FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA

COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2023/2024 2ND SEMESTER

PHS 242

PHS 242
FEW IMPORTANT REVISION NOTES ON ALTERNATING CURRENT
 Some important terms
1. Amplitude (A): The maximum value of the wave, measured from the equilibrium
position.

 2. Frequency (f): The number of oscillations or cycles per second, measured in Hertz
(Hz).

 3. Period (T): The time taken to complete one cycle, measured in seconds.

 4. Angular Frequency (ω): The rate of change of the phase angle, measured in
radians per second.

 5. Phase Angle (φ): The initial angle of the wave, measured in radians.

 6. Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive points in phase,

measured in meters.

 7. Wave Number (k): The number of waves per unit distance, measured in radians
per meter.

 8. Velocity (v): The speed at which the wave propagates, measured in meters per
second.

 These parameters are related by the following equations:

ω = 2πf
T = 1/f
λ = v/f
k = 2π/λ

 Sinusoidal waves can be represented mathematically in the following forms:

Time-domain: y(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

Frequency-domain: Y(f) = A/2 [δ(f-f0) + δ(f+f0)]
 Where y(t) is the wave function, Y(f) is the Fourier transform, and δ is the Dirac
delta function.

 These parameters and equations help describe and analyze sinusoidal waves in
various fields, including physics, engineering, and signal processing.

 parameters in sinusoidal Ac circuits with their definitions and units

1. Voltage (V)
- Peak voltage (Vp): Maximum voltage value (Volts, V)
- RMS voltage (Vrms): Square root of the mean of the squared voltage values
(Volts, V)
- Phase angle (φ): Angle between voltage and reference axis (Degrees or Radians)

2. Current (I)
- Peak current (Ip): Maximum current value (Amperes, A)
- RMS current (Irms): Square root of the mean of the squared current values
(Amperes, A)
- Phase angle (φ): Angle between current and reference axis (Degrees or Radians)

3. Impedance (Z)
- Magnitude (|Z|): Total opposition to current flow (Ohms, Ω)
- Phase angle (θ): Angle between impedance and resistance axis (Degrees or
Radians)

4. Resistance (R)
- Ohmic value: Opposition to current flow due to resistance (Ohms, Ω)

5. Reactance (X)
- Inductive reactance (XL): Opposition to current flow due to inductance (Ohms,
Ω)
- Capacitive reactance (XC): Opposition to current flow due to capacitance (Ohms,
Ω)

6. Inductance (L)
- Henry (H): Measure of magnetic field energy storage

7. Capacitance (C)
- Farad (F): Measure of electric field energy storage
 8. Frequency (f)
- Hertz (Hz): Number of oscillations per second

9. Angular frequency (ω)

- Radians per second (rad/s): Rate of change of phase angle

10. Phase shift (φ)

- Degrees or Radians: Angle between voltage and current

11. Power
- Real power (P): Actual power consumed (Watts, W)
- Reactive power (Q): Power stored in magnetic and electric fields (Volt-Amperes
reactive, VAR)
- Apparent power (S): Vector sum of real and reactive power (Volt-Amperes, VA)

some solved examples for each parameter in sinusoidal AC circuits:

 Voltage (V):

Example: Find the peak voltage of a 120V RMS AC source.

Solution: Vp = Vrms × √2 = 120 × √2 = 169.7V

 Current (I):

Example: Find the peak current of a 10A RMS AC source.

Solution: Ip = Irms × √2 = 10 × √2 = 14.14A

 Resistance (R):

Example: Find the resistance of a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source and 5A
RMS current.

Solution: R = Vrms/Irms = 100/5 = 20Ω

 Impedance (Z):

Example: Find the impedance of a circuit with a 10Ω resistor, 20Ω inductive
reactance, and 15Ω capacitive reactance.
 Solution: |Z| = √(R^2 + (XL - XC)^2) = √(10^2 + (20 - 15)^2) = √125 = 11.18Ω

 Reactance (X):

Example: Find the inductive reactance of a 10mH inductor at 50Hz.

Solution: XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × 10mH = 3.14Ω

 Inductance (L):

Example: Find the inductance of a coil with a 10Ω inductive reactance at 50Hz.

Solution: L = XL/(2πf) = 10/(2π × 50) = 31.83mH

 Capacitance (C):

Example: Find the capacitance of a capacitor with a 10Ω capacitive reactance at

50Hz.

Solution: C = 1/(2πfXC) = 1/(2π × 50 × 10) = 318.3μF

 Frequency (f):

Example: Find the frequency of a circuit with a 10mH inductor and 100μF capacitor.

Solution: f = 1/(2π√(LC)) = 1/(2π√(10mH × 100μF)) = 50.33Hz

 Phase Angle (φ):

Example: Find the phase angle of a circuit with a 10Ω resistor, 20Ω inductive
reactance, and 15Ω capacitive reactance.

Solution: φ = arctan((XL - XC)/R) = arctan((20 - 15)/10) = 30°

 Power (P):

Example: Find the power consumed by a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source, 5A
RMS current, and 30° phase angle.

Solution: P = VI cos(φ) = 100 × 5 × cos(30°) = 433.01W

 These examples illustrate how to apply the formulas and calculations for each
parameter in sinusoidal AC circuits.

 Voltage (V):

Example: Find the peak voltage of a 120V RMS AC source.

Solution: Vp = Vrms × √2 = 120 × √2 = 169.7V

 Current (I):

Example: Find the peak current of a 10A RMS AC source.

Solution: Ip = Irms × √2 = 10 × √2 = 14.14A

 Resistance (R):

Example: Find the resistance of a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source and 5A
RMS current.

Solution: R = Vrms/Irms = 100/5 = 20Ω

 Reactance (X):

Example: Find the inductive reactance of a 10mH inductor at 50Hz.

Solution: XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × 10mH = 3.14Ω

 Impedance (Z):

Example: Find the impedance of a circuit with a 10Ω resistor, 20Ω inductive
reactance, and 15Ω capacitive reactance.

Solution: |Z| = √(R^2 + (XL - XC)^2) = √(10^2 + (20 - 15)^2) = √125 = 11.18Ω

 Inductance (L):

Example: Find the inductance of a coil with a 10Ω inductive reactance at 50Hz.
 Solution: L = XL/(2πf) = 10/(2π × 50) = 31.83mH

 Capacitance (C):

Example: Find the capacitance of a capacitor with a 10Ω capacitive reactance at

50Hz.

Solution: C = 1/(2πfXC) = 1/(2π × 50 × 10) = 318.3μF

 Frequency (f):

Example: Find the frequency of a circuit with a 10mH inductor and 100μF capacitor.

Solution: f = 1/(2π√(LC)) = 1/(2π√(10mH × 100μF)) = 50.33Hz

 Phase Angle (φ):

Example: Find the phase angle of a circuit with a 10Ω resistor, 20Ω inductive
reactance, and 15Ω capacitive reactance.

Solution: φ = arctan((XL - XC)/R) = arctan((20 - 15)/10) = 30°

 Power (P):

Example: Find the power consumed by a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source, 5A
RMS current, and 30° phase angle.

Solution: P = VI cos(φ) = 100 × 5 × cos(30°) = 433.01W

Here are some calculations involving resistors in AC circuits:

 Resistance (R):
- R = V/I (Ohm's Law)
- R = √(P/I^2) (from power and current)
 Impedance (Z):
- Z = √(R^2 + X^2) (from resistance and reactance)
- Z = V/I (from voltage and current)
 Power (P):
- P = V^2/R (from voltage and resistance)
- P = I^2R (from current and resistance)
- P = VI cos(φ) (from voltage, current, and power factor)
 Power Factor (PF):
- PF = cos(φ) (from phase angle)
- PF = R/Z (from resistance and impedance)
 Current (I):
- I = V/R (from voltage and resistance)
- I = V/Z (from voltage and impedance)
 Voltage (V):
- V = IR (from current and resistance)
- V = IZ (from current and impedance)

Note:

- V, I, R, Z, P, and PF are RMS values.

- X is the reactance (inductive or capacitive).
- φ is the phase angle between voltage and current.
- These calculations assume a single-phase AC circuit with a resistive load.

some worked examples:

 Find the impedance of a circuit with a 10Ω resistor, 20Ω inductive reactance, and
15Ω capacitive reactance.

Solution:
|Z| = √(R^2 + (XL - XC)^2) = √(10^2 + (20 - 15)^2) = √(100 + 25) = √125 = 11.18Ω

 Find the resistance of a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source and 5A RMS current.

Solution:
R = Vrms/Irms = 100/5 = 20Ω

 Find the capacitance of a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source, 50Hz frequency,
and 10Ω capacitive reactance.

Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC) => C = 1/(2πfXC) = 1/(2π_50_10) = 318μF
 Find the impedance, resistance, and reactance of a circuit with a 10Ω resistor, 20Ω
inductive reactance, and 15Ω capacitive reactance.

Solution:
|Z| = √(R^2 + (XL - XC)^2) = √(10^2 + (20 - 15)^2) = √(100 + 25) = √125 = 11.18Ω
R = 10Ω
 XL - XC = √(|Z|^2 - R^2) = √(125 - 100) = √25 = 5Ω

 Find the power factor of a circuit with a 100V RMS voltage source, 5A RMS current,
and 30° phase angle.

Solution:
PF = cos(φ) = cos(30°) = 0.866

 Here are some solved examples on AC sinusoidal waveforms in phasor

form:

Example 1:

Convert the sinusoidal waveform to phasor form:

v(t) = 10sin(ωt + 30°)

Phasor form: V = 10∠30°

Example 2:

 Convert the sinusoidal waveform to phasor form:

v(t) = 5cos(ωt - 45°)

Phasor form: V = 5∠-45° (note: cos(ωt - 45°) = sin(ωt + 45°))

Example 3:

 Add two sinusoidal waveforms in phasor form:

V1 = 10∠20°
V2 = 5∠-50°

V_total = V1 + V2 = (10∠20°) + (5∠-50°) = 12.21∠-15.57°

Example 4:
 Subtract two sinusoidal waveforms in phasor form:

V1 = 15∠40°
V2 = 8∠-20°

V_total = V1 - V2 = (15∠40°) - (8∠-20°) = 12.44∠53.13°

Example 5:

 Multiply a sinusoidal waveform by a scalar in phasor form:

V = 10∠30°
Scalar = 2

V_total = 2V = 2(10∠30°) = 20∠30°

Example 6:

 Divide a sinusoidal waveform by a scalar in phasor form:

V = 20∠40°
Scalar = 4

V_total = V/4 = (20∠40°)/4 = 5∠40°

 To convert a sinusoidal wave to phasor form, follow these steps:

 Identify the amplitude (A), angular frequency (ω), and phase angle (φ) of the
sinusoidal wave:

v(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

 Write the phasor form using the amplitude and phase angle:

V = A∠φ

Note:

- A is the amplitude of the sinusoidal wave

- φ is the phase angle in degrees (or radians)
- V is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal wave
Example:

v(t) = 10 sin(ωt + 30°)

Phasor form: V = 10∠30°

 If the sinusoidal wave is in cosine form:

v(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)

 Convert it to sine form by shifting the phase angle by 90°:

v(t) = A sin(ωt + φ + 90°)

Then, write the phasor form:

V = A∠(φ + 90°)

Example:

v(t) = 5 cos(ωt - 45°)

Convert to sine form: v(t) = 5 sin(ωt - 45° + 90°) = 5 sin(ωt + 45°)

Phasor form: V = 5∠45°

 Remember, phasor form represents the amplitude and phase angle of

a sinusoidal wave in a compact, complex number notation.

 If the sinusoidal wave is already in sine form:

v(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

You can directly write it in phasor form as:

V = A∠φ

Where:

- A is the amplitude of the sinusoidal wave

- φ is the phase angle in degrees (or radians)
- V is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal wave

For example:

v(t) = 10 sin(ωt + 30°)

Phasor form: V = 10∠30°

v(t) = 5 sin(ωt - 45°)

Phasor form: V = 5∠-45°

 Note that the phase angle φ can be positive or negative, depending on

whether the wave is shifted to the right (positive φ) or left (negative φ) in
the time domain.

 To subtract two sinusoidal waveforms in phasor form, follow these

steps:

 Represent both waveforms in phasor form:

V1 = A1∠φ1
V2 = A2∠φ2

 Convert both phasors to their rectangular (complex number) form:

V1 = A1cos(φ1) + jA1sin(φ1)
V2 = A2cos(φ2) + jA2sin(φ2)

 Subtract V2 from V1:

V_total = V1 - V2
= (A1cos(φ1) + jA1sin(φ1)) - (A2cos(φ2) + jA2sin(φ2))
= (A1cos(φ1) - A2cos(φ2)) + j(A1sin(φ1) - A2sin(φ2))

 Convert the result back to polar (phasor) form:

V_total = √((A1cos(φ1) - A2cos(φ2))^2 + (A1sin(φ1) - A2sin(φ2))^2) ∠ tan^-

1((A1sin(φ1) - A2sin(φ2))/(A1cos(φ1) - A2cos(φ2)))
 Example:

V1 = 10∠30°
V2 = 5∠-45°

V_total = V1 - V2
= (10∠30°) - (5∠-45°)
= (10cos(30°) + j10sin(30°)) - (5cos(-45°) + j5sin(-45°))
= (8.66 - 3.54) + j(5 - -3.54)
= 5.12 + j8.54
= √(5.12^2 + 8.54^2) ∠ tan^-1(8.54/5.12)
= 10.15∠58.24°

So, V_total = 10.15∠58.24°

 To multiply a sinusoidal waveform by a scalar in phasor form, simply multiply the

amplitude of the phasor by the scalar, while keeping the phase angle unchanged.

Mathematically:

V = A∠φ (original phasor)

Scalar = k (a real number)

Multiplication:

kV = kA∠φ (new phasor)

Example:

V = 10∠30° (original phasor)

Scalar = 2

Multiplication:

2V = 2(10∠30°) = 20∠30° (new phasor)

Note that the phase angle (30°) remains the same, only the amplitude (10) is
multiplied by the scalar (2), resulting in a new amplitude (20).
 This applies to any scalar value, including fractions and decimals:

V = 10∠30°

Scalar = 0.5

Multiplication:

0.5V = 0.5(10∠30°) = 5∠30°

 The phase angle remains unchanged, and only the amplitude is scaled by the
scalar value.

 To convert a phasor to the time domain, follow these steps:

 Identify the phasor:

V = A∠φ

 Recall the sinusoidal waveform equation:

v(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

 Replace A and φ with the values from the phasor:

v(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

 Add the sinusoidal waveform equation's time-dependent term (ωt):

v(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

Now you have the time-domain representation of the phasor!

Example:

Phasor: V = 10∠30°

Time-domain representation: v(t) = 10 sin(ωt + 30°)

Note:
- ω (angular frequency) is assumed to be known or given.
- If ω is not specified, you can't fully convert to the time domain.

Additional notes:

- If the phasor has a negative phase angle (e.g., -30°), it represents a cosine
waveform:
v(t) = A cos(ωt - φ)
- If the phasor has a complex amplitude (e.g., 10∠30° + j5∠60°), you'll need to
convert each component separately and combine them.

 RMS (Root Mean Square) phasors are used to represent AC waveforms in

power systems analysis. Here's how to use them:

Calculate the RMS value of the AC waveform:

Vrms = Vpeak / √2 (for sinusoidal waveforms)

 Represent the RMS value as a phasor:

Vrms∠φ (where φ is the phase angle)

 Use the RMS phasor in calculations:

- Voltage and current calculations: Use RMS phasors to calculate voltage and
current in AC circuits.
- Power calculations: Calculate real power (P), reactive power (Q), and apparent
power (S) using RMS phasors.
- Impedance and admittance calculations: Use RMS phasors to calculate impedance
(Z) and admittance (Y) in AC circuits.

Example:

Vrms = 120V (RMS value of a sinusoidal voltage waveform)

φ = 30° (phase angle)

RMS phasor: Vrms∠30° = 120∠30°

Note:

- RMS phasors are used for AC waveforms, whereas peak phasors are used for
transient or instantaneous analysis.
- RMS phasors are scaled by a factor of 1/√2 compared to peak phasors.

By using RMS phasors, you can simplify AC circuit analysis and calculate important
power system quantities.
 When a phasor has a complex amplitude, it means that the amplitude and
phase angle are not constant, but rather have both real and imaginary
components. Here's how to handle such phasors:

Example 1:

Phasor: V = (10∠30°) + j(5∠60°)

Step 1: Separate the real and imaginary parts:

V_real = 10∠30°
V_imag = 5∠60°

Step 2: Convert each part to its corresponding time-domain waveform:

v_real(t) = 10 sin(ωt + 30°)

v_imag(t) = 5 sin(ωt + 60°)

Step 3: Combine the waveforms:

v(t) = v_real(t) + v_imag(t)

= 10 sin(ωt + 30°) + 5 sin(ωt + 60°)

Example 2:

Phasor: I = (8∠45°) + j(3∠-20°)

Step 1: Separate the real and imaginary parts:

I_real = 8∠45°
I_imag = 3∠-20°

Step 2: Convert each part to its corresponding time-domain waveform:

i_real(t) = 8 sin(ωt + 45°)

i_imag(t) = 3 sin(ωt - 20°)
 Step 3: Combine the waveforms:

i(t) = i_real(t) + i_imag(t)

= 8 sin(ωt + 45°) + 3 sin(ωt - 20°)

By separating the real and imaginary parts, converting each to its time-domain
waveform, and combining them, you can handle phasors with complex amplitudes.

Remember to apply this process for each phasor with a complex amplitude in your
calculations.

 The voltage-current characteristic for a capacitor is:

I = C(dV/dt)
Where:
- I is the current through the capacitor
- C is the capacitance
- dV/dt is the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor
This equation shows that the current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of
change of voltage across it.
In a sinusoidal AC circuit, the voltage and current for a capacitor can be represented as:
V = Vm sin(ωt)
I = Im sin(ωt - 90°)
Where:
- Vm is the peak voltage
- Im is the peak current
- ω is the angular frequency
- t is time
The current lags the voltage by 90°, meaning that the current reaches its peak value 90°
after the voltage reaches its peak value.
The voltage-current characteristic for a capacitor can also be represented graphically as:
- A straight line with a negative slope, indicating that the current decreases as the voltage
increases.
Note:
- The voltage-current characteristic for a capacitor is different from that of a resistor,
which is a straight line with a positive slope.
- The voltage-current characteristic for an inductor is also different, with the current
leading the voltage by 90°.

 The voltage-current characteristic for a resistor is:

V = IR

Where:

- V is the voltage across the resistor

- I is the current through the resistor
- R is the resistance
This equation shows that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current through it.

In a graph, the voltage-current characteristic for a resistor is represented as:

- A straight line with a positive slope, indicating that the voltage increases as the current
increases.

Key characteristics:

- The line passes through the origin (0,0), meaning that if the voltage is 0, the current is
also 0.
- The slope of the line is equal to the resistance (R).
- The line is linear, meaning that the voltage and current are directly proportional.

Example:

- If the resistance is 10Ω, the voltage-current characteristic would be:

V = 10I

- If the current is 2A, the voltage would be:

V = 10 x 2 = 20V

Note:

- The voltage-current characteristic for a resistor is linear and straightforward, making it

easy to analyze and calculate values.
- In contrast, the voltage-current characteristics for capacitors and inductors are non-
linear and more complex.
 The voltage-current characteristic for an inductor is:

V = L(dI/dt)

Where:

- V is the voltage across the inductor

- L is the inductance
- dI/dt is the rate of change of current through the inductor

This equation shows that the voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of
change of current through it.

In a graph, the voltage-current characteristic for an inductor is represented as:

- A curve that shows the voltage leading the current by 90°.

Key characteristics:

- The voltage and current are out of phase, with the voltage leading the current.
- The curve is non-linear, meaning that the voltage and current are not directly
proportional.
- The inductor acts as a "current lag" device, meaning that the current through it lags
behind the voltage across it.

Example:

- If the inductance is 10mH, and the current changes at a rate of 2A/s, the voltage would
be:
V = 10mH x 2A/s = 20V
Note:
- The voltage-current characteristic for an inductor is different from that of a resistor,
which is linear and in-phase.
- The voltage-current characteristic for a capacitor is also different, with the current
leading the voltage by 90°.

 Here are some worked examples on voltage-current characteristic for a

capacitor:

Example 1:

- Capacitance (C) = 100μF

- Voltage (V) = 20V RMS
- Frequency (f) = 50Hz

Find the current (I) and phase angle (φ) between voltage and current.

Solution:

- Capacitive reactance (XC) = 1/(2πfC) = 1/(2π × 50 × 100μF) = 31.83Ω

- Current (I) = V/XC = 20/31.83 = 0.63A RMS
- Phase angle (φ) = -90° (since current leads voltage in a capacitor)

Example 2:

- Capacitance (C) = 50μF

- Voltage (V) = 30V RMS
- Frequency (f) = 100Hz

Find the current (I) and phase angle (φ) between voltage and current.

Solution:

- Capacitive reactance (XC) = 1/(2πfC) = 1/(2π × 100 × 50μF) = 31.83Ω

- Current (I) = V/XC = 30/31.83 = 0.94A RMS
- Phase angle (φ) = -90° (since current leads voltage in a capacitor)

Example 3:

- Capacitance (C) = 200μF

- Voltage (V) = 15V RMS
- Frequency (f) = 25Hz
Find the current (I) and phase angle (φ) between voltage and current.

Solution:

- Capacitive reactance (XC) = 1/(2πfC) = 1/(2π × 25 × 200μF) = 127.32Ω

- Current (I) = V/XC = 15/127.32 = 0.12A RMS
- Phase angle (φ) = -90° (since current leads voltage in a capacitor)

These examples illustrate how to apply the voltage-current characteristic for a capacitor
to find the current and phase angle between voltage and current.
 The voltage-current characteristic for a resistor is:

V = IR

Where:

- V is the voltage across the resistor

- I is the current through the resistor
- R is the resistance

This equation shows that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current through it.

 Here are some key points about the voltage-current characteristic for a
resistor:

- Linear relationship: The voltage-current characteristic for a resistor is a straight line with
a positive slope.
- Proportionality: The voltage is directly proportional to the current.
- No phase shift: The voltage and current are in phase with each other.
- Resistance determines the slope: The slope of the line is determined by the resistance
(R).

Example:

- If the resistance is 10Ω, the voltage-current characteristic would be:

V = 10I

- If the current is 2A, the voltage would be:

V = 10 x 2 = 20V

Note:
- The voltage-current characteristic for a resistor is simple and straightforward, making it
easy to analyze and calculate values.
- In contrast, the voltage-current characteristics for capacitors and inductors are more
complex and involve phase shifts.
 Here are some worked examples of the voltage-current characteristic for
resistors:

Example 1:

- Resistance (R) = 20Ω

- Current (I) = 3A

Find the voltage (V) across the resistor.

Solution:

- V = IR = 20Ω x 3A = 60V

Example 2:

- Resistance (R) = 50Ω

- Voltage (V) = 100V

Find the current (I) through the resistor.

Solution:

- I = V/R = 100V / 50Ω = 2A

Example 3:

- Resistance (R) = 10Ω

- Current (I) = 5A

Find the voltage (V) across the resistor.

Solution:

- V = IR = 10Ω x 5A = 50V

Example 4:

- Resistance (R) = 25Ω

- Voltage (V) = 75V
Find the current (I) through the resistor.

Solution:

- I = V/R = 75V / 25Ω = 3A

Example 5:

- Resistance (R) = 100Ω

- Current (I) = 1A

Find the voltage (V) across the resistor.

Solution:

- V = IR = 100Ω x 1A = 100V

These examples illustrate how to apply the voltage-current characteristic for resistors to
find the voltage or current, given the resistance and either the voltage or current.
Here are some worked examples of the voltage-current characteristics for
inductors:

Example 1:

- Inductance (L) = 10mH

- Current (I) = 2A
- Frequency (f) = 50Hz

Find the voltage (V) across the inductor.

Solution:

- XL = 2πfL = 2π x 50Hz x 10mH = 31.42Ω

- V = XL x I = 31.42Ω x 2A = 62.84V
Example 2:
- Inductance (L) = 20mH
- Voltage (V) = 100V
- Frequency (f) = 25Hz

Find the current (I) through the inductor.

Solution:

- XL = 2πfL = 2π x 25Hz x 20mH = 31.42Ω

- I = V/XL = 100V / 31.42Ω = 3.18A

Example 3:

- Inductance (L) = 50mH

- Current (I) = 1A
- Frequency (f) = 100Hz

Find the voltage (V) across the inductor.

Solution:

- XL = 2πfL = 2π x 100Hz x 50mH = 314.16Ω

- V = XL x I = 314.16Ω x 1A = 314.16V

Example 4:

- Inductance (L) = 100mH

- Voltage (V) = 200V
- Frequency (f) = 50Hz
Find the current (I) through the inductor.

Solution:

- XL = 2πfL = 2π x 50Hz x 100mH = 314.16Ω

- I = V/XL = 200V / 314.16Ω = 0.64A

Note:

- The voltage and current are out of phase by 90° in an inductor.

- The voltage leads the current in an inductor.
- The inductive reactance (XL) depends on the frequency (f) and inductance (L).

 worked examples on charging and discharging of resistors, capacitors,

and inductors voltage-current characteristics:

 Resistor:
- Charging:
- Initial voltage (V0) = 0V
- Final voltage (Vf) = 10V
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = 0 (since it's a resistor)
- Current (I) = V/R = 10V/10Ω = 1A
- Discharging:
- Initial voltage (V0) = 10V
- Final voltage (Vf) = 0V
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = 0 (since it's a resistor)
- Current (I) = V/R = 10V/10Ω = -1A (note the negative sign)
  Capacitor:

- Charging:
- Initial voltage (V0) = 0V
- Final voltage (Vf) = 10V
- Capacitance (C) = 100μF
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = RC = 10Ω x 100μF = 1s
- Current (I) = C(dV/dt) = 100μF x (10V/1s) = 1A
- Discharging:
- Initial voltage (V0) = 10V
- Final voltage (Vf) = 0V
- Capacitance (C) = 100μF
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = RC = 10Ω x 100μF = 1s
- Current (I) = -C(dV/dt) = -100μF x (10V/1s) = -1A

 Inductor:

- Charging:
- Initial current (I0) = 0A
- Final current (If) = 1A
- Inductance (L) = 10mH
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = L/R = 10mH/10Ω = 1s
- Voltage (V) = L(dI/dt) = 10mH x (1A/1s) = 10V
- Discharging:
- Initial current (I0) = 1A
 - Final current (If) = 0A
- Inductance (L) = 10mH
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = L/R = 10mH/10Ω = 1s
- Voltage (V) = -L(dI/dt) = -10mH x (1A/1s) = -10V
Note:

The time constant (τ) determines how quickly the voltage or current changes.
- The resistor's voltage-current characteristic is linear, while the capacitor's and inductor's
are non-linear.

 solved examples on charging and discharging of resistors, capacitors and

inductors through voltage-current characteristics
Resistor

Charging:

- V0 = 0V, Vf = 10V, R = 10Ω

- I = V/R = 10V/10Ω = 1A
- Time constant τ = 0 (resistor)

Discharging:

- V0 = 10V, Vf = 0V, R = 10Ω

- I = V/R = -10V/10Ω = -1A
- Time constant τ = 0 (resistor)

Capacitor

Charging:
- V0 = 0V, Vf = 10V, C = 100μF, R = 10Ω
- τ = RC = 10Ω x 100μF = 1s
- I = C(dV/dt) = 100μF x (10V/1s) = 1A

Discharging:

- V0 = 10V, Vf = 0V, C = 100μF, R = 10Ω

- τ = RC = 10Ω x 100μF = 1s
- I = -C(dV/dt) = -100μF x (10V/1s) = -1A

Inductor

Charging:

- I0 = 0A, If = 1A, L = 10mH, R = 10Ω

- τ = L/R = 10mH/10Ω = 1s
- V = L(dI/dt) = 10mH x (1A/1s) = 10V

Discharging:

- I0 = 1A, If = 0A, L = 10mH, R = 10Ω

- τ = L/R = 10mH/10Ω = 1s
- V = -L(dI/dt) = -10mH x (1A/1s) = -10V

Note:

- The time constant τ determines the rate of change of voltage or current.

- The resistor's voltage-current characteristic is linear, while the capacitor's and inductor's
are non-linear.

 Here are some worked examples of step function analysis for charging
and discharging of resistors, capacitors, and inductors:

Resistor

Charging:

- Initial voltage (V0) = 0V

- Step voltage (Vs) = 10V
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = 0 (resistor)

V(t) = Vs = 10V (since it's a resistor)

I(t) = V/R = 10V/10Ω = 1A

Discharging:

- Initial voltage (V0) = 10V

- Step voltage (Vs) = 0V
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = 0 (resistor)

V(t) = Vs = 0V

I(t) = V/R = 0V/10Ω = 0A

Capacitor

Charging:

- Initial voltage (V0) = 0V

- Step voltage (Vs) = 10V
- Capacitance (C) = 100μF
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = RC = 10Ω x 100μF = 1s

V(t) = Vs(1 - e^(-t/τ))

I(t) = C(dV/dt) = 100μF x (10V/1s) x e^(-t/τ)

Discharging:

- Initial voltage (V0) = 10V

- Step voltage (Vs) = 0V
- Capacitance (C) = 100μF
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = RC = 10Ω x 100μF = 1s

V(t) = V0 x e^(-t/τ)

I(t) = -C(dV/dt) = -100μF x (10V/1s) x e^(-t/τ)

Inductor

Charging:

- Initial current (I0) = 0A

- Step current (Is) = 1A
- Inductance (L) = 10mH
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = L/R = 10mH/10Ω = 1s

V(t) = L(dI/dt) = 10mH x (1A/1s) x e^(-t/τ)

I(t) = Is(1 - e^(-t/τ))

Discharging:

- Initial current (I0) = 1A

- Step current (Is) = 0A
- Inductance (L) = 10mH
- Resistance (R) = 10Ω
- Time constant (τ) = L/R = 10mH/10Ω = 1s

V(t) = -L(dI/dt) = -10mH x (1A/1s) x e^(-t/τ)

I(t) = I0 x e^(-t/τ)

Note:

- e^(-t/τ) is the exponential decay term

- τ is the time constant
- V(t) and I(t) are the voltage and current at time t, respectively
  Here are some worked examples of circuit analysis involving resistors, capacitors,
and inductors:

Example 1: RL Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Using Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL), we get:

- 10V - 10I - 10L(dI/dt) = 0
- Solving for I, we get:
- I(t) = (10/11)e^(-10t/11) + (1/11)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = 10I
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = 10L(dI/dt)

Example 2: RC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Using KVL, we get:

- 10V - 10I - (1/100μF)∫I dt = 0
- Solving for I, we get:
- I(t) = (10/11)e^(-10t/11) + (1/11)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = 10I
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = (1/100μF)∫I dt

Example 3: RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source
Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Using KVL, we get:

- 10V - 10I - 10L(dI/dt) - (1/100μF)∫I dt = 0
- Solving for I, we get:
- I(t) = (10/11)e^(-10t/11) + (1/11)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = 10I
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = 10L(dI/dt)
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = (1/100μF)∫I dt

Note:

- These examples involve solving differential equations to find the current and voltage
across each component.
- The solutions involve exponential decay terms and integrals.
- In practice, you would use circuit analysis software or numerical methods to solve these
types of circuits.
 Here are some worked examples of circuit analysis involving all resistors,
capacitors, and inductors in series and in parallel:

Series Circuit
Example 1:
- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source
 Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

 Total impedance (Z) = R + jX_L + 1/jX_C

 Z = 10 + j10 + 1/j100
 Z = 10 + j10 - j100
 Z = 10 - j90
  Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
 I = 0.11 - j0.99 A
 Voltage across resistor: V_R = IR = 1.1V
 Voltage across inductor: V_L = j10I = 9.9V
 Voltage across capacitor: V_C = -j100I = 99V

Parallel Circuit

Example 2:

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source

 Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Total admittance (Y) = 1/R + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j100.1
- Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.1 + j100.1)
- I = 1 + j1001 A
- Current through resistor: I_R = V/R = 1A
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A

Note:
- In series circuits, the voltage across each component is proportional to its impedance.
- In parallel circuits, the current through each component is proportional to its
admittance.

 Series RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = IR = 1.1V
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = j10I = 9.9V
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = -j100I = 99V

 Parallel RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Admittance (Y) = 1/R + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j100.1
 - Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.1 + j100.1)
- I = 1 + j1001 A
- Current through resistor: I_R = V/R = 1A
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A

 Series RLC Circuit with Phase Shift

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component, including phase shift.

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A (lagging by 45°)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = IR = 1.1V (in phase)
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = j10I = 9.9V (leading by 45°)
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = -j100I = 99V (lagging by 135°)

worked examples of circuit analysis involving calculations of impedance, current,

output voltage, and gain in resistors, capacitors, and inductors in series for an
alternating voltage:

 Series RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find:

- Impedance (Z)
 - Current (I)
- Output voltage (V_out)
- Gain (A)

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A
- Output voltage (V_out) = I*Z = 1.1 - j9.9V
- Gain (A) = V_out/V_in = 1.1/10 = 0.11

 Series RLC Circuit with Multiple Components

- 10Ω resistor
- 20Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find:

- Impedance (Z)
- Current (I)
- Output voltage (V_out)
- Gain (A)

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R1 + R2 + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + 20 + j10 - j100
- Z = 30 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(30 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.33 A
- Output voltage (V_out) = I*Z = 3.3 - j9.9V
- Gain (A) = V_out/V_in = 3.3/10 = 0.33

 Series RLC Circuit with Phase Shift

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find:

- Impedance (Z)
- Current (I)
- Output voltage (V_out)
- Gain (A)
- Phase shift (θ)

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A (lagging by 45°)
- Output voltage (V_out) = I*Z = 1.1 - j9.9V
- Gain (A) = V_out/V_in = 1.1/10 = 0.11
- Phase shift (θ) = 45°

Example 1: Parallel RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Admittance (Y) = 1/R + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j100.1
- Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.1 + j100.1)
- I = 1 + j1001 A
- Current through resistor: I_R = V/R = 1A
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A

Example 2: Parallel RLC Circuit with Phase Shift

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component, including phase shift.

Solution:

- Admittance (Y) = 1/R + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j100.1
- Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.1 + j100.1)
- I = 1 + j1001 A (leading by 45°)
- Current through resistor: I_R = V/R = 1A (in phase)
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A (lagging by 45°)
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A (leading by 135°)

Example 3: Parallel RLC Circuit with Multiple Components

- 10Ω resistor
- 20Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Admittance (Y) = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/20 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + 0.05 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.15 + j100.1
- Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.15 + j100.1)
- I = 1.5 + j1001 A
- Current through R1: I_R1 = V/R1 = 1A
- Current through R2: I_R2 = V/R2 = 0.5A
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A

Note:

- These examples involve AC circuit analysis with resistors, inductors, and

capacitors in parallel.
- The solutions include complex numbers and phase shifts to account for the AC
behavior

Example 1: Series RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = IR = 1.1V
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = j10I = 9.9V
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = -j100I = 99V

Example 2: Parallel RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)
Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Admittance (Y) = 1/R + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j100.1
- Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.1 + j100.1)
- I = 1 + j1001 A
- Current through resistor: I_R = V/R = 1A
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A

Example 3: Series RLC Circuit with Phase Shift

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V AC voltage source (50Hz)

Find the current and voltage across each component, including phase shift.

Solution:

- Impedance (Z) = R + jX_L - jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A (lagging by 45°)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = IR = 1.1V (in phase)
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = j10I = 9.9V (leading by 45°)
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = -j100I = 99V (lagging by 135°)

Note:

- These examples involve AC circuit analysis with resistors, inductors, and

capacitors in series and parallel.
- The solutions include complex numbers and phase shifts to account for the AC
behavior.
Series Circuit

Example 1:

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Total impedance (Z) = R + jX_L + 1/jX_C

- Z = 10 + j10 + 1/j100
- Z = 10 + j10 - j100
- Z = 10 - j90
- Current (I) = V/Z = 10/(10 - j90)
- I = 0.11 - j0.99 A
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = IR = 1.1V
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = j10I = 9.9V
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = -j100I = 99V

Parallel Circuit

Example 2:

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Total admittance (Y) = 1/R + 1/jX_L + jX_C

- Y = 1/10 + 1/j10 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j0.1 + j100
- Y = 0.1 + j100.1
- Current (I) = V*Y = 10(0.1 + j100.1)
- I = 1 + j1001 A
- Current through resistor: I_R = V/R = 1A
- Current through inductor: I_L = V/jX_L = 1001A
- Current through capacitor: I_C = V*jX_C = 1A

Note:

- In series circuits, the voltage across each component is proportional to its

impedance.
- In parallel circuits, the current through each component is proportional to its
admittance.
- These examples involve complex numbers and phasors to analyze AC circuits.

worked examples of circuit analysis involving all resistors, capacitors, and

inductors:

Example 1: RL Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Using Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL), we get:

- 10V - 10I - 10L(dI/dt) = 0
- Solving for I, we get:
- I(t) = (10/11)e^(-10t/11) + (1/11)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = 10I
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = 10L(dI/dt)

Example 2: RC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Using KVL, we get:

- 10V - 10I - (1/100μF)∫I dt = 0
- Solving for I, we get:
- I(t) = (10/11)e^(-10t/11) + (1/11)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = 10I
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = (1/100μF)∫I dt

Example 3: RLC Circuit

- 10Ω resistor
- 10mH inductor
- 100μF capacitor
- 10V voltage source

Find the current and voltage across each component.

Solution:

- Using KVL, we get:

- 10V - 10I - 10L(dI/dt) - (1/100μF)∫I dt = 0
- Solving for I, we get:
- I(t) = (10/11)e^(-10t/11) + (1/11)
- Voltage across resistor: V_R = 10I
- Voltage across inductor: V_L = 10L(dI/dt)
- Voltage across capacitor: V_C = (1/100μF)∫I dt

Note:

- These examples involve solving differential equations to find the current and
voltage across each component.
- The solutions involve exponential decay terms and integrals