CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY 3

CTCCO3Y/CTCCOY3

LectureR: dr c.e emere

 FOUNDATION

▪ A foundation is the base on which a building rests, and its purpose is to

safely transfer the load of a building to a stable subsoil.
REQUIRED BOOKS
❑ Construction Technology 5th Edition – Roy Chudley, Roger Greeno, Mike
Hurst, Simon Topless.
❑ Advanced Construction Technology 5th Edition – Roy Chudley, Roger Greeno,
Mike Hurst, Simon Topless.
 FOUNDATION

▪ A foundation is the base on which a building rests, and its purpose is to

safely transfer the load of a building to a stable subsoil.
FUNCTIONS OF A FOUNDATION
❑ Support: It provides a stable base for the entire structure, ensuring that the
building can safely bear the weight of everything above it.

❑ Even Load Distribution: The foundation distributes the weight of the

building evenly across the ground, preventing any uneven settling that
could cause structural damage.

❑ Anchor: It anchors the building against natural forces such as wind,

floods, and earthquakes, helping to keep it stable and upright.

❑ Moisture Barrier: A foundation also acts as a barrier to moisture,

preventing water from seeping into the building and causing damage to the
structure and interior.

❑ Insulation: In some cases, foundations help insulate the building against

cold or heat, contributing to the overall energy efficiency of the structure.
REQUIREMENTS OF FOUNDATIONS

▪ Safely sustain and transmit the combined dead and imposed loads to
the ground to prevent any settlement or other movement in any part of
the building, adjoining building, or works.

▪ Be deep enough or constructed in such a way as to avoid damage

caused by swelling, shrinkage or freezing of the subsoil.

▪ Be capable of resisting attack by deleterious material, such as

sulphates, in the subsoil.

Subsoils are the soils below the topsoil, starting at about 300 mm below the
surface of the soil and deeper.
TERMINOLOGIES

❑ Backfill – materials excavated from th e site and used to

fill in around the walls and foundations if suitable.

❑ Bearing capacity – safe load per unit area that the ground can carry.

❑ Bearing pressure – The pressure produced on the ground by the loads.

❑ Made ground – Refuse, excavated rock or soil deposited to fill in a

depression or to raise the site above its natural level.

❑ Settlement – Ground movement, which may be caused by:

➢ deformation of the soil due to imposed loads.
➢ volume changes of the soil as a result of seasonal conditions.
➢ mass movement of the ground in unstable areas.
Depression of soil
FACTORS DETERMINING THE PLAN SIZE OF
A FOUNDATION

➢ Type of building
➢ The total loads of the building.
➢ The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil.
 SELECTING A FOUNDATION/KIND OF SUBSTRUCTURE
▪ Type of building

Single floor Single storey Multiple storey

 SELECTING A FOUNDATION/KIND OF SUBSTRUCTURE
▪ Nature of the loadings
Loads exerted on a building
Common building components
 SELECTING A FOUNDATION/KIND OF SUBSTRUCTURE
▪ The conditions on the building site/Soil condition.

Soil degradation Soil erosion

 TYPES OF SOIL
Gravel: Small pieces of stone varying from a pea’s size to an egg.
Sand: Similar small pieces of stone (usually quartz), which are small
but each grain, is visible to the eye.
Silt: Same as sand except it is so fine that you cannot see individual grains.
Clay: Soil that sticks when wet but very hard when completely dry.
Organic Soil:
▪ Soil is mainly composed of rotting decomposing organic matter such as
leaves, plants and vegetable matter.
▪ It is spongy when wet, usually smells of decaying matter,
▪ Is dark in colour and is usually damp.
General qualities of a good soil

▪ Balanced Chemistry and Neutral pH: Good soil should have a neutral
pH to prevent it from corroding or rusting construction materials.

▪ Stability Through Wet and Dry Seasons:

▪ The soil should remain stable during wet and dry cycles. Expanding
soils can cause foundation cracks, so stability is crucial.

▪ Soils that contain more rocks, sand, and gravel are stronger and can
withstand the changing seasons.
General qualities of a good soil

▪ Strength Under Pressure: The soil must withstand the weight of the
building without causing it to sink into the ground.

▪ Excellent Water Management:

▪ Able to capture precipitation effectively, minimising runoff and

erosion that could damage the structure.

▪ Soils that contain organic matter have a higher tendency to hold

water, which can result in shifting and cracking of the foundation.
 FOUNDATION TYPES

1. Normal strip foundation

2. Stepped foundation
Strip Foundations
3. Wide-strip foundation
4. Deep trench fill (strip) foundation
5. Raft foundation
6. Pad foundation
7. Short-bored foundation
PREPARING THE GROUND FOR FOUNDATION

Sandy Soil:

▪ Flood the ground where the soil is sandy once the trenches have been
dug.

▪ Compact the trenches thoroughly to improve cohesion and make the

soil stable.
PREPARING THE GROUND FOR FOUNDATION

Heaving clay

▪ Soak the site thoroughly once the trenches have been dug, (especially
in moist climatic conditions)

▪ Only start building when the site has dried sufficiently for casting the
foundation and floor slabs. This ‘sealing-in’ of the moisture greatly
reduces sub-soil movement.

▪ Consult a specialist engineer if you do have heaving clay on a site

Heaving soil swells or rise and then shrinks when dried, causing cracks
The danger of building your wall on a heaving clay soil.
STRIP FOUNDATIONS
▪ These include normal strip foundations, stepped foundations, wide-strip
foundations and deep-strip trench foundations.

▪ Most buildings up to four storeys in height have strip foundations.

1. NORMAL STRIP FOUNDATION

Principles
▪ Placed centrally under the walls.

▪ Made of plain concrete.

▪ The width should be equal to (wall thickness + 2 x thickness of the

concrete), thus forming a 45º angle between the base of the wall and the
bottom edge of the concrete base.
How To Calculate the Width of the Strip Foundation

▪ Assuming the wall thickness (Y) is 230mm, and the foundation depth (Z)
is 200mm. Calculate the foundation width.

The foundation width

= Y + 2Z

= 230 + 2 x 200 = 630mm

Exercise
▪ Work out the width of a double-storey building foundation
considering the cross-section of a typical strip foundation in the figure
below.
Benefits of Strip Foundations
▪ They have a quick and simple installation process.
▪ They require simple formwork for installing the reinforcement.
▪ They distribute the loads uniformly over the soil and ensure structural
stability.
▪ They are the cost-effective options as the required construction
material is cheap.
▪ They can be easily constructed by professionals and manual labour
who understand the process.
Normal strip foundation (Mass concrete)
Normal strip foundation (reinforced concrete)
2. STEPPED FOUNDATIONS
▪ The most economical procedure on a sloping site
▪ Reduces:
- the amount of excavation
- backfill
- surplus soil removal and
- trench timbering support is required.

A stepped foundation

A stepped foundation
Principles

▪ Foundation is stepped to follow the line of the ground.

▪ The depth of each step is usually 200mm (multiple brick courses), and

▪ The lap of concrete at the step should not be less than the depth of the
concrete foundation.

Stepped foundation formulation

Formwork in place for a stepped foundation ensuring the height of the steps is correct
3. WIDE –STRIP FOUNDATIONS

▪ Used where the load-bearing capacity of the ground is low:

- in marshy ground

- soft clay

- silt and ‘made’ ground

▪ Used to spread the load over a larger area of soil by virtue of the increase in
strip width.

▪ Reduces the pressure on the soil.

A wide strip foundation.

Principles

▪ Transverse reinforcement is provided to withstand the tension in the strip

foundation and handle additional load.
▪ The depth below ground level should be the same as for normal strip
foundations.
▪ All reinforcement should be lapped at corners and junctions.

A wide strip foundation.

4. DEEP TRENCH FILL (STRIP) FOUNDATIONS

▪ First introduced to reduce the expense of constructing normal strip

foundations to 900mm or more depth in shrinkable clay or poor soils.

▪ To counteract the variable soil conditions in different seasons.

▪ Reducing the width of the foundation trench reduces:

- the amount of excavation,

- backfill and

- surplus soil removal.

▪ Provides greater resistance to fracture caused by

unequal settlement.

A deep strip foundation

▪ Concrete trench fill is a more economical substitute for the traditional
strip foundation with brickwork below ground.

▪ Time-saving because completing foundations with concrete trench fill is

quicker.

Principle

▪ A minimum width of 425 mm is advised for use with a cavity wall.

Pouring concrete into a trench to make building foundations
5. RAFT FOUNDATIONS

▪ A reinforced concrete platform that ‘floats’ as the soil beneath it expands and
contracts.

A raft foundation
Essence

▪ Often used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils as they can
accommodate small soil settlements.

▪ The upper crust of soil (450-600mm) is often stiffer than the lower subsoil
in poor soils, and building a light raft on this crust is usually better than
penetrating it with a strip foundation.

A raft foundation
Principles

▪ Comprises reinforced edge beam combined with the ‘platform’ or floor slab.

▪ Raft foundations are designed in various ways.

A raft foundation
A raft foundation
A raft foundation
A raft foundation
6. PAD FOUNDATIONS

A pad foundation is a type of shallow foundation used to support individual

points of load.

Purpose: They safely transfer superstructure loads (such as those from

columns or heavy structures) to the suitable ground or subsoil.
Modality
▪ The isolated concrete pad foundations are spread in the excavation base.

▪ The piers, or brick or concrete columns, are raised to ground level on the
pad foundations.

▪ They support reinforced concrete ground beams on which the walls are
built.

Pad foundation Pier passing through poor soil to the pad

Factors Affecting Design
▪ Accessibility

▪ Condition of subsurface

▪ Load magnitude

▪ Proximity to other structures

▪ Water table depth

E.g. The spread of the pad foundation is determined by the loads on it and
the bearing capacity of the subsoil.
Benefits

▪ It is sometimes better to construct a foundation of isolated piers supporting

reinforced concrete ground beams (which support walls), rather than
excavating deep trenches and raising walls off strip foundations which are
very deep below ground level.

▪ Where the subsoil has poor bearing capacity for some depth below the
surface, E.g. made ground, it is often economical to use a foundation of
piers on pad foundations.
 Types of Pad Foundation
▪ Plain Concrete Pad Foundation: Non-reinforced, suitable for low loads.

▪ Reinforced Concrete Pad Foundation: Includes reinforcement to reduce

thickness.
 Types of Pad Foundation
▪ Combined Pad Foundation: Connects pads of adjacent columns to
counterbalance loads.
 Types of Pad Foundation

▪ Continuous Pad Foundation: Overlapping pads for closely spaced

columns.
▪ Pad Foundations with Ground Beam: Like combined pad
foundations but connected by ground beams.
Pad foundations
7. SHORT- BORED FOUNDATIONS

▪ Short-bored foundations were devised to provide economical foundations for

houses built on shrinkable clay.

▪ Consist of a series of short concrete piles cast into holes bored in the ground.
These are spanned for loading-bearing walls by light beams, which are
usually made of reinforced concrete.
Advantages

▪ Over Strip Foundations:

-speed of construction,

-reduced quantity of surplus soil and

-the ability to proceed with work in bad weather.

Modality and Precautions

▪ Holes are normally bored to a depth of 2,5m to 3,5m by hand or by a

mechanically-operated augur, keeping the holes vertical and on the centre
line of the beams.

▪ The depth will be determined by the pile-bearing capacity or the stability of

the clay.

▪ The piles, generally about 350mm in diameter, should be cast immediately

after the hole has been bored.
Precautions

▪ The casting must be done immediately to avoid the entry of clay, which may
fall into the hole from the side walls.

▪ Under no circumstances is clay allowed under foundations. The function of

the piles is, therefore, to transfer the load of the building past the clay
layer to firmer soil below.

▪ Short lengths of 20mm reinforcing bars should be set up on the top of each
corner pile and bent over to cast in the beams.

▪ The reinforced concrete beams, often 300 x150 mm in section, are usually
cast in formwork but are sometimes laid in trenches.
▪ After the trenches have been dug and compacted, all excavations must be
inspected by the local authority before the concrete may be cast. See figure
below

A Short-bored piled foundation

Mechanical augur boring the holes for pile foundation
Disadvantages

▪ Problems arise on stony sites or with many tree roots.

❖THE END