the depleted material before it

has a chance to reach the machining tool.

The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool shape.
 Cont’d…
> ECM is based on the principle of electrolysis.

> In a metal, electricity is conducted by free electrons but in a solution the

conduction of electricity is achieved through the movement of ions.

> Thus the flow of current through an electrolyte is always accompanied by the
movement of matter.

> In the ECM process the work-piece is connected to a positive electrode and the
tool to the negative terminal for metal removal
> The dissolution rate is more when the gap

is less and vice versa. This is because the

current density is inversely proportional to

the gap.

> Now, if the tool is given a downward

motion, the work surface tends to take the

same shape as that of the tool, and at a

steady state the gap is uniform. Thus, the

shape of the tool is represented in the job.

 Cont’d…
In an ECM process, the electrolyte is pumped at a high pressure through the tool and

the small gap between the tool and the work-piece.

The electrolyte is so chosen that the anode is dissolved but there is no deposition on

the cathode.

The order of the current and voltage are a few 1000 amps and 8-20 volts. The gap is

of the order of 0.1-0.2mm .

The metal removal rate is typically 1600 mm3/sec for each 1000 Amp.

Approximately 3 KW/hr. are needed to remove 16,000 mm3 of metal which is almost

30 times the energy required in a conventional process.

 Cont’d…
The ECM tool is positioned very close to the work piece and a low voltage, high

amperage DC current is passed between the work piece and electrode.

Some of the shapes made by ECM process is shown in Figure.

 Cont’d…
Material removal rate, MRR, in ECM

MRR = C * I * h (cm3/min)

where C: specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052 cm3/amp-min for nickel); I:

current (amp); h: current efficiency (90–100%).

The rate at which metal can be electrochemically removed are in proportion to the

current passed through the electrolyte and the elapsed time for that operation.

Many factors other than current influence the rate of machining.

These involve electrolyte type, rate of electrolyte flow, and some other process

conditions.
 Advantages of ECM
# Materials’ hardness is not a factor, making ECM suitable for machining difficult-to-

machine materials.

# The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress. No tool wears

during ECM process.

# Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved..

# High surface finish (up to 25 μm in) can be achieved by ECM process.

# Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in the aerospace

industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts and nozzles can be

machined repeatedly and accurately.

 Limitations of ECM

ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or flat bottoms

because of the tendency for the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles.

ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high equipment

costs, is usually used primarily for highly specialized applications.

4. Laser–Beam Machining
Laser-beam machining is a thermal

material-removal process that utilizes a

high-energy, coherent light beam to melt

and vaporize particles on the surface of

metallic and non-metallic work pieces.

Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and

mark.

LBM is particularly suitable for making

accurately placed holes.

 Cont’d…
Different types of lasers are available for manufacturing operations which are

as follows:

> CO2 gas (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in

the infrared region. It can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode.

> Nd:YAG: Neodymium- doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (Y3Al5O12)

laser is a solid state laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic

cable. It can provide up to 50 kW power in pulsed mode and 1 kW in

continuous-wave mode.
Basic principles of laser
> The term laser refers to light amplification by stimulated

emission of radiation.

> Light energy of a particular frequency can be used to

stimulate the electrons in an atom to emit additional light

with exactly the same characteristics as the original

stimulating light source.

> Photon energy is proportional to frequency but inversely

proportional to wavelength.

> The photon stimulates the atom, causing it to emit an

additional photon with identical characteristics to the

stimulating photon.
→ Two types of lasers: continuous wave and pulsed lasers

→ Pulsed lasers: long pulsed lasers and short pulsed lasers.

Long pulsed laser machining

Properties of laser beam

> Monochromatic – single wavelength.

> Coherent – same phase relationship.

> Directional – low divergence, beam spreads very little.

> Intense – high density of usable photons.

 Applications of LBM
# LBM can make very accurate holes as small as 0.005mm in refractory metals, ceramics, and

composite material without warping the work pieces. This process is used widely for

drilling.

# In LB drilling, energy transferred (e.g., via Nd YAG laser) into the workpiece melts the

material at the point of contact, which subsequently changes into a plasma and leaves the

region.

# A gas jet (typically, oxygen) can further facilitate this phase transformation and departure

of material removed.

# Laser drilling should be targeted for hard materials and hole geometries that are difficult to

achieve with other methods.

 Cont’d…
A typical SEM micrograph hole drilled by laser beam machining process

employed in making a hole is shown in Figure.

5. Laser beam cutting (milling)

A laser spot reflected onto the surface of a workpiece travels along a

prescribed trajectory and cuts into the material.

Continuous-wave mode (CO2) gas lasers are very suitable for laser cutting

providing high-average power, yielding high material-removal rates, and

smooth cutting surfaces.

Advantage of laser cutting
> No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.

> The process is stressless allowing very fragile materials to be laser cut without any

support.

> Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.

> Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.

> It is a cost effective and flexible process.

> High accuracy parts can be machined.

> No cutting lubricants required.

> No tool wear.

Limitations of laser cutting

# Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping

# Limitations on thickness due to taper.

# High capital cost

# High maintenance cost

# Assist or cover gas required.

6. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is a

thermal process.

Here a stream of high speed electrons

impinges on the work surface so that the

kinetic energy of electrons is transferred

to work producing intense heating.

Depending upon the intensity of heating

the work piece can melt and vaporize.

The process of heating by electron beam

is used for annealing, welding or metal

removal.
 Cont’d…

> During EBM process very high velocities can be obtained by using

enough voltage of 150,000V can produce velocity of 228,478 km/sec

and it is focused on 10 – 200 μm diameter.

> Power density can go up to 6,500 billion W/sq.mm. Such a power

density can vaporize any substance immediately.

> Complex contours can be easily machined by maneuvering the electron

beam using magnetic deflection coils.

 Cont’d…

> To avoid a collision of the accelerating electrons with the air molecules, the

process has to be conducted in vacuum chamber. So EBM is not suitable

for large work pieces.

> EBM Process is accomplished with vacuum so no possibility of

contamination.

> No effects on work piece because about 25-50 μm away from machining

spot remains at room temperature and so no effects of high temperature

on work.
 Cont’d…

Elements:

1. Electrons generated in a vacuum

chamber

2. Similar to cathode ray tube

3. Electron gun

4. Cathode - tungsten filament at 2500 –

3000 degC

5. Emission current – between 25 and

100 mA (a measure of electron beam

density)
 Cont’d…

In the region where the beam of electrons meets the workpiece, their

energy is converted into heat.

Workpiece surface is melted by a combination of electron pressure and

surface tension.

Melted liquid is rapidly ejected and vaporized to effect material removal.

Temperature of the workpiece outside the region being machined is

reduced by pulsing the electron beam (10 kHz or less).

Advantages of EBM:
1. Very small size holes can be produced.

2. Surface finish produced is good.

3. Highly reactive metals like Al and Mg can be machined very easily.

Limitations:
1) Material removal rate is very low compared to other convectional machining processes.

2) Maintaining perfect vacuum is very difficult.

3) The machining process can’t be seen by operator.

4) Work piece material should be electrically conducting.

Applications:
1. Used for producing very small size holes like holes in diesel injection nozzles, etc.

2. Used only for circular holes.

 7. Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas to

melt and displace material in its path.

This is a method of cutting metal with a plasma-arc, or tungsten inert-gas-arc, torch.

The torch produces a high velocity jet of high temperature ionized gas called plasma that

cuts by melting and removing material from the work piece.

Temperatures in the plasma zone range from 20,000° to 50,000° F (11,000° to

28,000° C).

It is used as an alternative to oxyfuel-gas cutting, employing an electric arc at very high

temperatures to melt and vaporize the metal.

 Equipment
A plasma arc cutting torch has four

components:

1) The electrode carries the negative charge

from the power supply.

2) The swirl ring spins the plasma gas to

create a swirling flow pattern.

3) The nozzle constricts the gas flow and

increases the arc energy density.

4) The shield channels the flow of

shielding gas and protects the nozzle

from metal spatter.

Principle of Operation

PAM is a thermal cutting process that uses a constricted jet of high-

temperature plasma gas to melt and separate metal.

The plasma arc is formed between a negatively charged electrode inside

the torch and a positively charged work piece.

Heat from the transferred arc rapidly melts the metal, and the high-

velocity gas jet expels the molten material from the cut.
Applications
# The materials cut by PAM are generally those that are difficult to cut by

any other means, such as stainless steels and aluminum alloys.

# It has an accuracy of about 0.008 in.

# It has been used in a variety of operations ranging from high volume

welding of strip metal, to precision welding of surgical instruments, to

automatic repair of jet engine blades, to the manual welding of kitchen

equipment for the food and dairy industry.

8. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work

material at a high velocity.

The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by microcutting action as well

as brittle fracture of the work material.

In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 μm grit size would impinge on

the work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of internal diameter of 0.5

mm with a standoff distance of around 2 mm.

The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material

removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives.
 AJM is different from standard shot or sand blasting, as in AJM, finer abrasive grits are

used and the parameters can be controlled more effectively providing better control over

product quality.
 Mechanics of AJM

> Abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a high velocity and this

impact causes a tiny brittle fracture and the following air or gas carries

away the dislodged small work piece particle.

 Equipment
> In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of

around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas.

> Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be issued

from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas.

> The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired

working pressure.

> The gas is then passed through an air dryer to remove any residual water vapour.

> To remove any oil vapour or particulate contaminant the same is passed through a

series of filters.
 Cont’d…
# Then the carrier gas enters a closed chamber known as the mixing chamber.

# The abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic sieve.

# The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker.

# The abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining chamber via

an electro-magnetic on-off valve.

# The machining enclosure is essential to contain the abrasive and machined particles in

a safe and eco-friendly manner.

# The machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued

from the nozzle onto a work piece traversing under the jet.
 Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics

Abrasives: Abrasive Jet

Material – Al2O3 /SiC / glass beads
⎯ Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
Shape – irregular / spherical
⎯ Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of
Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
abrasive to gas
Mass flow rate - 2 ~ 20 gm/min
⎯ Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm
Carrier gas:
Composition – Air, CO2, N2 Nozzle
Density– Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3 ⎯ Material –WC / sapphire
Velocity– 500 ~ 700 m/s ⎯ Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
Pressure– 2 ~ 10 bar
⎯ Life – 10 ~ 300 hours
Flow rate– 5 ~ 30 lpm
Advantages: Cont’d…
AJM offers several advantages, including the ability to machine intricate and

delicate parts, minimal heat-affected zone, and no thermal distortion.

It can be used on a wide range of materials, including metals, composites, ceramics,

and glass.

Limitations:

AJM has relatively slower material removal rates compared to traditional machining

processes and may produce rougher surface finishes.

Additionally, the abrasive particles can cause nozzle wear and require periodic

maintenance.
Applications

For drilling holes of intricate shapes on hard and brittle materials

For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials

AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning and

etching.

Micro-machining of brittle materials.

 9. Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

# Water jet cutting can reduce the costs and speed up the processes by

eliminating or reducing expensive secondary machining process.

# Since no heat is applied on the materials, cut edges are clean with minimal

burr.

# Problems such as cracked edge defects, crystallization, hardening, reduced

weldability and machinability are reduced in this process.

 Working Principle of WJC
 Water jet technology uses the principle of pressurizing water

to extremely high pressures, and allowing the water to escape

through a very small opening called “orifice” or “jewel”.

 Water jet cutting uses the beam of water exiting the orifice to

cut soft materials.

 This method is not suitable for cutting hard materials. The

inlet water is typically pressurized between 1300 – 4000

bars. This high pressure is forced through a tiny hole in the

jewel which is typically 0.18 to 0.4 mm in diameter. Picture

of water jet chining process.

 Cont’d…

> Nozzle diameter: 0.1 to 0.4 mm

> Pressure: up to 400 MPa

> Velocity: up to 900 m/s

> Fluid is pressurized by a hydraulic

pump.
 Cont’d…

Important process parameters:

> Standoff distance: small to avoid dispersion of the fluid stream (3.2 mm)

> Nozzle opening diameter: affects precision

> Water pressure: high for thicker materials

> Cutting feed rate: the velocity at which the WJC nozzle is traversed along

the cutting path.

 Advantages of Water Jet Cutting

 There is no heat generated in water jet cutting; which is especially useful for cutting tool steel and

other metals where excessive heat may change the properties of the material.

 Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust or particles that are

harmful if inhaled.

Disadvantages of water jet cutting

 One of the main disadvantages of water jet cutting is that a limited number of materials can be cut

economically.

 Thick parts cannot be cut by this process economically and accurately.

 Taper is also a problem with water jet cutting in very thick materials. Taper is when the jet exits the

part at different angle than it enters the part, and cause dimensional inaccuracy
Applications of WJC

# Water jet cutting is mostly used to cut lower strength materials such as

wood, plastics and aluminium.

# When abrasives are added, (abrasive water jet cutting) stronger

materials such as steel and tool steel.

 Summary questions on UCM
1) What are the main differences between traditional machining processes and non-traditional machining

processes?

2) What are the advantages of using non-traditional machining processes compared to traditional machining

methods?

3) Can you explain the working principle of Electrochemical Machining (ECM)?

4) How does Laser Beam Machining (LBM) differ from other non-traditional machining processes?

5) What are the applications of Ultrasonic Machining (USM)?

6) How does Water Jet Machining (WJM) work, and what are its benefits?

7) What are the major challenges or limitations associated with Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)?

8) How does electron beam machining (EBM) differ from laser beam machining (LBM)?