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Special Issue Reprint

Advanced Engineering
Cementitious Composites
and Concrete Sustainability

Edited by
Dumitru Doru Burduhos Nergis

www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Advanced Engineering Cementitious
Composites and Concrete
Sustainability
Advanced Engineering Cementitious
Composites and Concrete
Sustainability

Editor
Dumitru Doru Burduhos Nergis

MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Manchester • Tokyo • Cluj • Tianjin
Editor
Dumitru Doru Burduhos
Nergis
Faculty of Materials Science
and Engineering
”Gheorghe Asachi” Technical
University
Iasi
Romania

Editorial Office
MDPI
St. Alban-Anlage 66
4052 Basel, Switzerland

This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Materials
(ISSN 1996-1944) (available at: www.mdpi.com/journal/materials/special issues/Cem Compos
Concr Sustain).

For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as
indicated below:

LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume Number,
Page Range.

ISBN 978-3-0365-7627-5 (Hbk)

ISBN 978-3-0365-7626-8 (PDF)

© 2023 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon
published articles, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum
dissemination and a wider impact of our publications.
The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
license CC BY-NC-ND.
Contents

Dumitru Doru Burduhos-Nergis

Special Issue “Advanced Engineering Cementitious Composites and Concrete Sustainability”
Reprinted from: Materials 2023, 16, 2582, doi:10.3390/ma16072582 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Allice Tan Mun Yin, Shayfull Zamree Abd Rahim, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Marcin
Nabialek, Abdellah El-hadj Abdellah and Allan Rennie et al.
Potential of New Sustainable Green Geopolymer Metal Composite (GGMC) Material as Mould
Insert for Rapid Tooling (RT) in Injection Moulding Process
Reprinted from: Materials 2023, 16, 1724, doi:10.3390/ma16041724 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Zhishuan Lv, Yang Han, Guoqi Han, Xueyu Ge and Hao Wang
Experimental Study on Toughness of Engineered Cementitious Composites with Desert Sand
Reprinted from: Materials 2023, 16, 697, doi:10.3390/ma16020697 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Muhd Hafizuddin Yazid, Meor Ahmad Faris, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Muhammad
Shazril I. Ibrahim, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Dumitru Doru Burduhos Nergis et al.
Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete Incorporation Nylon66 Fiber
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 9050, doi:10.3390/ma15249050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Ali İhsan Çelik, Yasin Onuralp Özkılıç, Özer Zeybek, Memduh Karalar, Shaker Qaidi and
Jawad Ahmad et al.
Mechanical Behavior of Crushed Waste Glass as Replacement of Aggregates
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 8093, doi:10.3390/ma15228093 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Moslih Amer Salih, Shamil Kamil Ahmed, Shaymaa Alsafi, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abullah,
Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya and Shayfull Zamree Abd Rahim et al.
Strength and Durability of Sustainable Self-Consolidating Concrete with High Levels of
Supplementary Cementitious Materials
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 7991, doi:10.3390/ma15227991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Nurul Aida Mohd Mortar, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Rafiza Abdul Razak, Shayfull
Zamree Abd Rahim, Ikmal Hakem Aziz and Marcin Nabiałek et al.
Geopolymer Ceramic Application: A Review on Mix Design, Properties and Reinforcement
Enhancement
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 7567, doi:10.3390/ma15217567 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Özer Zeybek, Yasin Onuralp Özkılıç, Memduh Karalar, Ali İhsan Çelik, Shaker Qaidi and
Jawad Ahmad et al.
Influence of Replacing Cement with Waste Glass on Mechanical Properties of Concrete
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 7513, doi:10.3390/ma15217513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Kaffayatullah Khan, Muhammad Arif Aziz, Mukarram Zubair and Muhammad Nasir Amin
Biochar Produced from Saudi Agriculture Waste as a Cement Additive for Improved
Mechanical and Durability Properties—SWOT Analysis and Techno-Economic Assessment
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 5345, doi:10.3390/ma15155345 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Rebeca Martı́nez-Garcı́a, P. Jagadesh, Osama Zaid, Adrian A. S, erbănoiu, Fernando J.

Fraile-Fernández and Jesús de Prado-Gil et al.
The Present State of the Use of Waste Wood Ash as an Eco-Efficient Construction Material: A
Review
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 5349, doi:10.3390/ma15155349 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

v
Dickson Ling Chuan Hao, Rafiza Abd Razak, Marwan Kheimi, Zarina Yahya, Mohd Mustafa
Al Bakri Abdullah and Dumitru Doru Burduhos Nergis et al.
Artificial Lightweight Aggregates Made from Pozzolanic Material: A Review on the Method,
Physical and Mechanical Properties, Thermal and Microstructure
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 3929, doi:10.3390/ma15113929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Muhammad Nasir Amin, Waqas Ahmad, Kaffayatullah Khan and Mohamed Mahmoud
Sayed
Mapping Research Knowledge on Rice Husk Ash Application in Concrete: A Scientometric
Review
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 3431, doi:10.3390/ma15103431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Marwan Kheimi, Ikmal Hakem Aziz, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Mohammad
Almadani and Rafiza Abd Razak
Waste Material via Geopolymerization for Heavy-Duty Application: A Review
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 3205, doi:10.3390/ma15093205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Kaffayatullah Khan, Muhammad Ishfaq, Muhammad Nasir Amin, Khan Shahzada, Nauman
Wahab and Muhammad Iftikhar Faraz
Evaluation of Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Global Warming Potential of
Green Concrete with Wheat Straw Ash and Silica Fume
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 3177, doi:10.3390/ma15093177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Mohd Izrul Izwan Ramli, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah,
Ikmal Hakem Aziz, Tan Chi Ying and Noor Fifinatasha Shahedan et al.
The Influence of Sintering Temperature on the Pore Structure of an Alkali-Activated
Kaolin-Based Geopolymer Ceramic
Reprinted from: Materials 2022, 15, 2667, doi:10.3390/ma15072667 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Dumitru Doru Burduhos Nergis, Petrica Vizureanu, Andrei Victor Sandu, Diana Petronela
Burduhos Nergis and Costica Bejinariu
XRD and TG-DTA Study of New Phosphate-Based Geopolymers with Coal Ash or Metakaolin
as Aluminosilicate Source and Mine Tailings Addition
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 15, 202, doi:10.3390/ma15010202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Bogdan Bolborea, Cornelia Baera, Sorin Dan, Aurelian Gruin, Dumitru-Doru

Burduhos-Nergis and Vasilica Vasile
Concrete Compressive Strength by Means of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Moduli of Elasticity
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 7018, doi:10.3390/ma14227018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Zarina Yahya, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Long-yuan Li, Dumitru Doru Burduhos
Nergis, Muhammad Aiman Asyraf Zainal Hakimi and Andrei Victor Sandu et al.
Behavior of Alkali-Activated Fly Ash through Underwater Placement
Reprinted from: Materials 2021, 14, 6865, doi:10.3390/ma14226865 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

vi
 materials
Editorial
Special Issue “Advanced Engineering Cementitious Composites
and Concrete Sustainability”
Dumitru Doru Burduhos-Nergis

Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania;
[email protected]

Concrete, one of the most often-used building materials today, is the cornerstone of
modern buildings all over the world, being used for foundations, pavements, building
walls, architectural structures, highways, bridges, overpasses, and so on. Because of its
adaptability, concrete may be found in practically every construction, in some form or
another. Yet, the diverse nature of its components, their combinations, and their doses
result in a very wide range of concrete kinds with varying properties. As a result, concrete
is a material that is always evolving and is popular even now, especially when it comes to
circular economy.
Other ways of concrete manufacturing are now being researched to lessen or remove
the limits of this material, which are connected to its brittleness and poor environmental
effects. As a result, the development of engineering cementitious composites has resulted
in a significant reduction in flexibility issues, while the introduction of new additives and
the optimization of the manufacturing process has resulted in a significant reduction in
the negative effects of virgin raw material exploitation. In-depth research is still required
to optimize and increase the sustainability of these advanced engineering cementitious
composites or alternative concretes.
In this Special Issue (SI), state-of-the-art research and review articles on the emerging
material systems for AM are collected, with a focus on the process–structure–properties
relationships. In total, eleven research papers and six reviews have been collected. Con-
sidering the high interest in this field for finding alternatives for virgin raw materials, in
the research article conducted by Lv, Z. et al. [1], an interesting experimental study was
conducted on the effect of replacing ordinary sand with desert sand on the obtainment and
Citation: Burduhos-Nergis, D.D. characterization of engineered cementitious materials. Additionally, A. İ. Çelik et al. [2]
Special Issue “Advanced Engineering
observed that a 20% replacement of fine aggregates and coarse aggregates with recycled
Cementitious Composites and
crushed glass resulted in a significant increase in the mechanical properties of concrete. In
Concrete Sustainability”. Materials
another study, Ö. Zeybek et al. [3] evaluated the effect of replacing cement with fine glass
2023, 16, 2582. https://
microparticles on the tensile and flexural strengths of concrete, and showed that a 10%
doi.org/10.3390/ma16072582
replacement would result in better mechanical properties. Burduhos Nergis, D.D. et al. [4]
Received: 15 March 2023 evaluated the possibility of obtaining acid-activated geopolymers, using mine tailings
Accepted: 19 March 2023 as a substitute for fine aggregates. In their article, M.I.I. Ramli et al. [5] aimed to obtain
Published: 24 March 2023 alkali-activated ceramics and determined the influence of high curing temperatures on the
morphology of kaolin-based geopolymers. To improve the main characteristics of these
cementitious composites, some researchers designed and obtained engineered materials by
integrating different types of reinforcing elements, or by involving advanced techniques
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
to characterize them. M.H. Yazid et al. [6] obtained geopolymer concrete with improved
This article is an open access article
mechanical performances and water absorption by introducing low amounts of diamond-
distributed under the terms and shaped nylon66 fibers. M.A. Salih et al. [7] incorporated high amounts of supplementary
conditions of the Creative Commons cementitious materials, such as fly ash, ground-granulated blast furnace slag, and microsil-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// ica, into self-consolidating concrete, in order to improve the durability and properties of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ fresh and cured Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)-based concrete. Z. Yahya et al. [8] devel-
4.0/). oped another self-consolidating concrete for underwater structures and showed that a class

1
Materials 2023, 16, 2582

C fly ash, activated with a mixture of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide, could achieve
more than 70 MPa when cured in seawater, river water, or lake water. K. Khan et al. [9]
showed that ecofriendly concrete could be obtained by replacing OPC with wheat straw
ash and/or silica fume. According to their study, this differently engineered composition
could achieve better mechanical performances at lower CO2 -eq. In another study, K. Khan
et al. [10] showed that biochar could be used to obtain advanced concrete by performing a
SWOT analysis and a techno-economic assessment on the introduction of this by-product
as substitute for OPC. Because concrete durability is difficult to assess, particularly for in
situ applications, B. Bolborea et al. [11] conducted an experimental investigation on the
forecasting of the mechanical properties of concrete, using a non-destructive approach,
namely ultrasonic pulse velocity.
In the review articles published in this SI, A.T.M. Yin et al. [12] discussed the potential
of producing mold inserts for rapid tooling, using geopolymer composites that were rein-
forced with recycled metal particles, while N.A.M. Mortar [13] conducted a comprehensive
literature analysis on the obtainment and characterization of kaolin-based geopolymers for
ceramic applications. R. Martínez-García et al. [14] reviewed the recent developments of
the effect produced by the addition of waste wood ash on the composition of different types
of concrete. D.L.C. Hao et al. [15] assessed the previous studies on the characterization of
artificial aggregates that were manufactured by sintering, cold bonding, or autoclaving, and
concluded that the last two methods were suitable for producing lightweight aggregates
for industrial use. M. Kheimi et al. [16] presented an overview of the research that was
conducted on the parameters that influence the performances of geopolymers that are
used in heavy-duty applications, and observed that the mixing design, curing conditions,
alkali activator, and binder type are the key factors that define the properties of the final
product. A scientometric analysis, considering the publications that are indexed in the
Scopus database, was conducted by M.N. Amin et al. [17], in order to establish the statical
overview and mapping of the research on rice husk ash utilization in concrete compositions.
According to their study, despite the high number of papers published in this field, the
lack of standardization in the preparation, process, and use of geopolymers, is the main
limitation toward the industrial use of this material.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Lv, Z.; Han, Y.; Han, G.; Ge, X.; Wang, H. Experimental Study on Toughness of Engineered Cementitious Composites with Desert
Sand. Materials 2023, 16, 697. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Çelik, A.İ.; Özkılıç, Y.O.; Zeybek, Ö.; Karalar, M.; Qaidi, S.; Ahmad, J.; Burduhos-Nergis, D.D.; Bejinariu, C. Mechanical Behavior
of Crushed Waste Glass as Replacement of Aggregates. Materials 2022, 15, 8093. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Zeybek, Ö.; Özkılıç, Y.O.; Karalar, M.; Çelik, A.İ.; Qaidi, S.; Ahmad, J.; Burduhos-Nergis, D.D.; Burduhos-Nergis, D.P. Influence of
Replacing Cement with Waste Glass on Mechanical Properties of Concrete. Materials 2022, 15, 7513. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Burduhos-Nergis, D.D.; Vizureanu, P.; Sandu, A.V.; Burduhos-Nergis, D.P.; Bejinariu, C. XRD and TG-DTA Study of New
Phosphate-Based Geopolymers with Coal Ash or Metakaolin as Aluminosilicate Source and Mine Tailings Addition. Materials
2022, 15, 202. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Ramli, M.I.I.; Salleh, M.A.A.M.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Aziz, I.H.; Ying, T.C.; Shahedan, N.F.; Kockelmann, W.; Fedrigo, A.; Sandu,
A.V.; Vizureanu, P.; et al. The Influence of Sintering Temperature on the Pore Structure of an Alkali-Activated Kaolin-Based
Geopolymer Ceramic. Materials 2022, 15, 2667. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Yazid, M.H.; Faris, M.A.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Ibrahim, M.S.I.; Razak, R.A.; Burduhos Nergis, D.D.; Burduhos Nergis, D.P.;
Benjeddou, O.; Nguyen, K.S. Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete Incorporation Nylon66 Fiber.
Materials 2022, 15, 9050. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Salih, M.A.; Ahmed, S.K.; Alsafi, S.; Abullah, M.M.A.B.; Jaya, R.P.; Abd Rahim, S.Z.; Aziz, I.H.; Thanaya, I.N.A. Strength and
Durability of Sustainable Self-Consolidating Concrete with High Levels of Supplementary Cementitious Materials. Materials
2022, 15, 7991. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Yahya, Z.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Li, L.Y.; Nergis, D.D.B.; Hakimi, M.A.A.Z.; Sandu, A.V.; Vizureanu, P.; Razak, R.A. Behavior of
Alkali-Activated Fly Ash through Underwater Placement. Materials 2021, 14, 6865. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

2
Materials 2023, 16, 2582

9. Khan, K.; Ishfaq, M.; Amin, M.N.; Shahzada, K.; Wahab, N.; Faraz, M.I. Evaluation of Mechanical and Microstructural Properties
and Global Warming Potential of Green Concrete with Wheat Straw Ash and Silica Fume. Materials 2022, 15, 3177. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
10. Khan, K.; Aziz, M.A.; Zubair, M.; Amin, M.N. Biochar Produced from Saudi Agriculture Waste as a Cement Additive for
Improved Mechanical and Durability Properties—SWOT Analysis and Techno-Economic Assessment. Materials 2022, 15,
5345. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Bolborea, B.; Baera, C.; Dan, S.; Gruin, A.; Burduhos-Nergis, D.D.; Vasile, V. Concrete Compressive Strength by Means of
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and Moduli of Elasticity. Materials 2021, 14, 7018. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Yin, A.T.M.; Rahim, S.Z.A.; Al Bakri Abdullah, M.M.; Nabialek, M.; Abdellah, A.E.; Rennie, A.; Tahir, M.F.M.; Titu, A.M. Potential
of New Sustainable Green Geopolymer Metal Composite (GGMC) Material as Mould Insert for Rapid Tooling (RT) in Injection
Moulding Process. Materials 2023, 16, 1724. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Mohd Mortar, N.A.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Abdul Razak, R.; Abd Rahim, S.Z.; Aziz, I.H.; Nabiałek, M.; Jaya, R.P.; Semenescu,
A.; Mohamed, R.; Ghazali, M.F. Geopolymer Ceramic Application: A Review on Mix Design, Properties and Reinforcement
Enhancement. Materials 2022, 15, 7567. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Martínez-García, R.; Jagadesh, P.; Zaid, O.; S, erbănoiu, A.A.; Fraile-Fernández, F.J.; de Prado-Gil, J.; Qaidi, S.M.A.; Grădinaru, C.M.
The Present State of the Use of Waste Wood Ash as an Eco-Efficient Construction Material: A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 5349.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Hao, D.L.C.; Razak, R.A.; Kheimi, M.; Yahya, Z.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Nergis, D.D.B.; Fansuri, H.; Ediati, R.; Mohamed,
R.; Abdullah, A. Artificial Lightweight Aggregates Made from Pozzolanic Material: A Review on the Method, Physical and
Mechanical Properties, Thermal and Microstructure. Materials 2022, 15, 3929. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Kheimi, M.; Aziz, I.H.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B.; Almadani, M.; Razak, R.A. Waste Material via Geopolymerization for Heavy-Duty
Application: A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 3205. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Amin, M.N.; Ahmad, W.; Khan, K.; Sayed, M.M. Mapping Research Knowledge on Rice Husk Ash Application in Concrete: A
Scientometric Review. Materials 2022, 15, 3431. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

3
 materials
Review
Potential of New Sustainable Green Geopolymer Metal Composite
(GGMC) Material as Mould Insert for Rapid Tooling (RT) in
Injection Moulding Process
Allice Tan Mun Yin 1 , Shayfull Zamree Abd Rahim 1,2, *, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah 2,3 ,
Marcin Nabialek 4 , Abdellah El-hadj Abdellah 5 , Allan Rennie 6 , Muhammad Faheem Mohd Tahir 2,3
and Aurel Mihail Titu 7

1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau 02600, Malaysia
2 Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Kangar 01000, Malaysia
3 Faculty of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kangar 01000, Malaysia
4 Department of Physics, Faculty of Production Engineering and Materials Technology, Cz˛estochowa
University of Technology, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland
5 Laboratory of Mechanics, Physics and Mathematical Modelling (LMP2M), University of Medea,
Medea 26000, Algeria
6 Lancaster Product Development Unit, Engineering Department, Lancaster University,
Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK
7 Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Faculty of Engineering, “Lucian Blaga” University of
Sibiu, 10 Victoriei Street, 550024 Sibiu, Romania
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The investigation of mould inserts in the injection moulding process using metal epoxy
composite (MEC) with pure metal filler particles is gaining popularity among researchers. Therefore,
to attain zero emissions, the idea of recycling metal waste from industries and workshops must
be investigated (waste free) because metal recycling conserves natural resources while requiring
Citation: Yin, A.T.M.; Rahim, S.Z.A.; less energy to manufacture new products than virgin raw materials would. The utilisation of metal
Al Bakri Abdullah, M.M.; Nabialek, scrap for rapid tooling (RT) in the injection moulding industry is a fascinating and potentially viable
M.; Abdellah, A.E.-h.; Rennie, A.; approach. On the other hand, epoxy that can endure high temperatures (>220 ◦ C) is challenging to
Tahir, M.F.M.; Titu, A.M. Potential of find and expensive. Meanwhile, industrial scrap from coal-fired power plants can be a precursor
New Sustainable Green Geopolymer to creating geopolymer materials with desired physical and mechanical qualities for RT applica-
Metal Composite (GGMC) Material
tions. One intriguing attribute of geopolymer is its ability to endure temperatures up to 1000 ◦ C.
as Mould Insert for Rapid Tooling
Nonetheless, geopolymer has a higher compressive strength of 60–80 MPa (8700–11,600 psi) than
(RT) in Injection Moulding Process.
epoxy (68.95 MPa) (10,000 psi). Aside from its low cost, geopolymer offers superior resilience to
Materials 2023, 16, 1724. https://
harsh environments and high compressive and flexural strength. This research aims to investigate the
doi.org/10.3390/ma16041724
possibility of generating a new sustainable material by integrating several types of metals in green
Academic Editor: Andrea Sorrentino geopolymer metal composite (GGMC) mould inserts for RT in the injection moulding process. It
Received: 19 November 2022 is necessary to examine and investigate the optimal formulation of GGMC as mould inserts for RT
Revised: 13 February 2023 in the injection moulding process. With less expensive and more ecologically friendly components,
Accepted: 16 February 2023 the GGMC is expected to be a superior choice as a mould insert for RT. This research substantially
Published: 19 February 2023 impacts environmental preservation, cost reduction, and maintaining and sustaining the metal waste
management system. As a result of the lower cost of recycled metals, sectors such as mould-making
and machining will profit the most.

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.

Keywords: rapid tooling; geopolymer metal composite; additive manufacturing; injection mould-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
ing process
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

5
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

1. Introduction
Time to market is a crucial aspect of a product development strategy, and speed is
frequently compared to other factors such as functionality, creativity, or performance [1–3].
With numerous new technologies, worldwide rivalry for product creation is soaring.
Furthermore, companies are always looking for cutting-edge technologies that are cost-
effective, capable of manufacturing goods in tiny quantities while maintaining excellent
performance, and able to meet sustainability goals. This has driven the development
of rapid tooling (RT) techniques, which are needed in today’s market to replace tradi-
tional techniques with rapid product innovation and improve manufacturing processes,
particularly mould-making [4–6].
As shown in Figure 1, RT provides quicker manufacturing for completing tests and
starting final production, minimises costs, and reduces project time [7].

Figure 1. A Review of the Application of Rapid Tooling in Manufacturing [8].

Every industry, regardless of size, experiences a time when rapid tooling is required
to address particular problems. Additionally, an improved tooling system is required for
creating a limited number of functional prototypes to assess the product development
cycle [8–10]. A small quantity of items is often utilised as a marketplace trial, evaluation
need, and manufacturing process design [9,10].
Before mass manufacturing, functioning tools or prototypes must be launched for
every scientific study [11–14]. These are not made available in large quantities to consumers
but rather in limited amounts to researchers. RT is highly advantageous in this circumstance
since it allows for the rapid introduction of items. Furthermore, the uses of production
tools allow mass production to be obtained at a lower price because manufacturing costs
are cheap. For this reason, many brand-new businesses and even big organisations prefer
this technology to boost their profits and obtain a market advantage over their rivals [1–3].
Prototype companies or mould producers typically employ mild steel or aluminium
for the mould inserts in RT. Production toolmaking is time-consuming and costly, and
machining involves the same computer numerical control (CNC), electrical discharge ma-
chining (EDM), and electric discharge machining (wire EDM) procedures [15,16]. Recently,
additive manufacturing (AM) has been employed to create mould inserts for RT [13,16].
For a limited number of prototypes, RT often uses models or prototypes made by AM as
templates for manufacturing mould inserts or uses the AM process directly [4–6]. Numer-
ous RT technologies are available on the market, such as a hybrid technique combining RT
and AM to shorten RT production time.
RT can be categorised as either an indirect or direct technique and differs from tra-
ditional tooling in that the amount of time needed to create the tooling is significantly
reduced [17,18]. Automated manufacturing methods use the AM process to generate mould
inserts without the requirement for values to be predicted. Direct tooling includes processes
such as additive manufacturing (AM), stereolithography (SLA), jet photopolymerisation
(PolyJet), fused deposition moulding (FDM), and selective laser sintering (SLS) [5,6,19]. Al-

6
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

ternatively, the AM project as a master model is considered a secondary approach to create

moulds for casting or plastic moulding processes. This technique combines the 3D KelTool
process, metal casting, plastic casting, elastic moulding, and other comparable procedures
to create injection moulding inserts [5,6,15,20]. Inserts constructed from epoxy-acrylate and
utilising material for injection moulding by homo-polypropylene are used for quick tooling
applications for 3D-printed injection moulds [21]. The mould insert constructed from steel
and copper for hybrid prototype mould applications is created using a mix of laser powder
bed fusion (L-PBF) and casting. In a study, L-PBF printed the steel shell with conformal
cooling channels, and the shell was cast with copper [22]. For a material jetting (PolyJet)
mould, a mould insert constructed from epoxy-acrylate resin is used and its in-mould
behaviour is compared to a guidance mould insert fabricated from aluminium [23].
Failure in the moulding process in generating RT mould inserts is common for tech-
nologies with poor thermal and mechanical quality, such as SLS, FDM, SLA, PolyJet, and
AM [5,6,19]. Zakzewski et al. [24] presented the bucking π-theorem, which was modified to
analyse and characterise the poor surface quality Ra issue of SLS/SLM-processed samples,
as well as the existence of porosity, a material structure defect. Furthermore, the use of SLA
models is physically restricted. These constraints can be solved by developing procedures
that use SLA parts as the “master blueprint” for the silicone mould process. In comparison
to mechanical techniques, the DMLS process is inefficient for the design of basic plastic
components. Furthermore, DMLS imposes a few constraints for a specific feature design
for complicated components. According to previous studies on RT mould inserts, the
stress applied to the mould insert during the injection cycle has a significant influence
on the mould life [11,15,19,20]. Nowadays, a combination of RP technique and produc-
tion tooling helps produce RT more quickly but faces dimensional accuracy and surface
finish issues [17,18]. Moreover, the injection moulding process faces a cooling time issue
where most of the mould inserts fabricated using RP techniques have very low thermal
conductivity; thus, increasing the cooling rate will undoubtedly influence the cycle time
for producing the components [4,16,25,26]. One of the RT options to increase competitive-
ness is using metal epoxy composite (MEC), which provides greater heat conductivity as
mould inserts in RT application and lowers tooling production costs and lead times by
25% and 50%, respectively [3,6]. Using optimisation methods to determine the optimal
composition for materials, as recommended in the linked literature, can be considered for
future research, such as determining the best amount of Al or Cu to mix with epoxy resin
for desirable mechanical properties [27–37]. The use of MEC mould inserts for RT in the
injection moulding process, which uses pure metal filler particles combined with epoxy
resin, has attracted the attention of many researchers [20,29,38–40].
The use of MEC materials as mould inserts offers better thermal and mechanical prop-
erties as compared to mould inserts produced using AM technologies [40–43]. However,
dimensional accuracy and surface quality still need to be improved, so after the fabrication
of mould inserts using MEC material and casting techniques, the mould inserts need to go
through a secondary process (machining) to improve mould dimensional precision and
surface quality in terms of cavities, especially for precision of plastic products (±0.05 mm).
Secondary (recycled) materials compete with primary materials in the metals business.
Primary materials require the use of finite resources. Producing scrap materials or processed
secondary metals can sometimes be more cost-effective than producing new primary
materials, provided that the cost of collecting the waste is not prohibitively expensive [42].
Due to its spherical morphology and manageable particle size dispersion, gas-atomised
(GA) powder is the most frequent feedstock for AM. However, much energy and inert
gas are required to make GA powders [43]. Water-atomised powder is another option
when increased powder solidification rates and reduced manufacturing costs are the
priorities [29,44,45]. In contrast, melting the metal before ejection from the atomisation
nozzles is energy-intensive because of the significant enthalpy difference between the liquid
and solid states [45]. In metal AM, the feedstock powder is often remelted. This repeated
melting is a costly and inefficient process [46]. As it can reduce materials of varying

7
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

sizes to powder, mechanical milling offers a chance for environmentally friendly powder
production [31,47–49]. For mechanical milling, ambient or cryogenic temperatures are
typically used [49,50]. The aforementioned considerable energy input is no longer required
to reach atomisation temperatures [50]. Due to these potential benefits, mechanical milling
is being used to reduce metal machining chips to powders that can be used in AM [46].
On the other hand, Davidovits’ geopolymer technology is one of the groundbreaking
innovations resulting in an affordable and greener binder alternative. The silica and alu-
minium in geosource materials such as metakaolin (calcined kaolin), and maybe techniques
such as fly ash and bottom ash, are combined with the alkaline liquid to generate a geopoly-
mer, an alkali-activated binder [1,11]. As a result, it reduces not only CO2 emissions but also
recycles industrial waste, specifically using an aluminium–silicate mix to create products of
higher value [9,10]. MEC using pure metal filler particles is beginning to be used by some
researchers to investigate mould inserts in the injection moulding process [4,5,7]. However,
a type of epoxy that can withstand high temperatures (>220 ◦ C) is hard to find and still
costly.
Additionally, besides municipal solid waste, coal combustion production (CCP) has
been identified as the second-largest pollutant in the world. In 2011, about 130 metric
tonnes (MT) of CCP were generated, with only 56.57 MT (43.50%) effectively used [51].
The four forms of solid waste created in substantial amounts by the CCP are boiler slag,
bottom ash, fly ash, and flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) material [40–42]. One hundred
and thirty metric tonnes of CCP included around 59.9 MT of fly ash. Fly ash was disposed
of in surface impoundments covered with compacted clay soil, a plastic sheet, or both
for the remaining 22.9 MT (38.36%) in landfills or surface impoundments [51–53]. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States (US) is now investigating the
positive uses of fly ash [53–57]. This eliminates major health concerns associated with heavy
metals and radioactive elements accumulated from fly ash disposal over time. Geopolymers
derived from environmentally friendly materials, such as slag, or industrial by-products
and used as a binding material are known as “green material”.
One interesting property of geopolymer is that it can withstand temperatures up
to 1000 ◦ C. Nevertheless, geopolymer only has a compressive strength of 60–80 MPa
(8700–11,600 psi), while epoxy has a compressive strength of 68.95 MPa (10,000 psi) [29,58].
However, employing geopolymer material has similar issues to using epoxy resin, which
necessitates determining the optimal strength, accuracy, acceptable surface finish, and good
thermal characteristics.
Early strength of geopolymer can be obtained as early as 1 day, with compressive
strength up to 15 MPa, and continues increase up to 40–50MPa within 7 days, which is
comparable with the strength offered by epoxy. Nevertheless, the optimum strength of
geopolymer material can be obtained by 28 days (80 MPa) and the strength will keep on
increasing over time [59].
It was recognised that the filler’s interlaminar strength controls the bond strength of
geopolymer reinforced with filler. The fact that filler with a bigger particle size has a lower
binding strength is also well known. In addition, compared to epoxy resin, geopolymer
showed high bond strength for both wet and dry interface surface conditions [59].
On the other hand, as the need for an environmentally friendly society grows, the
quantity of waste material must be continually decreased. Hence, in order to achieve zero
emissions, the idea of recycling metal waste from factories and workshops needs to be
examined (waste free) [60–63]. Metal recycling helps to conserve natural resources while
requiring less energy for manufacturing new products than would be required for virgin
raw materials. Waste-free recycling reduces the emission of carbon dioxide and certain
other harmful gases while also saving money and enabling industrial companies to reduce
their production costs [64,65].
Through a Google Patents search (https://patents.google.com/ accessed on 10 Febru-
ary 2023), six patents granted/published that make use of (1) metal composite and compos-
ites made of (2) geopolymer and (3) metal were located. Table 1 lists the search terms for

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this review’s related field, rapid tooling. Fibre-reinforced metal composites (aluminium
matrix composites) were developed by Yamamoto et al. [65] using aluminium alloy with
6–11 wt. % nickel as the metal matrix and reinforcing fibres. To mass produce complex
parts with near-net shapes, Behi et al. [66] proposed using steel tooling in an injection
moulding machine. In comparison to more traditional methods, this approach to producing
complicated metal tooling is relatively cost-effective, making it possible to rapidly fabricate
complex shaped parts using normal metal, ceramic, and plastic processing. According
to the metal matrix composite introduced by Shaikh et al. [67], the fibre to metal or alloy
ratio ranges from about 9:1 to less than about 1:1, and the fibres have an average diameter
of approximately eight micrometres with a coating. Amaya and Crounse [68] discovered
rapid manufacturing of mould inserts by employing blank die inserts formed from material
typically used in the metal injection moulding process of complex shaped components to
achieve high machinability rates, time and cost savings, extended tool life, and material
savings. The dry-mix composition, as proposed by Nematollahi and Sanjayan [69], includes
(a) an aluminosilicate material rich in silica and alumina and (b) a powdered alkali activator.
Moreover, the dry-mix composition is chosen so that (i) the SHGC may be generated at
ambient temperature without liquid activator, and (ii) strain-hardening behaviour and
multiple cracking behaviours are observed. A strain-hardened, ambient temperature-cured
geopolymer composite (SHGC) is generated by adding water and using a method of manu-
facturing an ambient temperature-cured SHGC. Qiang et al. [70] proposed a geopolymer
composite material that is a type of 3D print as well as their preparation technique and
applications, which included blast furnace slag powder accounting for 20~25% of the total
composition weight, steel-making slag powder accounting for 10~15%, fly ash accounting
for 0~5%, mine tailing machine-made sand accounting for 33~45%, exciting composite
agent accounting for 3~5%, high molecular weight polymer accounting for 2.5~3%, volume
stabiliser accounting for 1~3%, thixotropic agent accounting for 1~2%, defoamer accounting
for 0.05~0.1%, and mixing water accounting for 13.9~12.45%. Each component is stirred,
and subsequently pumped into the 3D printer applications for construction. The present
invention’s geopolymer composite material demonstrates good caking property, strong
stability, good go-out pump from holding capacity and adhesive property, excellent form,
and volume stability, resulting in the construction of buildings with good overall stability
and safety during use. The six patents granted/published from 1990 to February 2023 are
listed in Table 1.
RT is a cost-effective solution in the transition phase from new product development
to mass production in the manufacturing industry [71,72]. RT, often referred to as bridge
tooling, prototype tooling, or soft tooling, is a fast way to preproduce hundreds or even
thousands of plastic parts prior to mass production, for design optimisation, functional
testing, or preproduction verification, which can be a bridge between rapid prototyping
(RP) and mass production. Shape, fit, and function prototype components are frequently
made using RP technology, such as additive manufacturing [71,73,74]. Recycled metal
waste such as mild steel, aluminium, copper, and brass after machining processes are as
shown in Figure 2.
However, since 3D material qualities vary from those used in injection moulding,
3D-printed samples cannot provide a thorough evaluation of an injection-moulded part’s
functional performance [18,59], making RT extremely crucial for the manufacturing indus-
try.

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Table 1. Six patents granted/published from 1990 to February 2023.

Granted/Publication
No. Patent Number Title Inventor/s Patent Summary
Date
Tadashi Yamamoto,
Fibre-reinforced metal • Aluminium matrix composite is a fibre-reinforced metal
1 US4980242A Michiyuki Suzuki, Yoshiharu 25 December 1990
composite composite containing 6–11% nickel.
Waku, Masahiro Tokuse [65]
• Steel tooling is needed to produce near-net form, complex items
Mohammad Behi, Mike in high volume.
Rapid manufacture of metal
2 US6056915A Zedalis, James M. 2 May 2000 • The technology is economical to make complex metal tooling for
and ceramic tooling
Schoonover [66] quick fabrication of complex shaped parts using conventional
metal, ceramic, and plastic processes.
Low-temperature,
high-strength metal-matrix Furqan Zafar Shaikh, • Fibre to metal or alloy ratio can vary from 9:1 to 1:1.
3 US6376098B1 composite for Howard Douglas Blair, 23 April 2002 • Fibres have an average diameter of 8 micrometres, and metal or
rapid-prototyping and Tsung-Yu Pan [67] alloy is distributed within them.
rapid-tooling

10
• Mould inserts manufactured from metal injection moulding
material provide high machinability rates, time and cost savings,
extended tool life, and material savings.
Method for the rapid Herman Amaya, Dennis
4 US20020187065A1 12 December 2002 • The process involves developing cutting path programmes from
fabrication of mould inserts Crounse [68]
CAD files, machining cavity and core inserts to predefined sizes,
and processing them to transform the soft material into a dense,
hardenable material.
Geopolymer composite and
Behzad Nematollahi, Jay • The dry-mix composition allows for the formation of ambient
5 WO2017070748A1 geopolymer matrix 4 May 2017
Sanjayan [69] temperature-cured SHGC without the need for a liquid activator.
composition
• Slag powder composition includes blast furnace slag,
Lin Xi Qiang, Li Jing Fang, steel-making slag powder, fly ash, mine tailing sand, composite
3D printed geopolymer Zhang Tao, Huo Liang, Li exciting agent, volume stabiliser, thixotropic agent, defoamer,
6 CN106082898A composite material, its Guo You, Zhang Nan, Liao 31 July 2018 and mixing water.
production and applications Juan, Wang Bao Hua, Ji Wen • The invention’s geopolymer composite material has good caking
Zhan [70] properties, stability, form and volume stability, providing good
stability and safety for building construction.
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Figure 2. (a) Metal scraps from turning; (b) metal scraps from grinding; (c) metal scraps from milling.

Using fly ash (waste from coal combustion) as the raw material, the metal scraps from
the machining process are ground using a ball mill machine into a small and uniform
size and mixed with geopolymer material to create green geopolymer metal composite
(GGMC) material as in Figure 3. Then, this material can be used as mould inserts for RT
applications which is expected to reduce tooling production costs and lead periods by up
to 25% and 50%, respectively. The effect of GGMC material as mould inserts for RT in an
injection moulding process and its relationship with compressive strength and thermal
conductivity should be examined accordingly. Therefore, this research aims to determine
whether geopolymer material may be used as RT mould inserts in the injection moulding
process. The process by which GMCs are used as a new material for mould inserts is
depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Planetary Mono Mill Pulverisette 6 can be used in the ball mill process.

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Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Figure 4. Graphical representation of GGMC as new material for mould inserts.

A power plant is a structure that produces waste geopolymer and generates electric
energy from another form of energy. The geopolymer material is then combined with
filler particles (waste from machining after a ball milling process to form a powder filler).
The ratio of geopolymer and powder filler is evaluated accordingly in terms of thermal
conductivity and compressive strength. Next, the optimised ratio is used to fabricate the
GMC mould inserts. Then, GMC mould inserts are machined accordingly to fit the insert
size and assembled in the mould base. Following the examination of the GMC mould
inserts, the GMC mould is assembled in the injection moulding machine to mould out
the specimen for further evaluation of the mould parts’ quality in terms of shrinkage
and warpage, including the cooling time required, which is definitely influenced by the
thermal conductivity of the GMC mould inserts. The reliability of the GMC mould inserts
is evaluated accordingly in terms of the number of shots (specimens) that can be produced
before the mould starts to crack or wear.

2. Injection Moulding Process

2.1. Important Processing Parameters in the Injection Moulding Process
Processing parameters are essential to produce good-quality moulded parts in the in-
jection moulding process. Previously, the trial-and-error approach to determine processing
parameters relied upon a plastic injection moulding process. However, the trial-and-error
approach is ineffective for complex manufacturing processes [75–77]. Therefore, many
studies had been carried out over the years to minimise shrinkage and warpage defects by
optimising the processing parameters [77–80]. In addition, it has also been observed that
various critical processing factors, including packing pressure, melt temperature, packing
shrinkage duration, mould temperature, and cooling time, have an impact on the quality of
the moulded components produced (warpage) [77,81–83].

2.1.1. Melt Temperature

Melt temperature is the temperature required to melt the plastic material in a pellet
formed in the screw barrel of the injection moulding machine before the injection stage to fill
the mould cavities [84,85]. Some researchers reported that melt temperature is a significant

12
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

processing parameter that causes warpage defects on the moulded parts produced. The
relationship between melt temperature and the flow of molten plastic into the mould
cavities through feeding system has been studied and it was reported that the amount of
material flow into the cavities is affected by the melt temperature [84,85].

2.1.2. Cooling Time

When the molten plastic hits the walls of the mould cavities, it starts to cool down
and continues to solidify. The mould stays closed until the moulded part reaches the
ejection temperature. The part is ejected out from the injection mould once it becomes
rigid enough [85,86]. When the cooling time, including that needed for the moulded
component to achieve the injection temperature, is increased, shrinkage and warp issues
are reduced [87,88]. However, the appropriate cooling time needs to be determined in order
to produce moulded parts with good quality within the optimal cycle time.

2.1.3. Packing Pressure

Packing pressure is the pressure used to inject and compress the molten plastic mate-
rial into mould cavities until the gate freezes [85]. According to previous research, packing
pressure is a crucial processing parameter that impacts the accuracy and quality of the
moulded components produced. In addition, packing pressure is also a significant pro-
cessing parameter after packing time which has a significant impact on shrinkage and
flexural strength of the moulded parts produced [80–82]. Any changes in packing pressure
will cause degradation of the mechanical properties of the parts moulded from virgin
and recycled plastic material in various compositions. Inappropriate settings of packing
pressure may result in high shrinkage defects in the moulded parts [85].

2.1.4. Mould Temperature

Mould temperature is known as the temperature of the mould that needs to be con-
trolled in order to solidify the molten plastic material that flows into the mould cavities
towards the ejection temperature. Previous studies showed that mould temperature is one
of the significant processing parameters that affects warpage and shrinkage defects [83,87].
Kamaruddin et al. [86] examined mould temperature using the Taguchi methods, and
reported that the shrinkage of moulded parts affected by mould temperature is a critical
factor. This supports the findings of a study by Chen et al. [89] which found that the
temperature of the mould plays a role in the shrinkage of the resulting moulded products
in both the transverse and longitudinal axes. In addition, mould temperature cannot be
set directly but it can be controlled by controlling the temperature of coolant used in the
injection moulding process.

2.1.5. Packing Time

The packing time is known as the time required to fill the mould cavities without
pressing the mould or flashing the finished parts entirely with additional material [90]. The
packing time is generally determined by the freeze time of the gate [91]. When gates freeze,
the material is not permitted to flow into the mould cavities. Nevertheless, if the packing
time is shorter, the molten material returns to the feeding system and causes a backflow
phenomenon [89,92].
It can be seen that, in terms of material used as mould inserts for injection moulding,
the thermal conductivity (which influences the melt temperature, mould temperature,
packing time, and definitely cooling time) and compressive strength (which influences
packing pressure and reliability of mould inserts) are important parameters that require
the attention of the mould fabrication industries.

2.2. Mould Base Material

The selection of material for mould base parts depends on the product that needs to be
manufactured. Choosing suitable materials can help a company to save costs and time. The

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Materials 2023, 16, 1724

materials of the mould base are divided into four types, which are mild steel, high-alloy
steel, stainless steel, and tool steel, as tabulated in Table 2 [83–87].

Table 2. Types of mould base material with examples [81–87].

Mould Base Material Example of Material

1018
Carbon steel
1050
AISI 4130
Alloy steel
AISI M2
420
Stainless steel 316L
17-4 PH
O-1
A-6
S-7
Tool steel
D-2
P-20
H13

Mild steel is a type of iron that has varied levels of carbon added to it and no addition
of other elements. There are different percentages of carbon where the carbon content
ranges from mild, to medium, to high. Examples of carbon steel are carbon steel 1018 and
1050 [83,86]. High-alloy steel is a variety of steel that is alloyed with additional components
ranging from 1 wt. % to 50 wt. % through the addition of carbon to enhance the material’s
different qualities.
High-alloy steel is therefore made of iron that has been alloyed with additional ele-
ments including copper, chromium, and aluminium. It can also alloy more than two metals.
Examples of alloy steel are alloy steel AISI 4130 and AISI M2 [35]. Stainless steel provides
excellent corrosion resistance and machinability. Stainless steel is a class of iron-based
alloys notable for their corrosion and heat resistance.
Furthermore, stainless steel is produced by adding chromium at a rate of about 11%
and the use of stainless steel is selected because it does not corrode or oxidise. Stainless
steel does not require stress relief because its material qualities are stable. Examples of
stainless steel are stainless steel 420, 316L, and 17-4 PH [88,92,93]. Tool steel refers to a
range of carbon and alloy steels that are especially well-suited to be produced into tools.
In addition, tool steel contains elements such as tungsten, vanadium, cobalt, and
molybdenum [94]. These elements are used to improve hardenability and generate harder
and more thermally stable carbides. Examples of tool steels are tool steel O-1, A-6, S-7, D-2,
P-20, and H13 [83,88]. RT is the AM technology that refers to the manufacturing methods
of tooling [94–96].
Injection mould bases can be made from a wide variety of materials. However,
selecting the right mould base material is essential for making high-quality components,
since different materials have different properties.

Selecting Mould Base Material

Material selection for the mould base is important because it will affect the performance
of the mould. Selecting the suitable material during the tool-making stage can reduce
cost. Several factors need to be considered, which are strength, good wear resistance,
excellent surface finish, dimensional stability, machinability, and corrosion resistance. First,
highly compressive loads must be able to be absorbed by the material without cracking or
splitting. Next, good wear resistance is needed so that the mould can be used longer. Good
surface finish is also vital to be considered because it will affect the product surface. Other
parameters also need to be considered so that the product can be used longer, and to save
cost and time. An example of this consideration is the use of H13 which is selected because

14
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

it can perform well at high temperatures, and has high dimensional stability, hardness,
and wear resistance [97]. The recommended mould material for transparent products is
stainless steel AISI 420, which has a hardness of up to 54HRC [98].
On the other hand, mould inserts are assembled in a mould base and form the cavities
where the molten plastic will be injected to form the products. Therefore, the material of
the mould insert is an important aspect that will have a direct impact on the defects of the
moulded parts produced.

2.3. Mould Insert Material

The material of a mould insert will affect the cooling time of a product as it influences
the overall cycle time of the injection moulding process [36]. Other than that, improving
cooling time can also reduce defects such as shrinkage and warpage [90,99,100]. Tool
steel material takes longer to achieve the ejection temperature than pure copper (Cu) and
beryllium copper (BeCu) as tabulated in Table 3 [86]. This is because Cu and BeCu have
higher thermal conductivities which can remove more heat than tool steel material. It
is important because the temperature needs to be evenly distributed from the cavity to
the core of the mould [84]. Although pure copper is proven to be the best according
to simulation results, other factors need to be considered in choosing the mould insert
material, including properties such as hardness. The hardness of BeCu is higher compared
to pure copper and other properties that need to be considered are, namely, durability and
resistance to non-oxidising acids.

Table 3. Simulation results of mould inserts by researchers [100].

Parameter Time to Reach Ejection Mould Core Insert Volumetric Warpage

Material Temperature (s) Temperature (◦ C) Shrinkage (%) (mm)
Pure copper 8.804 28.10 1.605 0.1602
Tool steel 12.400 76.82 1.759 0.1700
Beryllium copper 9.483 41.62 1.160 0.1614

However, the materials used to fabricate mould inserts for the product designed in
the development stage do not have to be the same as materials used for the hard tooling
(mould used for mass production) because the product design is not yet finalised and there
are still some tests and evaluations to be carried out, as well as a need to improve the
product’s features in terms of ease of assembly and reliability tests in order to ensure the
high quality of product. An alternative material of mould inserts for low production in
the product development industry is in high demand, especially in the effort to reduce the
expenses in the research and development stage.

2.3.1. Alternative Materials for the Mould Insert

Small numbers of functional plastic parts that range from five to one thousand units
are usually needed during the product development stage to confirm the development
stage before mass manufacturing. An alternative material is required for mould inserts to
reduce the cost, time, part quality, and production number [48]. Currently, the alternative
material that is used in mould insert fabrication is epoxy resin. The different types of epoxy
resin with their properties are listed in Table 4 [101].

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Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Table 4. Different types of resin and their properties [102].

Reshape-
NeuKadur XD4532 or
Name EP250 EPO 752 Express
VGSP5 XD4533
2000™
Altropol
MCP HEK Axson Technologies
Kunststoff GmbH, Ciba Specialty Chemicals
Resin Producer Tooling GmbH, (Shanghai) Co., Ltd.,
Stockelsdorf, Holding Inc., Basel, Switzerland
Lubeck, Germany Shanghai, China
Germany
Density (kg/m3 ) 2 2.8 1.7–1.78 1.7 ± 0.02 1.8
Tensile strength (MPa) 67 50 49 38 ± 4 62
Compressive strength
260 180 NA 145 ± 5 251
(MPa)
Flexural strength
120 NA 88 90 ± 5 82
(MPa)
Deflexion
250 150 195 220 234
temperature (◦ C)
Linear
expansion 30–35 30–35 50 NA 42
(×106 mm/K)
112 90 90 90 91
Hardness
(Rc) (Shore D) (Shore D15) (Shore D) (Shore D)

Nevertheless, there are some restrictions when using epoxy as a mould insert in RT for
injection moulding. Epoxy has limitations that must be overcome, such as its low hardness
and strength [103]. Geopolymer can be used to replace epoxy since it is robust and strong
and is now utilised in building concrete. In addition, it preserves the environment, reduces
cost, and supports sustainability of waste management systems [81,94,95,104,105]. As an
implication, industries related to mould-making will benefit the most due to the reduced
cost when using recycled materials.

2.3.2. Rapid Tooling (RT) Mould Inserts

Rapid tooling is an example of how rapid prototyping is used in the manufacturing
industry. It enables the rapid and low-cost construction of moulds for small batches of
manufacturing goods. Tooling may be either harsh or soft, and can be classified as direct
or indirect [9]. An efficient method of direct tooling involves the use of soft materials
in a rapid prototype process such as stereolithography material [96,106–108]. Numerous
different tools, such those made of powder metal [96,103], are made of tough materials,
and in the indirect tooling method, a casting pattern is made by rapid prototyping and then
used to manufacture the proper tool. Due to its simplicity of usage in producing mould
inserts, aluminium-filled epoxy resin [109,110] is becoming a popular soft material. Silicone
rubber is mostly utilised in the manufacture of indirect tools [107].
The most significant factor for injection moulds made utilising the RT process is
tool life. RP technology has improved to the point where tools directly generated by RP
machines should represent all of the model’s various elements and features accurately and
precisely. On the other hand, many soft rapid prototyping materials are unable to tolerate
sufficiently high pressure and melt temperature owing to their poor heat conductivity [107],
resulting in shortened useful life of the instrument. Although other methods, including
metal laser sintering, may be employed to apply metal coatings on pliable materials [108] to
enhance their hardness, it will raise the manufacturing process’s difficulties. Alternatively,
epoxy resin is often used in indirect moulds due to its plasticity or compatibility with casting
models. The use of metal powder may greatly boost its hardness and heat conductivity,
prolonging tool life even more. However, this does not prevent the epoxy resin from

16
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

hardening within the mould chamber and becoming brittle. Indirectly crafted tools thus
wear very quickly [104]. Some of the studies concentrating on RT are listed in Table 5.
Tomori et al. [110] investigated how changing the material formulation and deter-
mining the validity of composite tooling boards affected mould efficiency and component
quality. An example of the method for setting up a tooling board is illustrated in Figure 5.
The boards were constructed using three materials: RP4037 (fluid), RP4037 hardener, and
silicon carbide (SiC) filler (powder). For the six moulds, two cutting speeds (1.00 and
1.66 m/s) and three tooling board formulations (28.5%, 34.75%, and 39.9% wt. % SiC filler)
were used. The surface roughness of the moulded components served as the study’s re-
sponse variable, while cutting speed served as the study’s independent parameter. As there
was no visible mould damage, the physical structure of the mould was unchanged by SiC
concentration and cutting speed. This discovery indicated that the SiC content in the mould
has a significant impact on the surface roughness of the moulded items. Additionally, the
flexural strength rose with the SiC filler concentration (from 58.75 to 66.49 MPa), following
a pattern comparable to the heat conductivity of the mould material. The influence of
filler concentration primarily on the direction of welding for moulded components was not
examined in this research.
Senthilkumar et al. [111] studied the effects of epoxy resin on the mechanical char-
acteristics of aluminium (Al) particles. The sample was cast utilising Al filler mixed into
epoxy resin at various concentrations. Optical microscopy revealed that the Al particles
were uniformly dispersed throughout the epoxy resin matrix. These results show that
increasing the amount of Al particles inside the epoxy resin matrix significantly raises both
the thermal conductivity (3.97 to 5.39 W/mK) and the hardness value of the composite
(69 to 89 RHL). The sample’s fatigue life decreased from 15,786 cycles to 734 cycles as
the Al content of the epoxy resin increased. The best percentage of Al filler particle for
enhancing mould performance and durability was found to be between 45 and 55 wt.%
There was an improvement of 72 RHL in durability, 10,011 cycles in fatigue resistance,
and 4.06 W/mK in thermal conductivity. However, the hardness value increased by 4.34%
for every 5% increase in Al filler particles, which might reduce the fatigue life by 36.58%.
Nevertheless, there has been no further research on the moulded components’ flexural
strength, compressive strength, tensile strength, or surface appearance.
Srivastava and Verma [27] attempted to determine how the addition of Cu and Al
particles to epoxy resin composites altered their mechanical properties. Epoxy resin was
mixed with Cu and Al particles (1, 5, 8, and 10 wt. %) to create a variety of filler composi-
tions. The results of the mechanical tests showed that the epoxy resin with Al reinforcement
has excellent tensile properties, with a tensile strength of 104.5 MPa at 1 wt. %, while the
epoxy resin composites with Cu filler was optimal in the hardness test (22.4 kgF/mm2
at 8 wt. %) and had a compressive strength of 65 MPa at 10 wt. %. In addition, epoxy
resin composites filled with Cu demonstrated better performance than those filled with
Al despite having a lower hardness. This finding demonstrated that the tensile strength,
wear loss, and hardness of the material all decreased steadily with increasing filler content,
whereas the compressive strength, friction coefficient, and hardness all showed an increase.
However, the impact of the welding direction on the surface of the moulded components is
yet to be determined.

17
 Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Table 5. Research on epoxy materials as mould inserts for RT.

Mechanical Test

Researchers
Shore D
Thermal

Tensile
Vickers

Particle Size
Thermal

Flexural

of Filler (wt. %)
Hardness
Test (RH )

Weight Percentage
Hardness Test

Compressive

Fatigue Test

Particles/Fillers Used
Strength (MPa)
Strength (MPa)
Strength (MPa)
Density (g/cm3 )
Surface Roughness

Arithmetic Mean

Epoxy Resin/Hardener
Diffusivity (mm2 /s)

Hardness (kgF/mm2 )

Conductivity (W/m·K)

Roughness (Ra) (μm)

Tomori et al. • RP4037 (resin) • 28.5
• 1.03 to • 58.75 to
1. (2004) • RP4037 • SiC • 34.7 • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A
1.35 66.49
[110] (hardener) • 39.9

• 40
• 45
Senthilkumar • Araldite LY 556 • 45–150 • 15,786
2. • Al • 50 • N/A • N/A • 69 to 89 • 3.97 to 5.39 • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A
et al. (2012) [111] (resin) μm to 734
• 55
• 60

• 1
Srivastava and • PL-411 (resin) • Cu =
• Cu • 5 • <85 (pure • Cu = 65 at 10
3. Verma (2015) • PH-861 • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A 22.4 at 8 • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A
• Al • 8 epoxy) wt. %
[27] (hardener) wt. %
• 10

18
• Steel AISI P20 • Steel AISI P20
• RenCast 436 inserts = 20.0 inserts = 66 ±
Fernandes et al. (resin with Al ± 4.5 3.2
4. (2016) filler) • Al • 21.4 • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • Epoxy • N/A • N/A • Epoxy • N/A • N/A • N/A
[26] • Ren HY 150 resin/Al resin/Al
(hardener) inserts = 22.0 inserts = 61 ±
± 5.0 1.6

• Brass: 10% = • Brass: 10% =

• Brass: 10% =
• Brass: 10% = 1.18, 95.61, 20% = 0.644, 20% =
• RenCast CW 47 1.85, 20% =
20% = 1.21, 30% = 93.23, 30% = 0.657, 30% =
Khushairi et al. (resin with Al • 10 2.01, 30% =
• Brass 1.37 92.69 0.740
5. (2017) filler) • 20 • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A 2.22 • N/A
• Cu • Cu: 10% = 1.66, • Cu: 10% = • Cu: 10% =
[112] • Ren HY 33 • 30 • Cu: 10% = 1.83,
20% = 1.73, 30% = 80.83, 20% = 0.837, 20% =
(hardener) 20% = 1.96,
1.87 81.51, 30% = 0.923, 30% =
30% = 2.08
73.17 1.112

• Average
microgroove
depth of
Al-filled epoxy
resin was
Kuo and Lin • TE-375 (Al filled 90.5%
6. • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A • N/A
(2019) [113] epoxy resin) • Average
microgroove
width of
Al-filled epoxy
resin was
98.9%
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Figure 5. Method for setting up a tooling board.

Fernandes et al. [26] studied the dimensions and mechanical characteristics of epoxy
resin/Al insert-moulded PP injection components for RT. A 140 mm diameter sphere was
made up of five chambers with 2 mm thick walls that formed the work’s central geometrical
component. The length of the test was 60 mm, the diameter of the entrance was 6.5 mm, and
the draught angle was 2◦ . To test the suggested mould, a novel hybrid mould comprising
epoxy resin and Al was employed in this work to insert polypropylene (PP) pieces. In
addition, comparable pieces were inserted to use an AISI P20 (conventional) steel mould,
the same as in the genuine application. Epoxy resin/Al insert-filled components had
slightly higher tensile strength at yield (22.0 ± 5.0 MPa) than steel AISI P20 insert-filled
components (20.0 ± 4.5 MPa), but the difference was not statistically significant. Epoxy
resin/Al-injected parts had lower values for ultimate tensile strength, elongation at break,
and modulus of elasticity than steel AISI P20-injected parts. Furthermore, the Shore D
hardness of objects formed by AISI P20 steel inserts increased by 8.5% in comparison to
goods moulded by epoxy/Al inserts. When compared to components injected using an
epoxy/Al mould, those injected using an AISI P20 steel mould showed less shrinkage.
Based on these findings, epoxy/Al moulding blocks may be a high-quality alternative to
fast tooling for producing single units or small series. Furthermore, this research did not
investigate whether the orientation of welding on the moulded components was affected
by the impact.
Khushairi et al. [112] investigated various epoxy compositions using Al, Cu, and brass
fillers which were tested for their mechanical and thermal properties. In Al-filled epoxy,
different combinations of brass and Cu filler (10, 20, and 30% wt. %) were used. Brass
and Cu densities were 2.22 g/cm3 and 2.08 g/cm3 at the optimum filler content, respec-

19
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

tively. When 30% Cu fillers were added to an epoxy matrix, the total thermal diffusivity
(1.12 mm2 /s) and thermal conductivity (1.87 W/mK) were the maximum, but adding brass
had no effect on thermal properties. When 20% brass filler was added, compressive strength
increased from 76.8 MPa to 93.2 MPa, whereas 10% Cu filler raised compressive strength
from 76.8 MPa to 80.8 MPa. As a result of porosity, multiple metal fillers diminished the
compressive strength. According to this research, fillers boost mechanical, thermal, and
density properties of Al-filled epoxy. Nonetheless, a careful evaluation of the surface char-
acteristics, notably the welding line of the moulded components, is necessary to determine
the moulded parts’ quality.
Kuo and Lin [113] examined the quick injection moulding of Fresnel lenses from
liquid silicone rubber. The experiment was conducted utilising RT and liquid silicone
rubber (LSR) parts to build a horizontal LSR moulding machine (Allrounder 370S 700–290,
ARBURG, Loßburg, Germany). Injection moulds for LSR injection moulding could be
manufactured using Al-filled epoxy resin. The total microgroove depth and width of the
Al-filled epoxy resin mould were 90.5% and 98.9%, respectively. LSR-moulded components
exhibited typical microgroove depth and width transcription rates of roughly 91.5% and
99.2%, respectively. LSR-moulded components’ microgroove depth as well as width may be
modified to within 1 m. The mean surface polish of the Al-filled epoxy resins increased by
around 12.5 nm following 200 LSR injector test cycles. However, further testing on tensile
strength, compressive strength, hardness, and density, as well as weld line observations,
is essential to understand the impact of quick injection moulding on the recommended
mould in terms of moulded component quality.
From the review that has been carried out, it can be seen that numerous elements
such as flexural strength, hardness, thermal conductivity, tensile strength, compressive
strength, density, thermal diffusivity, and surface roughness of the new material introduced
are important factors that need to be considered prior to its use as mould inserts for RT in
the injection moulding process.

2.4. Geopolymer
A geopolymer is formed by combining a dry solid containing high aluminosilicate
content, called a precursor, with alkaline solution and other ingredients if needed [114].
It is a semicrystalline, three-dimensional structure made of the tetrahedral structures of
silica and alumina that share oxygen [115]. Geopolymer precursor can be obtained in two
ways: from geological origin or industrial by-products. Examples of geological origins
are kaolinite and clay, while industrial by-products are fly ash (FA), wheat straw ash,
and furnace ash. Geopolymers are activated using high-alkali solution for the polymeric
reaction to occur by using sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), or a
mixture of sodium oxide (N2 O) and silicon monoxide (SiO) [116].
The geopolymer concrete curing process has a significant impact on mechanical charac-
teristics and microstructure development [117,118]. Excellent mechanical strength, reduced
creep, improved acid resistance, and minimal danger of shrinkage are all characteristics of
geopolymer concrete [41,119,120]. The durability of waste pozzolan-based geopolymer con-
crete that is cured at high temperatures has been extensively studied [121–124]. By curing
the geopolymer at a higher temperature, one may enhance the geopolymer’s mechanical
properties, polymerisation level, microstructure density, and overall strength [117,125–127].
Geopolymers come in a variety of unique shapes, and each type has certain properties.
Geopolymers are an alternative material in the tooling industry. However, changing the
geopolymer composition will change the qualities of the geopolymer, where selecting the
correct geopolymer precursor will give the tooling industry greater advantages.

2.4.1. Effect of Different Geopolymer Precursors on Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer

Concrete for building uses geopolymer because of its great compressive strength. Its
mechanical qualities, however, can vary depending on the type of geopolymer used [128–131].
Previous studies employing various geopolymer precursors are presented in Table 6.

20
 Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Table 6. Research on the effects of different geopolymer compositions on mechanical properties.

No. Researchers Curing Days Curing Temperature Material Composition Mechanical Properties Result

• The greatest strength attained was 62.15 MPa at 28

days.
Girish et al. (2017) • NaOH solution from 8 M • Compressive strength ratings suggest an increase in
1. • 7, 14, 28 • 60 ◦ C • Compressive strength
[131] to 14 M the strength of all combinations.
• At 28 days, the compressive strength of the cement
concrete surpassed the stiff pavement’s minimum
compressive strength requirement (40 MPa).

• Compressive strength • The highest strength achieved was 71.78 MPa after
• Flexural strength ambient curing at 56 days.
• SiO2 /Al2 O3 ratio of
Girish et al. (2018) • Split tensile strength • Compressive strength values indicate an increase in
2. • 7, 28, 56 • 30 ◦ C 3.0–3.8
[132] • Modulus of elasticity the strength of all mixes.
• Na2 O/Al2 O3 ratio of 1
• Flexural strength of beams • At 28 days, the compressive strength of the cement
sliced from slab concrete exceeded the rigid pavement’s minimum
compressive strength requirement (40 MPa).

21
• 1.0 wt. % of either FA, • Slag geopolymer in SnCu solder paste impacts on the
Izzati et al. (2020) • FA and slag at 27 ◦ C
3. •3 kaolin, slag geopolymer • Hardness microhardness values.
[133] • Kaolin at 80 ◦ C
particles in Sn-0.7Cu • Slag geopolymer particles enhanced hardness by up to
7.84 Hv.

• Cement: fine agg.: coarse

agg. with 0% • The greatest improvement in compressive strength,
• Compressive strength
Hussein and Fawzi • 5% copper fibre and fly splitting tensile strength, and flexural strength.
4. • 7, 28 • 40◦ C • Splitting tensile strength
(2021) [134] ash and slag: fine agg. • Copper wire fibre increases splitting tensile strength
• Flexural strength
• Coarse agg. with 5% and flexural strength, and when the age of the
concreate increases, the MPa increases.
copper fibre

• MR0 and MR1 cement: • MR1 has the greatest preliminary compressive
fine aggregate • Compressive strength strength.
Hussein and Fawzi •2 • 40 ◦ C • MR2, MR3, MR4—fly ash • Splitting tensile strength • Geopolymer mix MR4 has the highest mechanical
5.
(2021) [135] in slag at 0.75:0.25, • Flexural strength properties.
0.65:0.35, and 0.55:0.45 • In splitting tensile strength and bending strength tests,
fibre addition produces better results.
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Girish et al. [131] investigated the feasibility of employing geopolymer concrete as

fine aggregate in stiff paving-grade concrete comprising quarry dust and sand. The 60/40
mixture consisted of fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), had different
solid–liquid ratios, and was examined at 3, 14, and 28 days. Increasing the molar ratio
of the NaOH solution from 8M to 14M increased the strength of the resulting concrete
but reduced the solution’s workability. The experiment used a 12M NaOH solution, and
the fine aggregates included both quarry dust and sand. The maximum strength was
62.15 MPa, and it was reached after 28 days. The results of the compressive strength test
as depicted in Figure 6 showed that the strength of all the mixtures had increased. The
achieved compressive strength at 28 days was more than the 40 MPa minimum required for
stiff pavement cement concrete. However, research needs to be undertaken to investigate
whether the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete is affected by the substitution of
quarry dust for sand.

Figure 6. Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete with different mixture compositions [131].

Girish et al. [132] investigated self-consolidating geopolymer concrete for fixed-form

pavement. Optimal strength geopolymer concrete is produced with a SiO2 /Al2 O3 ratio
between 3.0 and 3.8 and a Na2 O/Al2 O3 ratio of 1. Compressive strength of 40 MPa was
targeted for this mixture, which also included class F fly ash, ground blast furnace slag
(GGBS), NaOH particles and solution form (molar concentration: 10 and 12), Na2 SiO3 (A-53
grade), fine aggregate (quarry dust and river sand), coarse aggregate (below −20 mm),
retarder (Conplast SP500), sugar solution, and water. The average compressive strength
of the ambient-cured M10 mix after 28 days was 56.47 MPa, which is 40% higher than the
intended compressive strength. At day 56, the compressive strength had increased to a
peak of 71.78 MPa. However, as highlighted in Table 7, the proposed combination lacks
considerable green strength, which is essential for slip-form paving applications, due to
its low viscosity and yield stress. To make the SGC more environmentally friendly and
appropriate for sliding mould applications, it might be beneficial to include nanoclays
and/or fibres in the material.

Table 7. Hardened properties of M10 mix [132].

Flexural
Curing Compressive Flexural Split Tensile Modulus of Strength of
Period in Strength Strength Strength Elasticity Beams
Days (MPA) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Sliced From
Slab
7 45.22 3.85 - - 4.05
28 56.41 4.63 3.96 37,471.44 4.95
56 71.78 5.42 4.96 38,197.20 5.22

22
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Izzati et al. [133] evaluated the use of different levels of geopolymer. No geopolymers,
1.0 wt. % fly ash, kaolin, or slag geopolymer particles were added to Sn-0.7Cu. All the
mix designs were cured for 3 days and the temperature of curing for fly ash and slag was
27 ◦ C and that for kaolin was 80 ◦ C. As illustrated in Figure 7, using slag geopolymer is
more challenging compared to not using geopolymer and using other geopolymers. Future
research can attempt at using a higher percentage of geopolymer to test the composition’s
hardness. This may result in higher hardness compared to 1% geopolymer. To be compa-
rable to other geopolymers, future research needs improve its preparation procedure in
terms of curing temperature.

Figure 7. Different compositions of composite solder hardness value [133].

Hussein and Fawzi [134] tested various geopolymer contents in mix composition.
The normal composition was cement with fine aggregate and coarse aggregate and 0%
and 5% copper fibre, while the geopolymer composition had varied amounts of fly ash
(FA) and slag with fine aggregate and coarse aggregate and 0% and 5% copper fibre. The
preparation was cured at 40 ◦ C for seven to twenty-eight days to evaluate compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength, and bending strength. Figure 8 demonstrates that the
maximum compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and bending strength increase
when the FA to ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) ratio is 0.55:0.45 with 0.5%
copper wire fibre. It indicates that the compressive strength increases as the GGBFS level
rises. The maximum strength of the geopolymer content can be determined by employing
longer curing times and greater FA to GGBFS ratios.

Figure 8. Compressive strength of geopolymer with different mixtures [134].

Hussein and Fawzi [135] analysed different contents of geopolymer by using different
ratios of fly ash (FA) to ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS). Cement, fine
aggregate, and coarse aggregate were used in the preparation of MR0 and MR1, while fly
ash to slag ratios for MG0, MG1, MG2, and MG3 were 0.75:0.25, 0.65:0.35, and 0.55:0.45 and

23
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

mixed with fine aggregate and coarse aggregate in MR1, MG1, MG2, and MG3 with 0.5%
copper fibre added. The preparation was cured at 40 ◦ C for seven and twenty-eight days.
As depicted in Figure 9, the larger the proportion of GGBFS, the greater the compressive
strength and, at ninety days, 45% GGBFS had the highest compressive strength. MG3 with
a content of 45% GGBFS shows the highest split tensile strength and flexural strength. To
determine the ideal fly ash to slag ratio for assessing hardness, an analysis with a higher fly
ash to slag ratio could be carried out.

Figure 9. Different content percentages of GGBFS show different compressive strengths [135].

According to the review, mechanical qualities can be improved by utilising slag

geopolymer. Research is necessary to determine whether a particular geopolymer can
enhance mechanical properties. Furthermore, according to the studies mentioned, there
are several preparations that would affect the strength, therefore the sample preparation
procedure should be fixed, such as curing at the same temperature, to ensure that the
results are unaffected. Varied drying times will result in different compressive strengths.
The mechanical characteristics of geosynthetics are affected by several geosynthetic
precursors. The strength of geosynthetic polymers is improved by using varied ratios of
sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide and fly ash/alkaline activators.

2.4.2. Effect of Different Ratios of Sodium Silicate/Sodium Hydroxide and Fly

Ash/Alkaline Activators on the Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer
The current investigation looks into the influence of sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide
ratios on geopolymer feasibility. Different studies showing the various proportions of
sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide and fly ash/alkaline activator to improve geopolymer
properties are listed in Table 8 [27,111]. The ideal preparation of fly ash can be determined
by testing varying concentrations of sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, fly ash, and alkaline
activator.
Morsy et al. [136] evaluated the influence of sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratios
on the viability of fly ash-based geopolymer synthesis at 80 ◦ C. In this study, 10 M NaOH
was combined with Na2 SiO3 and alkaline activator ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5. The
compressive strength of fly ash geopolymer mortars increased with age at 3, 7, 28, and
60 days. The compressive strengths of fly ash geopolymer mortars M1, M2, M3, M4, and
M5 after three days were 34.7, 61.6, 40.4, 40.5, and 22.3 MPa, respectively. The S/N ratio of
alkali activator had a significant impact on the strength of low-calcium fly ash geopolymer
cured at 80 ◦ C. Maximum strength was achieved when the ratio of sodium silicate to
sodium hydroxide (S/N) was equal to 1. Other than that, future research should investigate
preparation methods for mixtures and ensuring homogeneity so that they are comparable
with other geopolymers.

24
 Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Table 8. Research on the effects of various proportions of sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide and fly ash/alkaline activators on the mechanical properties.

The Ratio of Sodium

The Ratio of Fly Curing Temperature
No. Researchers Silicate/Sodium Mechanical Properties Result
Ash/Alkaline Activator and Days
Hydroxide

Morsy et al. (2014) • Compressive strength • Curing time has a direct correlation with the
1. • 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 • 2.5 • 80 ◦ C
[136] • Flexural strength increase in compressive and flexural strength.

• Fly ash/alkaline activator yielded the highest

Liyana et al. • Room temperature for flexural strength at ratio 2.0.
2. • 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 • 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 • Flexural strength
(2014) [137] 24 h
• Maximum flexural strength is achieved with a
2.5 sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio.

Bakri et al. (2011) • When combined with sodium silicate and

3. • 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 • 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 • 70 ◦ C for 24 h • Compressive strength sodium hydroxide, fly ash and alkaline activator
[138]
may boost concrete’s compressive strength.

• Ambient curing 6 ± 4 • As the ratio of alkali activators increased, the

25
Nis • 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 • 180 ◦ C for 26 days
• Compressive strength compressive strength of the specimens dropped
4.
(2019) [139] • Delayed oven-curing at 14 M.
at 70 ◦ C for 48 h

• The maximum compressive strength at 60 ◦ C is

Abdullah et al. • 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 • 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 • 40–80 ◦C for 24 h • Compressive strength achieved with a ratio of 2.0 fly ash to alkaline
5.
(2021) [140] activator, and a ratio of 2.5 sodium silicate to
sodium hydroxide.
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

According to Liyana et al. [137], in their study, the proportions of Na2 SiO3 /NaOH
solution and fly ash to alkaline activator were synthesised in four different ratios: 1.0, 1.5,
2.0, and 2.5, in a 24 h period during which curing was carried out at room temperature.
According to the results, the fly ash/alkaline activator ratio of 2.0 had the highest results
compared to other ratios, and the sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratio of 2.5 had the
highest results compared to other ratios. The best mechanical properties can be obtained
through research using various molarities and curing temperatures.
The study by Bakri et al. [138] used a 12 M concentration of NaOH and fly ash to
alkaline activator ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0. Only the three ratios of 1.5, 2.0,
and 2.5 were employed. Due to the geopolymer paste’s high workability, which makes it
challenging to handle, the ratios of 0.5 and 1.0 could not be used, and the ratio 3.0 could
not be used due to the paste’s low workability. Five different ratios of Na2 SiO3 /NaOH
were used: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5. The sample was cured for 24 h at 70 ◦ C before being
tested for compressive strength on the seventh day. The fly ash/alkaline activator ratio of
2.0 and the sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratio of 2.5 had the maximum compressive
strength. Future studies could examine various curing temperatures to achieve the best
compressive strength.
Nis [139] investigated geopolymer content using various NaOH concentrations and
sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratios. The sodium silicate (Na2 SiO3 ) and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solutions were used with four different sodium silicate to sodium
hydroxide ratios (1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5) and three different molarities (6 M, 10 M, and 14 M) for
alkali activation to evaluate the impact of these parameters on the compressive strength of
the alkali-activated fly ash/slag concrete under ambient-curing (AC) and delayed oven-
curing (OC) conditions. The specimens’ compressive strengths varied greatly with molarity
concentration; those with the greatest NaOH molarity (14 M) concentration had the greatest
compressive strength, as depicted in Figure 10. Other than that, more research can consider
investigating the impact of oven-curing conditions on compressive strength.

Figure 10. Compressive strengths of alkali-activated fly ash/slag specimens based on alkaline

activator ratio type [139].

Abdullah et al. [140] investigated several curing temperatures with a constant NaOH
concentration of 12 M using different fly ash/alkaline activator ratios and Na2 SiO3 /NaOH
ratios. The samples were cured at different temperatures from 40 ◦ C to 80 ◦ C for 24 h and

26
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

compressive strength was tested on the seventh day. The fly ash/alkaline activator ratio
of 2.0, sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratio of 2.5, and curing temperature of 60 ◦ C
resulted in the maximum compressive strength. Different curing days may be investigated
in order to enhance compressive strength.
Based on various studies [137–141], the mechanical characteristics may be affected
by the use of different ratios of sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, and fly ash/alkaline
activator. The strongest strength resulted from the fly ash/alkaline activator ratio of 2.0
and the sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratio of 2.5, which were used as the ideal ratio
for sample preparation. However, from the previous investigation, more improvements
can be made, which are optimising the curing temperature and curing durations as using
various curing durations can potentially increase the geopolymer’s mechanical qualities.
Although the mechanical characteristics are influenced by the ratio of sodium sili-
cate/sodium hydroxide and fly ash/alkaline activator, the preparation of different mo-
larities of sodium hydroxide is another key aspect that influences overall mechanical
characteristics of geopolymer.

2.4.3. Effect of Sodium Hydroxide Molarity on the Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer

The molarity of the alkali activator, the curing temperature, the number of days, and
other parameters all have an impact on the sample’s characteristics during the creation of
the geopolymer [27,111–113]. The different molarities of sodium hydroxide, that acts as an
alkali activator and affects the mechanical properties of geopolymer, are listed in Table 9.

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 Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Table 9. Research on the effect of the molarity of NaOH on mechanical properties.

NaOH Material Mechanical

No. Researchers Curing Days Curing Temperature Result
Molarity Composition Properties

• 6M
• 12 M shows the highest compressive strength
• 8M • Fly ash
Bakri et al. • Compressive reached on the seventh day.
1. • 1, 2, 3, 7 • 70◦ C • 10 M • Sodium hydroxide
(2011) [142] Strength (MPa) • The highest compressive strength was
• 12 M • Sodium silicate
achieved on the third day of curing.
• 14 M
• 16 M

• Compressive strength and early strength both

◦C • 6M • Fly ash seemed to improve with increased NaOH
Gum et al. • 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 56, • Oven: 60 for 24 h • Compressive molarity, which was employed as the alkaline
2. • 9M • Sodium hydroxide
(2013) [143] 91 (7 classes) • Air: 20 ◦ C for 24 h Strength (MPa)
• 12 M • Sodium silicate activator.
• 9 M and 12 M NaOH increased the strength by
45 MPa and 46 MPa after curing for 56 days.

28
• Fly ash, slag • The molarity of NaOH was increased while
• 4M • Sodium hydroxide alkali activator duration was decreased due to
Lee et al. • Compressive the amount of slag and water glass.
3. • 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 • 17 ◦ C, 28 ◦ C • 6M • Sodium silicate
(2013) [144] Strength (MPa)
• 8M • Water glass • The amount of slag was increased 25% and 30%
• Sand at 28 days while the amount of slag decreased
after 56 days of curing due to crack evolution.

• 5%, 10%, and 15%

• 10 M UFGGBFS replaced
Rathanasalam et al. • Compressive • 14 M NaOH concentration has the maximum
4. • 3, 7, 28 • 60 ◦ C • 12 M fly ash, with
(2020) [145] Strength (MPa) compressive strength.
• 14 M crushed stone or
copper slag

• 8M • Fly ash • To achieve maximum strength, the SS/SH was

Khan et al. (2021) • 40 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, 70 • 10 M • Compressive
5. • 28 ◦C • Copper slag maintained at 142.4, and the molarity of NaOH
[146] • 12 M Strength (MPa)
• Crusher dust was maintained at 1414 M.
• 14 M
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Gum et al. [143] studied the impact of making geopolymer concrete with an alkaline
activator on the compressive strength of mortars using fly ash as a binder and different
curing temperatures and moles of sodium hydroxide. Fly ash was combined with a mixture
of 6, 9, and 12 M NaOH, and the curing conditions were 60 ◦ C in the oven and 20 ◦ C outside
for 7 classes of curing days. After the chemicals were mixed, it was poured into moulds
with dimensions of 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm and measured for compressive strength
according to ASTM C 109. An alkaline activator that used NaOH at a higher molarity
demonstrated increased compressive strength. The compressive strength decreased as the
SiO2 /Na2 O and Al2 O3 /Na2 O ratios increased. When the SiO2 /Na2 O ratio exceeded 8.01
and the Al2 O3 /Na2 O ratio exceeded 1.94, the strength decrease rate appeared to accelerate
sharply at 28 days. Based on these findings, the strength at 28 days for series 1 appeared
to have increased by more than 1.7 times at a NaOH molarity of 9 M when compared to
a molarity of 6 M. However, the 9 M and 12 M results showed nearly identical strengths.
This highlights the significance of the SiO2 /Al2 O3 , SiO2 /Na2 O, and Al2 O3 /Na2 O ratios
in alkali-activated geopolymer based on fly ash. As SiO2 /Al2 O3 was constant in this
investigation, the values of 8.01 and 1.94 for SiO2 /Na2 O and Al2 O2 /Na2 O ratios yielded
the best strength development. The use of NaOH and sodium silicate (SiO2 /Na2 O = 8) in a
1:1 ratio demonstrated that it is possible to activate the geopolymerisation of fly ash and
create a significant increase in strength, with a compressive strength of around 47 MPa. The
evaluations of the impacts of the SiO2 /Na2 O and Al2 O3 /Na2 O ratios on strength under
equal SiO2 /Al2 O3 ratios are illustrated in Figure 11. The requirement for high-strength
concrete is over 40 MPa, demonstrating the possibility of employing fly ash as a cement
substitute. Future research can evaluate whether increasing the molarity and pH of NaOH
during the curing process will increase compressive strength, including multiple curing
temperatures.

Figure 11. Compressive strength versus ages for molarity of NaOH [143].

Lee et al. [144] analysed the effects of increasing amounts of slag, water glass, and
varying curing temperatures and NaOH molarities on curing time reduction. In the
preparation, the alkali activators were water glass (Korean Industrial Standards, KS 3-
grade; SiO2 (29%), Na2 O (10%), H2 O (61%, specific gravity 1.38 g/mL), and 98% pure
NaOH. The room temperature for the combined alkali-activated fly ash/slag paste was

29
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

between 17 ◦ C and 28 ◦ C. For setting time tests, the molarity of NaOH was 4 M and
6 M, and the mass ratio of NaOH was 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5. Then, 8 M NaOH was used to
accelerate the setting of alkali-activated fly ash/slag paste. For each mixed sample, a
100 mm × 200 mm cylinder mould was employed. The compressive strength and setting
times of ASTM C 191-08 [139] were evaluated at 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days of curing. At 17 ◦ C,
the alkali-activated fly ash/slag paste took 55 min to start and 160 min to finish when the
NaOH solution was 4 M and the water glass to NaOH solution by weight ratio was 0.5,
as illustrated in Figure 12. Due to the presence of slag and water glass, the molarity of
NaOH rose while the alkali activator’s duration shortened. The quantity of slag grew by
25% and 30% after 28 days, respectively, but reduced after 56 days due to crack growth.
Future research can examine different NaOH molarities to determine whether they can
boost compressive strength.

Figure 12. Time versus NaOH solution molarity [144].

Khan et al. [146] examined the material properties of fly ash, copper slag, and crusher
dust at different curing temperatures and NaOH concentrations. There were 16 differ-
ent mix designs that used varying curing temperatures and NaOH concentrations. The
design was cured for 28 days before testing, and the analysis revealed that the sodium sili-
cate/sodium hydroxide (SS/SH) ratio should be maintained at 2.4. The molarity of NaOH
should be kept at 14 M to produce maximum strength and dotted line was an average
region, as shown in Figure 13. The setting time was found to decrease from 449.8 min to
340.8 min. There are some limitations, such as the fact that the greater the molarity, the
greater the compressive strength, and this could be due to secondary parameters that may
affect the performance of geopolymer, including mixing time and other parameters that
can influence the complexity of the mix design; therefore, additional research is required to
determine their characteristics.
Rathanasalam et al. [145] investigated different sodium hydroxide (NaOH) molarities
of 10 M, 12 M, and 14 M and developed a mixture utilising 5%, 10%, and 15% ultra-
fine ground granulated blast furnace slag (UFGGBFS) replacing fly ash, with crushed
stone or copper slag. After curing for 3, 7, and 28 days at 60 ◦ C, the compressive
strength was evaluated. The compressive strength of all mix designs was tested using
a 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm cube. From the different types of design with different
curing days depicted in Figures 14–16, it can be concluded that all the mixtures with 14 M
NaOH concentration have the maximum compressive strength. Future studies can look
into using higher NaOH molarities to determine the ideal NaOH molarity to make the mix
design with the maximum compressive strength.

30
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Figure 13. Main effects plot for S/N ratios based on compressive strength [146].

Figure 14. Different molarities in the mix design of GPC and copper slag at 3 days [145].
Bakri et al. [142] investigated the compressive strength of fly ash at various sodium
hydroxide molarities. The sodium hydroxide molarities of 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 M and 1,
2, 3, and 7 curing days were used for the mix design samples. The proportion of fly ash to
alkali activator was maintained constant at 2.50, as was the proportion of sodium silicate
to sodium hydroxide. Prior to testing, all mixtures were cured at 70 ◦ C, and the results
indicated that for sodium hydroxide with molarity of 12 M, the compressive strength result
was the highest among the other molarities on the third day, and on the seventh day, it
demonstrated the highest compressive strength, as illustrated in Figure 17. Future research
can examine whether increasing the curing temperature will increase compressive strength.

31
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

Figure 15. Different molarities in the mix design of GPC and copper slag at 7 days [145].

Figure 16. Different molarities in the mix design of GPC and copper slag at 28 days [145].

Previous studies have investigated the effect of molarity of sodium hydroxide on

mechanical properties. According to the majority of the studies, the higher the sodium
hydroxide molarity, the higher the mechanical characteristics of the geopolymer. Although
lower compressive strength is seen in mix designs when sodium hydroxide molarity is
15 M, according to research by Khan et al. [146], this may not be due to the influence of
sodium hydroxide. First, it might be affected by the addition of other materials such as
copper slag and crusher dust, as well as other aspects that lower compressive strength such
as the SS/SH ratio and curing temperature. Although increasing the molarity improves the
mechanical properties of the geopolymer, research by Fakhrabadi et al. [147] shows that
when the sodium hydroxide molarity is 15 M, unconfined compressive strength is lower
than when the sodium hydroxide molarity is 11 M, while research by Bakri et al. [142]

32
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

suggested that molarity of 14 M is optimal for improving the mechanical properties of fly

ash. The development of sodium aluminate silicate hydrate was caused by an increase in
the molarity of sodium hydroxide (NASH) [148]. The use of sodium hydroxide with a high
molarity may enhance the geopolymerisation reaction and the dissolution of initially solid
materials, leading to better compressive strength [149].

Figure 17. Compressive strength of all mixtures with different molarities and curing days [142].

The success of the geopolymer preparation demonstrates that it is possible to in-

crease the material’s strength through geopolymer preparation. However, the low thermal
conductivity of geopolymer can be improved by adding metal filler to the mould insert.

3. Summary and Future Works

A combination of RP technique with production tooling helps carry out RT more
quickly but faces dimensional accuracy and surface finish issues. Moreover, the injection
moulding process faces an issue with cooling time where most mould inserts fabricated
using RP techniques have very low thermal conductivity, thus increasing the cooling time,
which will definitely affect the cycle time to produce the parts.
Many researchers have started to explore the use of metal epoxy composite (MEC) as
mould inserts for RT in the injection moulding process by using pure metal filler particles.
However, epoxy that can withstand high temperatures (>220 ◦ C) is hard to find and costly.
Therefore, there is a potential opportunity for epoxy to be replaced by geopolymer materials,
especially fly ash as raw material. Geopolymer material can withstand temperatures up to
1000 ◦ C. Similarly, the compressive strength of epoxy is 68.95 MPa (10,000 psi) as compared
to geopolymer which has strength of 60–80 MPa (8700–11,600 psi). The challenges of using
geopolymer material are similar to those of epoxy resin in that optimal strength, good
accuracy, acceptable surface finish, and good thermal characteristics must be determined.
Based on the gaps found from the literature, recommendations for future studies are as
follows:
i. The mechanical and metallurgical properties of GGMC mould inserts should be
evaluated to provide significant information and benefits to mould-making and rapid
tooling industries.
ii. The size precision and surface integrity of the GGMC mould inserts after the casting
process should be evaluated accordingly and compared to the GGMC mould inserts
after machining in order to produce precision plastic product with a high-quality
surface finish.

33
Materials 2023, 16, 1724

iii. To enhance the qualities of the outcomes, various geopolymers filled with scrap metal
fillers should be mixed to increase thermal conductivity, or two or more kinds of filler
materials can be added to improve thermal conductivity.
iv. The purpose of carrying out RT before production tooling for mass production is to
evaluate the part performance and mostly requires modification of the mould inserts.
Thus, an investigation on the effects of dimensional accuracy and surface quality in
the machining process is definitely required.
This review has provided a clear reference for future development of mould inserts
for RT using GGMC material. Thus, initiative needs to be taken to conduct an analysis on
the effect of incorporating metal particles in geopolymer material as mould inserts for RT
and its relationship with compressive strength and thermal conductivity. Moreover, the
integration of metal scraps from machining with geopolymer formed from waste makes
this research more interesting. GGMC material should be examined for metallurgical
parameters such as corrosion rate, coefficient of expansion, surface roughness, and additive
manufacturability. Furthermore, the machinability and the reliability of GGMC mould
inserts should be explored and evaluated accordingly. At the end of this research, the
discovery of new sustainable green material will benefit moulding and rapid prototyping
industries, including with its environmentally friendly attributes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, A.T.M.Y., S.Z.A.R., M.M.A.B.A., A.E.-h.A. and A.R.; data
curation, A.T.M.Y., S.Z.A.R., M.M.A.B.A., M.N., A.E.-h.A. and A.R.; formal analysis, M.F.M.T. and
A.M.T.; investigation, M.F.M.T. and A.M.T.; methodology, S.Z.A.R., M.M.A.B.A., A.E.-h.A. and
A.R.; project administration, S.Z.A.R., M.M.A.B.A., A.R., M.N., A.E.-h.A. and A.M.T.; validation,
A.T.M.Y., M.N., M.F.M.T. and A.M.T.; writing—review and editing, A.T.M.Y., S.Z.A.R., M.M.A.B.A.,
A.E.-h.A., A.R., M.F.M.T. and A.M.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology
(CEGeoGTech) UniMAP and Faculty of Technology Mechanical Engineering, UniMAP. The authors
wish to thank the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, for their financial support of this study through
the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), FRGS/1/2020/TK0/UNIMAP/03/19.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the reviewers for the helpful advice and com-
ments provided.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 materials
Article
Experimental Study on Toughness of Engineered Cementitious
Composites with Desert Sand
Zhishuan Lv 1 , Yang Han 1,2, *, Guoqi Han 1 , Xueyu Ge 1 and Hao Wang 1

1 College of Civil Engineering, Kashi University, Kashi 844008, China; [email protected] (Z.L.);
[email protected] (G.H.); [email protected] (X.G.); [email protected] (H.W.)
2 Institute of Engineering Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Henan University of Technology,
Zhengzhou 450001, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-186-2371-7360

Abstract: In this paper, engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) were prepared with desert sand
instead of ordinary sand, and the toughness properties of the ECCs were studied. The particle size of
the desert sand was 0.075–0.3 mm, which is defined as ultrafine sand. The ordinary sand was sieved
into one control group with a size of 0.075–0.3 mm and three other reference groups. Together with the
desert sand group, a total of five groups of ECC specimens were created. Through a uniaxial tensile
test, three-point bending test and single-seam tensile test on the ECC specimens, the influence of
aggregate particle size and sand type on the ECC tensile strength, deformation capacity, initial crack
strength, cement-matrix-fracture toughness, multiple cracking characteristics and strain-hardening
properties were studied. The experimental results show that the 28d tensile strain of the four groups
of the ordinary sand specimens was 8.13%, 4.37%, 4.51% and 4.23%, respectively, which exceeded 2%
and satisfied the requirements for the minimum strain of the ECCs. It is easier to achieve the ECC
strain hardening with sand with a fine particle size; thus, a particle size below 0.3 mm is preferred
when preparing the ECCs to achieve a high toughness. The multiple cracking performance (MCP) and
the pseudostrain hardening (PSH) of desert sand and ordinary sand with a 0.075–0.3 mm grain size
were 2.88 and 2.33, and 8.76 and 8.17, respectively, all of which meet the strength criteria and energy
criteria and have similar properties. The tensile strength and tensile deformation of the desert sand
Citation: Lv, Z.; Han, Y.; Han, G.; Ge, group were 4.97 MPa and 6.78%, respectively, and the deformation capacity and strain–strengthening
X.; Wang, H. Experimental Study on performance were outstanding. It is verified that it is feasible to use desert sand instead of ordinary
Toughness of Engineered sand to prepare the ECCs.
Cementitious Composites with
Desert Sand. Materials 2023, 16, 697.
Keywords: desert sand; engineered cementitious composites (ECCs); particle size; uniaxial tension;
https://doi.org/10.3390/
toughness
ma16020697

Academic Editor: Dumitru

Doru Burduhos Nergis
1. Introduction
Received: 25 November 2022
Revised: 6 January 2023 Since its first appearance in the middle of the 18th century, concrete has been widely
Accepted: 8 January 2023 used in various industrial and civil buildings, roads, bridges and other infrastructures due
Published: 11 January 2023 to its high strength, extensive sources of raw materials, strong applicability and low cost, in
addition to other advantages. However, because of its low tensile strength, poor ductility,
easy-cracking characteristics and deterioration under environmental effects, the problem of
concrete durability is prominent, which increases the cost of maintenance and protection
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. and restricts the development of concrete materials [1,2]. Almost all infrastructures that are
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. damaged due to a lack of toughness, durability and sustainability can be traced back to
This article is an open access article
tensile cracking and the fracture of concrete.
distributed under the terms and
To overcome the defects of traditional concrete materials, such as high energy con-
conditions of the Creative Commons
sumption, a high degree of brittleness failure and a poor crack-control ability, engineered
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
cementitious composites (ECCs) have been developed and the strength criteria and energy
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
criteria based on micromechanics were proposed by Victor C. Li. A theoretical basis based
4.0/).

41
Materials 2023, 16, 697

on these two criteria was provided for the engineering application of the ECCs [3–5]. If
both the strength criteria and the energy criteria are satisfied, the characteristics of the
multiple cracking and strain hardening of the ECCs under tension can be realized. The
uniaxial tensile strain of the ECCs can exceed 2% [6–8], which is more than 200 times that
of ordinary cement-based materials [9]. In the failure process for the ECCs, many fine
cracks are produced with a crack width that is generally within 100 μm [10–12], and the
invasion of harmful substances can effectively be prevented and the impermeability [13–15],
self-healing ability [16–18] and durability [19–22] of concrete can be improved. The research
on the ECCs from different perspectives and in combination with different factors has been
conducted by scholars all over the world [23–26].
A large number of industrial wastes are used in the ECC preparation process to replace
some or all of the cement, such as fly ash, slag, lithium slag and red-mud slag [27–31],
and the energy consumption of the material-production process is greatly reduced, which
conforms to the goal of achieving environmental sustainability [32]. Aggregates are an
important component of the ECCs, which account for a large volume proportion and
significantly affect the workability, strength, elastic modulus, ductility and other properties
of the ECCs. In addition, aggregates can also reduce the production costs of the ECCs. At
present, most ECCs are made of micro-silica sand from river sand, which is a nonrenewable
resource. Because of the surge in demand for building raw materials, China uses approxi-
mately 20 billion tons of sand and stone every year, which account for half of the world’s
consumption. The phenomenon of indiscriminate excavation and mining frequently occurs,
which has caused great damage to the environment and has led to a sharp increase in the
price of materials, such as construction sand, and a decrease in sand reserves [33]. Today,
ECCs cannot be widely used in practical projects due to their high cost, and the existing
research on reducing ECC costs has focused on the optimization and selection of fibers.
However, the micro-silica sand used in the ECCs is also one of the important reasons for
the high cost. Thus, finding new and alternative sand sources is important and urgent.
Desert sand is a very rich natural resource, which is widely distributed all over the
world. The total desert area in China is approximately 700,000 km2 , which accounts for 7%
of its total land area. China has eight deserts with huge reserves of desert sand [34]. Desert
sand is ultrafine sand with an average particle size generally below 0.2 mm. Currently,
it is used in some concrete materials [35–38]; however, the use of desert sand in ECCs is
rarely reported. If desert sand can be reasonably used in ECC materials, it will not only
reduce engineering costs, but also protect environmental resources and help achieve the
sustainable development of concrete.
Based on the above research contents, firstly, the chemical composition of the desert
sand is tested to determine whether it contains harmful elements that can affect ECCs.
Secondly, ECCs are prepared with desert sand, which are then compared with the ECCs
of ordinary sand with different particle sizes. Through a uniaxial tensile test, three-point
bending test and single-seam tensile test on the ECC specimens, the influences of desert
sand and ordinary sand with different grain sizes on the ECC tensile strength, deformation
capacity, initial crack strength, cement-matrix-fracture toughness, multiple cracking charac-
teristics and strain-hardening properties were studied. The schematic flow diagram of this
study is shown in Figure 1.

Desert Sand 0.075–0.3mm

Uniaxial Stress and
Toughness
Tensile Test Strain
Sample
0.075–0.3mm
Preparation
0.3–0.6mm
Ordinary Sand Three-Point Bending Test Strength Criterion
0.6–1.18mm
and Single-Seam Tensile Test and Energy Criterion
0.075–1.18mm

Figure 1. Schematic flow diagram of this study.

42
Materials 2023, 16, 697

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials and Preparation of ECCs
The cement used in this study was P·II 42.5 ordinary Portland cement produced by
Xinjiang Tianshan Cement Co., Ltd. (Urumqi, China), and the mineral powder was high-
quality first-grade S95. The fine aggregates were desert sand from Wuqia County, Kezhou
and ordinary river sand from Kashi. The fiber used in this study was polyethylene (PE)
fiber. The polycarboxylic acid superplasticizer was produced by the Kashi Water Reducing
Agent Factory, as was the 200,000-viscosity hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose. Group A was
composed of desert sand with a particle size of 0.075–0.3 mm. The ordinary river sand
was sieved into four particle size grades with particle size ranges from 0.075 to 0.3 mm
for Group B, from 0.3 to 0.6 mm for Group C, from 0.6 to 1.18 mm for Group D and from
0.075 to 1.18 mm for Group E. The five groups of sands with different types and particle
sizes were taken as the research objects, as shown in Figure 2. The particle size of the desert
sand was very close to that of the ordinary sand, with a particle size from 0.075 to 0.3 mm.
The chemical composition of the desert sand is listed in Table 1. The sulfide and sulfate
contents were relatively low (calculated according to the mass of SO3 ) and the chloride
content was very low (calculated using the mass of chloride ion), which satisfy the limit for
harmful substances in the project. Table 2 lists the physical and mechanical properties of
the PE fiber.

PP PP PP

(a) (b) (c)

PP PP

(d) (e)
Figure 2. Desert sand and ordinary sand: (a) Group A, 0.075–0.3 mm; (b) Group B, 0.075–0.3 mm;
(c) Group C, 0.3–0.6 mm; (d) Group D, 0.6–1.18 mm; (e) Group E, 0.075–1.18 mm.

Table 1. Chemical composition of desert sand.

Component SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO TiO2 MnO SO3

Proportion (%) 74.48 9.53 2.78 4.34 1.76 0.34 0.001 0.08
Component Cl MnO P2 O 5 Cl−1 Na+1 K+1 Alkali content Loss on ignition
Proportion (%) 0.013 0.001 0.09 0.005 0.007 0.003 2.67 3.34

43
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Title: Fromont nuorempi ja Risler vanhempi: Parisin tapoja

Author: Alphonse Daudet

Translator: Martti Wuori

Release date: December 17, 2015 [eBook #50709]

Language: Finnish

Credits: E-text prepared by Juhani Kärkkäinen and Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROMONT

NUOREMPI JA RISLER VANHEMPI: PARISIN TAPOJA ***
 E-text prepared by Juhani Kärkkäinen and Tapio Riikonen

FROMONT NUOREMPI JA
RISLER VANHEMPI
Parisin tapoja

Kirj.

ALPHONSE DAUDET

Alkuteoksen kolmannesta viidettä painoksesta suomentanut

M. Wuori

Ranskan Akatemian palkitsema teos.

Pietarissa.
Anton Lindeberg'in kustannuksella.

Tampereella, Emil Hagelberg'in ja kumpp. kirjapainossa, 1885.

SISÄLLYS:
Esipuhe
Ensimmäinen kirja:
I. Häät Vefour'in luona
II. Pikku Chèben historia. — Kolme perhekuntaa yksillä portailla.
III. Pikku Chèben historia. — Väärät helmet.
IV. Pikku Chèben historia. — Savignyn kiiltomadot.
V. Kuinka pikku Chèben historia loppui.

Toinen kirja:
I. Vaimoni vastaanottopäivä.
II. Oikea ja väärä helmi.
III. Blondelkadun olutmyymälä.
IV. Savignyssa.
V. Sigmund Planus vapisee kassansa tähden.
VI. Tili.
VII. Kirje.

Kolmas kirja:
I. Tuomari.
II. Selitys.
III. Pikku neiti Sisi rukka.
IV. Odotussali.
V. Sanomissa.
VI. Hän lupasi olla sitä enää tekemättä.

Neljäs kirja:
I. Tarina pienestä sini-miehestä.
II. Havaintoja.
III. Maksupäivä!…
IV. Fromont'in huoneen uusi kauppapalvelija.
V. Café chantant.
VI. Sidonien kosto.
ESIPUHE.

Tämä teos, joka herätti Parisissa suurta ja ansaittua huomiota, on

kieltämättä uuden ranskalaisen kaunokirjallisuuden paraimpia
tuotteita. Kaikki Ranskan etevimmät sanomalehdet tervehtivät sitä
yleisellä suosiolla ja vähässä ajassa on sitä ilmestynyt kymmeniä
painoksia.

Vielä tärkeämpi huomio tuli tämän kirjan osaksi sen kautta, että
Ranskan akademia kokouksessaan 10 p, Kesäkuuta v. 1875
yksimielisesti päätti antaa sen tekijälle palkinnon, määrätyn
parhaimmasta vuoden kuluessa ilmestyneestä teoksesta, joka kuvaa
Parisin tapoja. Tämän palkinnon, joka silloin ensi kerran annettiin,
sai hra Alphonse Daudet romaanistaan nimellä "Fromont jeune et
Risler aîné."

Tämä romaani oivallisine luonteenkuvauksineen on varmaan

meilläkin voittava yleisön suosion.

Suomentaja.
ENSIMMÄINEN KIRJA.
I.

Häät Vefour'in luona.

— Rouva Chèbe!

— Poikani…

— Minä olen tyytyväinen…

Varmaankin kahdennen kymmenennen kerran sinä päivänä sanoi

kelpo Risler olevansa tyytyväinen, ja aina yhtä heltyneen ja
rauhaisan näköisenä, aina samalla harvalla, kumealla ja matalalla
äänellä, äänellä, joka ahdistaa mieltä, eikä tohdi puhua liian kovaa
pelosta puhkeavansa yht'äkkiä kyyneleisin.

Ei millään muotoa olisi Risler tahtonut silloin itkeä, — sopiiko,

näette, se sulhaselle keskellä hääateriaa? — Yhtä kaikki häntä itketti
kovin. Onnensa tukehdutti häntä, kuristi hänen kulkkuaan, esti
sanojen tulemasta esiin. Kaikki, mitä hän voi tehdä, oli kuiskata aika
ajoin hiukan värisevin huulin: "Minä olen tyytyväinen… Minä olen
tyytyväinen."

Siihen hänellä oli syytä todellakin.

 Aamusta saakka luuli miesparka olevansa ihanan unen vallassa,
josta pelkää äkkiä havahtuvansa, häikäistynein silmin; mutta
hänenpä unestaan ei näkynyt koskaan tulevan loppua. Se oli alkanut
kello viideltä aamulla ja kymmeneen iltasella, kymmeneen hyvin
tarkalleen Vefour'in kellon mukaan, kesti sitä vielä…

Paljo oli tapahtunut sinä päivänä, josta pienimmätkin seikat

pysyivät hänen mielessään!

Aamu koitti, kun hän hyvillä mielin, vaikka hiukan kärsimättömänä

astuskeli huoneessaan, vanhana poikana, valmiiksi puettuna, parta
ajettuna, kaksi paria valkoisia hansikkaita taskussa… Mutta, kas
tuossa jo juhlavaunut, ja ensimmäisissä tuolla — joilla on valkoiset
hevoset, valkoiset ohjat ja sisältä ovat verhotut keltaisella damastilla
— näkyy kuni pilvenä, morsiamen hääpuku… Siitä sitte mennään
kirkkoon, astutaan kaksittain, aina tuo valkoinen pilvi etupäässä,
liehuen kepeänä, viehättävänä… Sitte urut, ovenvartija ja
kirkkoherran saarna, kynttelien valossa loistavat jalokivet, kevät
pu'ut… ja väentungos sakastissa, jossa pieni valkoinen pilvi
ikäänkuin katoaa upoksiin kaikkien sitä ympäröidessä ja suudellessa,
sillä välin kuin sulhanenkin jakelee kädenlyöntiä kaikelle Parisin
ylhäiselle kauppiasseuralle, joka on tullut häntä kunnioittamaan…
Sen jälkeen urkujen suuri loppusoitto, joka on sitä juhlallisempi, kun
kirkon selälleen avatut ovet sallivat koko kadun ottaa osaa perheen
juhlamenoihin. Hääkansaa seuraa esikartanossa humina,
katselijoiden puhelut; muun muassa eräs kiillottajatar, suuri esiliina
vyöllä, sanoo ihan kovaa: "Sulhanen ei ole kaunis, mutta morsian on
armottoman sievä…" Siitä sillä on sulhasella ylpeilemistä…

Sitte aamiaiset tehtaalla, seinäpapereilla ja kukilla kaunistetussa

työ-huoneessa, huvimatka Boulognen metsään, mieliksi anopille,
rouva Chèbelle, joka, ollen parisilainen pikkuporvaritar, ei olisi pitänyt
tytärtään morsiamenakaan ilman ajoa järven ympäri ja käyntiä
vedenputouksella. — Sen jälkeen tulo päivällisille, valkeita
sytytettäissä bulevaardeilla, jonne ihmisiä oli tullut katsomaan
häämatkaa, oikeita ylpeitä häitä, joita vuokrahevoset pitkässä
jonossa kuljettivat Vefourin portaille asti.

Sillä kohdalla hän oli unessaan.

Ikäänkuin turtuneena uupumuksesta ja mielihyvästä katseli kelpo

Risler epämääräisesti äärettömän suurta kahdeksalle kymmenelle
hengelle katettua, molemmista päistä hevosen kengän muotoista
pöytää, jonka ympäriltä kohosi hymyileviä, tuttuja kasvoja, ja niiden
kaikkien silmistä oli hän näkevinään oman onnensa kuvastavan.
Päivällinen oli loppumaisillaan. Haastelun huminaa aaltoili ympäri
pöytää. Siinä oli vastatusten kääntyneitä kasvoja vilkkaassa
keskustelussa, siinä näkyi mustia hihoja kukkien takaa, siinä nautti
lapsi ilomielin hedelmä-jäätelöään, ja isoja kasoja jälkiruokaa kohosi
kasvojen tasalle ylt'ympäri tuota iloista, kirjavaa ja valoisaa
hääpöytää.

Niinpä niinkin! Risler oli tyytyväinen.

Paitse hänen veljeään Franssia, olivat kaikki, joita hän rakasti,

läsnä. Ensin — vastapäätä häntä, Sidonie, eilen pikku Sidonie,
tänään hänen vaimonsa. Hän oli heittänyt pois huntunsa
päivälliseksi: hän oli astunut ulos pilvestään. Ihan valkeasta ja
sileästä silkkihameesta kohosivat nyt sievät tummanvalkoiset kasvot,
— joita tuon säännöllisesti sidotun morsiusruunun peittämät kauniit
hiukset seppelöivät. Ja niidenpäs kätkössä vasta mylleröi elämään
pyrkivä myrsky, valmiina tuossa paikassa, köykäisten, pienten
untuvain tavoin, pois lentämään, katoamaan… Mutta eihän avio-
miehet semmoisia asioita huomaa.

Sidonien ja Franssin jälkeen rakasti Risler kaikkein enin

maailmassa rouva Georges Fromont'ia, jota hän kutsui "rouva
Chorcheksi", osakkaansa vaimoa ja entisen isäntänsä ja herransa,
Fromont-vainajan tytärtä. Risler oli istuttanut hänen viereensä ja
puhutteli häntä aina lempeällä ja suopealla tavalla. Rouva Fromont
oli aivan nuori nainen, melkein Sidonien ikäinen, mutta kauneutensa
oli säännöllisempi, tyynempi. Hän jutteli vähän, ollen outona tuossa
sekalaisessa seurassa, vaan kaikin voimin kumminkin koetti olla
rakastettava.

Toisella puolen Risleriä istui rouva Chèbe, morsiamen äiti, joka

säteili ja loisti viheriän kiiltävässä satiinihameessaan. Aamusta
saakka oli hyvän naisen mieli ollut yhtä loistava, kuin hänen
merkkikuvallinen vaatteensa. Tavan takaa sanoi hän itsekseen:
"Tyttäreni menee naimisiin Fromont nuoremmalle ja Risler
vanhemmalle Vieilles Haudriettes'in kadun varrelta!"… Sillä
tyttärensä, muka, ei mennyt naimisiin ainoastaan Risler
vanhemmalle, vaan koko kauppahuoneelle, tuolle Parisin
kauppamailmassa kuuluisan toimi-nimen, ja joka kerta kuin rouva
Chèbe muisteli mainehikasta tapahtumaa suoristi hän itseään ja
silittää kahisteli väikkyvää hamettaan.

Aika vastakohtana hänelle oli hänen miehensä, herra Chèbe, joka

istui muutamaa tuolia etempänä. Avioliitossa, yleensä, matkaan
saattavat samat syyt kokonaan erilaisia seurauksia. Tuo
lyhytkasvuinen mies jyrkkine kuhmura-otsineen, joka kiilsi ja oli
ontto kuin puutarhan pallo, oli yhtä jörön näköinen, kuin hänen
vaimonsa säteilevä. Yhtä kaikki se ei muuttanut herra Chèbeä, sillä
hän vihoitteli pitkin koko vuotta. Sinä iltana ei hän kumminkaan ollut
niin kurjan ja kuihtuneen näköinen, kuin tavallisesti, kun hän oli
puettu leveään, liehuvaan päällystakkiinsa, jonka taskut aina olivat
pullollaan öljy- tai viini-, multasieni- tai etikka-näytteistä, sikäli kun
hän niissä piteli jotakin näistä kauppatavaroista. Hänen oiva, uusi,
musta pukunsa oli vastineena viheriäiselle hameelle, mutta kovaksi
onneksi olivat ajatuksensa hänen pukunsa väriset… Miks'ei, näet,
häntä oltu pantu istumaan morsiamen viereen, niinkuin hänen oli
oikeus?… Miksi oli hänen paikkansa annettu Fromont nuoremmalle…
Ja ukko Gardinois, Fromont'ilaisten isoisä, mitä hän teki Sidonien
rinnalla?… Aha! vai niin! Kaikki Fromont'ilaisille, eikä mitään
Chèbeläisille… Ja sitte vielä ihmetellään, että vallankumouksia
syntyy!

Onneksi sai vimmattu pikku mies purkaa sappensa naapurilleen ja

ystävälleen, vanhalle virasta eronneelle näyttelijälle, Delobellelle,
joka juhlallisena kuunteli häntä levollisesti ja majesteetillisesti.
Vaikkapa oltaisikin oltu poissa teaatterista viisitoista vuotta,
tirehtöörien häijyyden tähden vaan, niin kyllä sitä aina löytyy, kun
tarvitaan, näyttämö-asentoja kaikkia tapauksia varten. Niinikään oli
Delobelle sinä iltana häävieraana, kasvot puoleksi vakavina puoleksi
hymyilevinä, samalla luontevana ja juhlallisena, sekä, nouteliaana
alhaista kansaa kohtaan. Olisi luultu hänen, koko teaatterihuoneen
edessä, olevan mukana ensimmäisen näytöksen pidoissa
pahvilaatikoissa annettujen ruokien ääressä, ja vieläkin enemmän
näkyi tuo kummallinen Delobelle näyttelevän jotakin osaa, kun hän,
varmaan ajatellen, että hänen kykyänsä iltamassa käytetään, siitä
asti, kuin pöydässä oltiin, ajatuksissaan muistutteli kauneimpia
kappaleita näytelmistöstään. Senpätähden hänen kasvojensa
epämääräinen ja teeskennelty osoite kuvasi näyttelijää, joka muka
on tarkkaan kuulevinaan, mitä hänelle sanotaan, vaan koko ajalla ei
ajattele muuta kuin vastaustaan.

Omituista, että morsiamenkin kasvoissa oli hiukan samaa

osoitetta. Noissa nuorissa, sievissä piirteissä, joita onnellisuus
elähytti kirkastamatta niitä, näkyi salainen huoli; ja, hetkittäin,
ikäänkuin hän olisi itsekseen puhunut, vilahti hymyn väre hänen
suupielissään.

Sellaisella pienellä hymyllä vastasi hän oikealla puolellaan istuvan

isoisä Gasdinoisin hiukan kujeellisiin pilapuheisin:

— Sitä Sidoniea, yht' hyvin!… sanoi kunnon ukko nauraen… Kun

ajattelee, ett'ei ole kahta kuukautta siitä, kuin hän aikoi mennä
luostariin… Kyllä ne tunnetaan, tyttöjen luostarit!… Niin on kuin
meillä sanotaan: kahden virsut penkin alla, kahden kalsutkin
sopessa!…

Ja kaikki pöydän ääressä nauroivat luottoisasti vanhan berryläisen

maamiehen talonpoikamaisille ilveille. Suunnattoman rikkauden oli
elämä ukolle jakanut sydämen, hyvyyden ja kasvatuksen, vaan ei
älyn sijaan: sillä tätä tuolla ovelalla kyllä oli ja enemmänkin kuin
kaikilla noilla muilla porvareilla yhteensä. Niiden varsin harvojen
joukossa, jotka herättivät hänessä jonkinlaista myötätuntoisuutta,
miellytti häntä erittäinkin pikku Chèbe, jonka hän tunsi pienestä
tyttöhepakosta asti; ja tämä puolestaan, joka oli liian hiljan tullut
rikkaaksi ollakseen varallisuutta jumaloitsematta, puhui oikealla
istuvalle naapurilleen sangen kunnioittavalla ja veikistelevällä tavalla.

Sitä vastoin käyttäytyi hän hyvin varovasti vasempaa naapuriaan,

Georges Fromont'ia, miehensä osakaskumppania kohtaan. Heidän
puhelunsa rajoittui vaan kohteliaisuuksiin, jopa oli heidän kesken
ikäänkuin teeskenneltyä välinpitämättömyyttä.

Äkkiä kuului silkin kahinaa, tuolit kolisivat, puhelu lakkasi ja nauru

herkesi. Noustiin ruoalta. Tuossa puoli-äänettömyydessä sanoi rouva
Chèbe, joka oli käynyt puheliaammaksi, sangen kovaa eräälle
serkulle maaseudulta, joka oli ihastuksissaan nuoren, sillä hetkellä
herra Gardinois'in kanssa käsitysten seisovan morsiamen vakavasta
ja tyynestä käytöksestä.

— Näettehän, serkkuni, tuota lasta. — Ei kukaan olisi voinut

koskaan tietää, niitä hän ajatteli…

Kaikkien noustua mentiin suureen saliin.

Sill'aikaa kun tanssijaisiin kutsutut joukottain liittyivät

päivällisvierasten pariin, kun soittokunta valmistautui ja tanssijat,
pänsneet nenällä, pyörivät pienten, valkoisiin vaatteisin puettujen
malttamattomien neitosten ympärillä, oli sulhanen, tuota kaikkia
peläten, paennut ystävänsä Planuksen — Sigismund Planuksen
kanssa, joka kolmekymmentä vuotta oli ollut Fromont'in
kauppahuoneen rahaston hoitajana — turvaan tuohon pieneen
kukilla koristettuun kalteriin, jonka köynnöslehtoa kuvaavat
seinäpaperit olivat ikäänkuin vihantana perämönä Vefourin kullatuille
saleille. Siellä he ainakin olivat yksinään, siellä he voivat jutella:

— Sigismund, vanhus… minä olen tytyväinen…

Ja Sigismund oli myöskin tyytyväinen, mutta Risler ei antanut

hänelle suuvuoroa sanoa sitä. Nyt kun hän ei enää pelännyt itkeä
ihmisten nähden, tulvasi hänen sydämensä koko ilo esiin.
 — Ajattelehan tok', ystäväni!… Eikö se ole tavatonta tykkänään,
että tuommoinen nuori tyttö huoli minusta. Sillä, suoraan sanoen,
enhän minä ole kaunis. Ja tiedänhän sen ilman että tuon
hävyttömän tarvitsi sitä minulle kirkossa sanoa. Sitte olen jo kahden
viidettä vanhakin… Hän taas, joka on niin suloinen!… Löytyihän niitä
paljo muitakin otettavana, paljo nuorempia ja rikkaampia
puhumattakaan Frans raukasta, joka häntä hyvin paljon rakasti…
Mutta kas ei! vanhan Rislerin hän tahtoi… Ja hullunkurisesti se kävi…
Kauan aikaa huomasin minä hänen olevan murheissaan, kokonaan
muuttuneen… Ja ajattelin kyllä, että rakkauden huolia siellä pohjalla
piilee… Me, äitinsä ja minä, urkimme ja mietimme päämme halki,
saadaksemme selkoa, ketä hän, näet, rakasti… Niinpä sitte eräänä
aamuna astuu rouva Chèbe huoneeseni ja itkee ja sanoo: "Teitä hän
rakastaa, ystävä kulta!"… Ja minua… minua rakasti hän… Kah! kuka
sitä olisi koskaan luullut?… Ja sekö vielä, että samana vuonna
kohtasi semmoinen onni!… Päästä osakkaaksi Fromont'in
kauppahuoneesen ja Sidonien sulhaseksi… Oi, tok!…

Silloin tuli, hurmaavan valssin soidessa, pari tanssijoita, ikäänkuin

tuuliaispäänä pieneen saliin. Ne olivat morsian ja Rislerin osakas,
Georges Fromont. Molemmat olivat yhtä nuoret, yhtä komeat, ja he
puhuivat puolikovaan, kietoen sanansa ahtaisin valssipiireihin.

— Te valehtelette… sanoi Sidonie vaaleahkona ja yhä vähän

hymyilevänä.

Toinen, vaaleampana häntä, vastasi:

— En valehtele. Enoni tahtoi minun naimaan. Hän oli

kuolemaisillaan… te olitte lähteneet pois… Minä en tohtinut kieltää…

Kaukaa ihaili heitä Risler:

 — Kuinka hän on sievä! kuinka he tanssivat hyvin!…

Hänet huomattuaan valssijat erosivat, ja Sidonie tuli sukkelaan

Rislerin luo:

— Mitä? Oletteko täällä?… Mitä te täällä teette?… Teitä etsitään

joka paikasta. Miks'ette ole tuolla?…

Niin puhuessaan, korjasi hän somalla, kärsimättömällä liikkeellä

hänen kaulahuivinsa solmua. Ihastuneena hymyili Risler salavihkaa
Sigismundille, liian onnellisena tuntiessaan kaulallaan tuon pienen
hansikkakätösen kosketuksen, huomatakseen kaikkien hänen
sormiensakin vapisevan.

— Antakaa käsivartenne, sanoi Sidonie Rislerille, ja yhdessä

astuivat he saliin. Pitkän, valkolaahoksisen hameen rinnalla näytti
Rislerin musta, huonosti tehty ja huonosti puettu takki vieläkin
kömpelömmältä; mutta takkia ei korjata, niinkuin kaulahuivia: se oli
vaan pidettävä semmoisena, kuin se oli… Se oli Sidonielle ylpeyden
ja tyydytetyn turhamielisyyden hetki, kun, heidän ohikulkiessaan,
kaikki riensivät hymyllä vastaamaan heidän tervehdyksensä. Kovaksi
onneksi ei se vaan ollut kestäväinen. Salin nurkassa istui nuori,
kaunis nainen, jota ei kukaan kutsunut ja joka katseli tansseja
levollisena ja iloisena, vast'ikään ensi kerran äidiksi tultuaan. Heti
hänen huomattuaan meni Risler suoraan hänen luoksensa ja istutti
Sidonien hänen viereensä. Tarpeetonta on mainita, että se oli rouva
Chorche. Kenelle muulle olisi hän puhunut noin kunnioittavasti ja
lempeästi? Kenenkä muun, kuin hänen käteensä, olisi hän voinut
laskea pikku Sidoniensa käden sanomalla: "Rakastattehan häntä
paljo, eikö niin? Te olette oikein hyvä… Hän tarvitsee hyvin paljon
neuvojanne ja mailman kokemustanne"…
 — Tokihan, hyvä Risler, vastasi rouva Georges, olemmehan me,
Sidonie ja minä, vanhoja ystäviä… Mistä syystä me emme vielä
rakastaisi toisiamme?…

Mutta turhaan etsi hänen rauhallinen ja suora katseensa vastausta

vanhan ystävänsä silmistä…

Täydellisesti naisia tuntematta ja kohdellessaan Sidoniea, kuin

lasta, jatkoi Risler samalla äänellä:

— Ota, näet, hänet, tyttiseni, esikuvaksesi… Ei ole kahta

semmoista mailmassa, kuin rouva Chorche… Hänellä on aivan isänsä
sydän… Oikea Fromont!…

Silmät maassa, kumarsi Sidonie, niitäkään vastaamatta. Tuskin

huomattava väristys juoksi hänen satiini kenkänsä kärjestä aina
seppeleen ylimpään pomeranssi korteen asti. Mutta kelpo Risler ei
nähnyt mitään. Hän oli kuin juovuksissa ja hulluna hälinästä,
tanssijaisista, soitosta, kaikista noista kukista ja tulista… Hän luuli
kaikkien muidenkin hengittävän tuota verrattoman onnellisuuden
ilmaa, joka häntä ympäröi. Hän ei huomannut vähäistä kaihoa ja
kateuden kilvoituksia, jotka parveilivat koristetuilla otsilla.

Hän ei nähnyt Delobellea, joka, nojaten kyynäspäällään takkaa

vasten ja väsyneenä ikuiseen asemaansa, toinen käsi povessa,
toinen puuskassa, hattu reidellä, odotti tuntikausia, ilman että
kukaan aikoikaan pyytää häntä käyttämään kykyään seuran huviksi.
Hän ei nähnyt herra Chèbeä, joka synkeänä seisoa jörötti kahden
oven välissä, enemmän kuin koskaan vihoitellen Fromont'ilaisille…
Voi niitä Fromont'ilaisia!… Heiliäpä oli etevä sija häissä. Vaimoineen,
lapsineen, ystävineen ja ystävien ystävineen olivat he kaikki läsnä…
Oli kuin joku heistä olisi häitä viettänyt… Kukapa siinä puhuikaan
jostakin Risleristä tai Chèbestä? Häntä, isää, ei oltu edes
esiteltykään!… Ja vieläkin enemmän lisäsi pienen miehen raivoa
rouva Chèben käytös ja tapa hymyillä kaikille äidillisesti.

Muutoin oli sielläkin, kuin melkein kaikissa häissä, kaksi tyystin

erilaista virtaa, jotka koskettivat toisiinsa, kuitenkaan yhteen
sekoittumatta. Fromont'ilaiset, jotka kovin suututtivat herra Chèbeä
ja olivat tanssijaisten ylimyksinä, kauppakamarin esimies, asian-
ajajain vanhin kuuluisa shokolaatikauppias, joka oli esimiehenä lakia
laativassa valiokunnassa ja miljonien omistaja ukko Gardinois, kaikki
he lähtivät pois kahdentoista jälkeen. Heidän perästä astui Georges
Fromont vaimoneen vaunuihinsa, eikä jäänyt enää jäljelle kuin
Rislerin ja Chèben puolet. Ja kohta muuttui juhla iloisemmaksi ja
pauhaavammaksi.

Kuuluisa Delobelle, joka jo oli väsynyt, kun ei häntä mihinkään

pyydetty, päätti itse pyytää itseään, ja, sill'aikaa kun vieraat
tungeskelivat shokolaati- ja punssi-pöytien ympärillä, kävi hän
lausumaan jyrisevällä äänellä monoloogia Ruy-Blasista: "Hyvää
ruokahalua, herrat!"…

Vuoroonsa pääsivät nyt köyhemmätkin esille näyttämään

säästeliäästi tehtyjä vaatteuksiaan, ja nuoret kauppalaiset, jotka
kauvan jo olivat himonneet ilvehtimään, uskalsivat hekin käydä
katrillia tanssimaan. Morsian oli jo kauvan tahtonut lähteä pois, ja
vihdoin hän katosikin Rislerin ja rouva Chèben kanssa. Mitä herra
Chèbehen tulee, joka jälleen oli päässyt entiseen arvoonsa, niin oli
mahdotonta saada häntä pois. Pitihän jonkun toimittaa isännän
virkaa, hitto vie!… Että pieni mies asiaan hyvin ryhtyi, sen minä
takaan!… Punaisena ja innostuneena hyöriä mellasti hän melkein
kuin kapinoitsija. Ja kuuluipa hän alahalla laskettelevan politikkiakin
Vefourin ravintolanhoitajan kanssa sekä julkeudesta puheita
pitävän…

… Pitkin katuja, Maraisiin päin, vierivät raskaasti häävaunut, joiden

humalan raskauttama ajuri tuskin jaksoi valkoisia ohjaksia käsissään
pitää.

Rouva Chèbe puheli paljon, luetellen muistettavan päivän kaikkia

komeuksia ja ihastuneena erittäinkin päivälliseen, jonka jotenkin
tavallinen ruokalista oli hänestä ylellisyyden korkeimpana osoitteena.
Sidonie haaveksi vaunujen suojassa ja Risler, istuen vastapäätä
häntä, ell'ei hän enää sanonut: "minä olen tyytyväinen…", ainakin
niin ajatteli itsekseen sydämen pohjasta. Kerran koetti hän tarttua
pieneen valkoiseen kätöseen, joka nojautui nostettuun ikkunaan,
mutta se vetäytyi pois niin pian, että hän jäi hievahtamatta
paikalleen vaipuen äänettömään ihaelemiseen.

Kuljettiin Halles'ien ja Rambuteau kadun kautta, joka oli täynnä

yrttitarhurien rattaita; sitte, Francs'-Bourgeoiskadun päässä
käännyttiin Arkistojen kulmasta Braque-kadulle. Siinä seisatuttiin
ensikerran ja rouva Chèbe astui alas porttinsa luona. Se oli liian
ahdas hänen komealle, viheriäiselle silkkihameelleen, jonka liepeet ja
reunukset kauhealla kohinalla katosivat käytävään… Muutaman
minuutin perästä aukeni selko selälleen jykeä portti Vielles-
Haudriettes-kadun varrella, päästääkseen juhlavaunut sisään.
Portilla, vanhan kartanon kilvessä, puoleksi kuluneen vaakunan alla,
oli kilpi, johon sinisillä kirjaimilla oli kirjoitettu: "Seinä-paperia."

Sillä kertaa morsian, joka oli siihen asti ollut liikkumattomana ja

ikäänkuin nukuksissaan, näkyi äkkiä havahtuvan, ja ell'eivät kaikki
tulet olisi olleet sammutetut suurista rakennuksista, työ- ja tavara-
huoneista, jotka seisoivat rivittäin pihalla, olisi Risler voinut nähdä
riemastushymyn yht'äkkiä kirkastavan nuo kauniit, ongelmoiset
kasvot. Pyörät hiljensivät ratinansa puutarhan hienolla hiekalla ja
seisattuivat kohta pienen kaksikerroksisen rakennuksen portaiden
eteen. Siinä asui Fromont'ilaisten nuori perhe ja Risler vanhempi
vaimoineen asettui asumaan heidän yläpuolelle. Asumus oli
suurenlainen, ja aution kadun etäisessä kaupungin osassa korvasi
kauppasäädyn varallisuus. Portaissa oli lattiapeitto ylös asti,
etehisessä oli kukkia ja kaikkialla loisti marmoria, heijasti kuvastimia
ja kiilsi vaskea.

Sill'aikaa kun Risler tyytyväisenä käveli uuden asuntonsa suojissa,

oli Sidonie yksin huoneessaan. Lakeen ripustetun pienen sinisen
lampun valossa loi hän ensin silmänsä kuvastimeen, jossa hän näki
itsensä päästä jalkoihin asti, sitte kaikkeen uuteen ja hänelle outoon
loistoisuuteen; ja sen sijaan, että hän sitte olisi mennyt maata,
aukaisikin hän ikkunan ja nojautui liikkumattomana balkongiin.

Yö oli valoisa ja lämmin. Selvään näki hän koko tehtaan

lukemattomine ikkunoineen, kiiltävine, korkeine lasineen, sen pitkän
savutorven, joka hälveni taivaan avaruuteen, ja lähempänä pienen
upean puutarhan, vanhan kartanon seinustalla. Ylt'ympäri oli ikäviä,
kurjia kattoja ja kolkkoja, kolkkoja katuja… Yht'äkkiä vavahti hän.
Tuolla, synkimmässä, rumimmassa kaikista noista ylisistä, jotka,
ikäänkuin viheliäisyyden painamina, likistyivät yhteen, toisiinsa
nojautuen, aukeni viidennessä kerroksessa selki selälleen kolkko
ikkuna. Hän tunsi sen oitis. Se oli porrasikkuna hänen vanhempainsa
asunnossa.

Porraslavan ikkuna!…

Kuinka paljo asioita tuo nimi yksistään muistutti hänelle! Kuinka

monta hetkeä, kuinka monta päivää hän siellä oli viettänyt,
kumarruksissa kosteaa ikkunalaitaa vasten, joka oli ilman rintanojaa,
ilman balkongia, katsellen tehtaasen päin…

Ja vielä nytkin oli hän näkevinään siellä ylähällä pikku Chèben

näppärät kasvot, ja tuon kurjan akkunan kehikossa aukeni hänen
silmiensä eteen koko hänen lapsuutensa elämä, Parisi-tytön
surullinen nuoruuden aika.
II.

Pikku Chèben historia. — Kolme perhekuntaa yksillä portailla.

Parisissa, liian pienissä asunnoissaan ahtaasti asuville köyhille

perheille on yhteinen porraslava ikäänkuin lisäsuojana, asunnon
suurennuksena. Sen kautta pääsee kesä-aikaan vähän ilmaa ulkoa,
siellä puhelevat naiset, siellä kirmaavat lapset.

Kun pikku, Chèbe piti kovin paljon melua kotona, sanoi hänelle
äitinsä: "Ole tuossa jo minua vaivaamatta… mene leikkimään
portaille." Ja lapsi juoksi sinne hyvin sukkelaan.

Tuo porraslava, vanhan talon viimeisessä kerroksessa, jossa maar'

ei oltu tilaa säästetty, muodosti ikäänkuin suuren, korkean käytävän,
portaiden puolelta rautaisten käsipuiden suojeleman ja leveän
ikkunan valaiseman, josta näkyi kattoja, kartanoita ja muita
ikkunoita, sekä kauempaa Fromont'in tehtaan puutarha, ikäänkuin
viheriäisenä nurkkana vanhojen jättiläisseinien välissä.

Kaikki tuo ei ollut mitään varsin hauskaa, mutta lapsi huvittelihe

siellä paljoa paremmin, kuin kotonaan. Kotielämä oli ikävää, olletikin
kun satoi, eikä Ferdinand lähtenyt ulos.
 Ferdinand Chèbe, aivot aina höyryävinä uusista aatteista, jotka
kovaksi onneksi eivät koskaan koituneet, oli niitä laiskoja ja
suurihankkeisia porvareja, joita Parisissa löytyy hyvin kosolta.
Vaimonsa, jota hän alussa oli viehättänyt, oli kohta huomannut
hänen mitättömyytensä ja kärsi sitte malttavaisesti ja yhtä lailla sekä
hänen alituiset onnellisuuden unelmansa että vauriot, jotka niitä
välittömästi seurasivat.

Neljästä kolmatta tuhannesta franc'ista myötäjäisiä, jotka vaimo oli

tuonut ja miehensä tuhlannut hulluihin yrityksiin, ei heillä ollut
jäljellä muuta kuin pieni korko, joka vielä piti heitä arvossa naapurien
joukossa, sekä myöskin rouva Chèben, kaikista haaksirikoista
pelastettu, kashimirishaali, hänen hääkarikkansa ja kaksi sangen
pientä, vähäpätöistä briljanttinappia, joita Sidonie toisinaan pyysi
äitinsä näyttämään, piirongin laatikonpohjalla, vanhassa
valkosamettisessa lippaassa, josta kauppiaan, kolmekymmentä
vuotta sitte kultakirjaimilla kirjoitettu nimi, oli ihan kulumaisillaan. Se
oli tuon köyhän, kasvuillaan elävän perheen ainoa loistoisuus.

Kauan, hyvin kauan oli herra Chèbe hakenut paikkaa, josta riittäisi
vähän lisää heidän pieniin korkojäännöksiinsä. Mutta hän etsikin
vaan semmoista paikkaa, jota hän kutsui kaupaksi seisoallaan, sillä
hänen terveytensä, näet, oli kaikkia istuvia toimia vastaan.

Todellakin, avionsa ensi vuosina, silloin kuin hän oli suurissa

asioissa ja kun hänellä oli oma hevonen ja omat rattaat kauppa-
asioitaan varten, oli pieni mies kaatunut pahasti ja se kaatumus,
josta hän tuon tuostakin puheli, oli hänen laiskuutensa
puolustuksena.

Ei tarvinnut olla viittä minuuttia herra Chèben seurassa, ennenkuin

hän jo sanoi luottoisalla äänellä:
 "Tunnettehan onnettomuuden, joka tapahtui Orleans'in
herttualle?…"

Ja taputtaen kämmenellään hapsitonta pääkalloaan, jatkoi hän:

"Sama tapahtui minullekin nuoruudessani."

Tuon kuuluisan kaatumuksen jälkeen pyörrytti häntä kaikenlainen

istuva toimi ja hän näki olevansa katalasti tuomittu kauppaan
seisoallaan. Niinpä oli hän vuoroon ollut asiamiehenä viini-, kirja-,
tryffeli-, kello- ja monessa muussa kaupassa. Kovaksi onneksi
kyllästytti häntä hyvin pian kaikki ja hän ei pitänyt koskaan
asemaansa riittävänä entiselle kauppamiehelle. Sillä tavoin,
katsomalla kaikkea tointa arvoansa alemmaksi, oli hän vähitellen
käynyt vanhaksi ja kykenemättömäksi, oikeaksi tyhjäntoimittajaksi,
vetelehtijäksi.

Paljo on soimattu taiteilijoita heidän eriskummallisuuksistaan,

luonnon oikuistaan, tuosta tavan omaisen kauhusta, joka heittää
heidät syrjäpoluille, mutta kukapa taitaa koskaan luetella kaikkia
naurettavia mielijohteita ja hulluja eksentrillisyyksiä, joilla joutilas
porvari tahtoo täyttää tyhjää elämätään? Niinpä piti herra Chèbe
erityisenä lakina kaikenlaiset matkat ja kävelyt. Koko ajan, kun
Sebastoopolin bulevardia rakennettiin, kävi hän kaksi kertaa päivässä
katsomassa, tokko se muka "edistyi."

Ei kukaan tuntenut paremmin kuin hän maineessa olevia

erityistavara-kauppoja; ja hyvin usein, kun rouva Chèbe, itse
toimeliaasti korjatessaan talon liina-vaatteita, tuskaantui näkemään
miehensä joutilaana katsoa töllistelevän ikkunasta, pääsi hän
hänestä erilleen sanomalla: "Etköhän… tuota… kävisi tuosta,
tiedäthän, kadun kulmasta, jossa hyviä leivoksia myödään, niitä jälki-
ruo'aksi päivälliseksi"…

Ja mies lähti, käveli bulevaardia pitkin, poikkesi puoteihin, odotteli

omnibusta ja vietti siten puolen päivää ulkona kahden kappaleen,
kolmen sou'n maksavan leivoksen tähden, joita hän juhlallisesti
kantoi kotia, pyyhkien otsaansa.

Etenkin ihaeli herra Chèbe kesää, pyhäpäiviä, pitkiä kävelyjä

Clamart'issa tai Romainville'ssa ja juhlia, joissa oli paljo kansaa ja
hälinää. Hän oli kanssa niitä, jotka kokonaista viikkoa ennen Elokuun
15 päivää kävivät tarkastamassa valmistuksia juhla-valaistukseen.
Eikä hänen vaimonsa ollut siitä pahoillaan ollenkaan. Ainakaan ei
silloin ollut hänen tuolinsa ympärillä päivät pitkään vetelehtimässä
tuo i'änikuinen ähkijä jättiläistuumineen ja yrityksineen, jotka
harkitessa, edeltäkäsin jo raukesivat tyhjään, sekä muistoineen
menneestä ajasta että raivossa siitä, ett'ei hän voinut ansaita rahaa.

Eikä hänkään, vaimo-raukka, sitä ansainnut, mutta hän osasi sitä

niin hyvin tallettaa ja hänen ihmeellinen säästeliäisyytensä täydensi
sillä tavoin kaikki, ett'ei kurjuus, tuon kovan puutteen naapuri, ollut
koskaan päässyt noihin kolmeen aina siistiin huoneesen hävittämään
huolellisesti korjattuja kapineita, vanhoja, verhonsa alle kätkettyjä
huonekaluja.

Vastapäätä Chèbeläisten ovea, jonka vaskiripa porvarillisesti loisti

portailla, oli kaksi muuta pienempää ovea.

Toiseen oli neljällä naulalla lyöty käymäkortti, jossa oli nimi "Risler,
tehtaan piirustaja." Toisella oli pieni sahviaani nahka-palanen ja siinä
kultakirjaimilla:
 ROUVA DELOBELLE, lintuja ja kärpäsiä
kuoseiksi.

Delobelleläisten ovesta, joka usein oli auki, näkyi iso

neliskulmainen suoja, jossa kaksi naista, äiti ja tytär, vielä melkein
kuin lapsi, yhtä vaaleina, yhtä väsyneinä kumpikin, harjoittivat yhtä
noista tuhansista fanttasiia-ammateista, jotka käsittävät sen, mitä
kutsutaan Parisin-kaluiksi.

Siihen aikaan oli kuosi koristaa hattuja ja tanssivaatteita siroilla,

hohtokiven värisillä, Etelä-Ameriikan eläväisillä, ja niiden
valmistaminen oli juuri Delobellen naisten erityistoimi.

Eräs tukkukauppias, jolle lähetykset tulivat suorastaan Antilleista,

laittoi heille aukaisematta pitkiä, keveitä arkkuja, joissa, inhottavassa
arsenikki pölyssä loistivat kärpäset, ladottuina ja valmiiksi neuloille
pistettyinä, sekä linnut, toinen toisiinsa sullottuina, siivet hienossa
paperisiteessä. Tuo kaikki oli kuntoon pantava, kärpäset saatavat
hytisemään messinkilangan päähän, koliibrien höyhenet
pöyhisteltävät ja kiilloteltavat, taittuneet jalat silkkirihmalla
korjattavat, sammuneiden silmien sijaan pantava kiiltäviä helmiä ja
hyönteiset tai linnut tehtävät sieviksi ja elävän näköisiksi.

Äiti teki työtä tyttärensä johdolla; sillä Désiréellä, vaikka hän olikin
vielä ihan nuori, oli oiva aisti, tenhottaren kekseliäisyys, eikä kukaan
osannut niinkuin hän, asetella silmiä lintujen pikku päihin ja levittää
niiden kangistuneita siipiä.

Ontuva kun hän oli lapsuudestaan saakka, onnettoman tapauksen

tähden, joka ei kuitenkaan ollut laisinkaan vahingoittanut hänen
säännöllisten ja hienojen kasvojensa suloa, oli Désirée Delobelle'lla,
koska hänen siitä syystä oli melkein täytymys, paikaltaan liikkumatta,
alituisesti pysyä kotonaan, oikea ylimyksellinen iho ja erittäin
valkoiset kädet. Pitäen aina hiuksensa veikeästi kammattuina, vietti
hän päivänsä istuessaan upoksissa nojatuolissaan, kuosikuvilla ja
kaikenvärisillä linnuilla kukkuroidun pöytänsä ääressä, ikäänkuin
tuossa maailmallisen kauneuden oikullisessa ammatissa unhoittaen
oman onnettomuutensa ja siten korvaten epäsuosiollista elämätänsä.

Hän ajatteli, että kaikki nuo pienet siivet lähtivät lentoon hänen
liikkumattomalta pöydältään oikeille matkustuksille Parisin maailman
ympäri tuikkimaan juhlissa, ruunujen valossa; ja yksin hänen
tavastaan asetella kärpäsiään ja lintujaan olisi voinut arvata hänen
ajatustensa suunnan. Alakuloisuuden ja murheen päivinä,
kuroittuivat suipot nokat eteenpäin, siivet levisivät ihan auki,
ikäänkuin ottaakseen huiman vauhdin lentääkseen kauas, hyvin
kau'as pois viidennen kerroksen asunnoista, puutteen alaisuutta ja
kurjuutta pakoon. Vaan kun hän joskus taas oli tyytyväinen, niin
näyttivätpä hänen eläväisensäkin elämään ihastuneilta, olivatpa
oikein pienten oikullisten ja rajujen kuosilintujen näköisiä.

Onnellisena tai onnettomana teki Désirée työtä aina yhtä

innokkaasti. Aamupuhteesta aina myöhään yöhön saakka oli pöytä
täynnä työesineitä. Ja päivän viimeisen säteen sammuessa, kun
tehtaan kello kaikui ylt'ympäri lähipihoja, sytytti rouva Delobelle jo
lampun, ja heti, tuon varsin niukan aterian jälkeen, ryhdyttiin
uudelleen työhön.

Noilla molemmilla väsymättömillä naisilla oli maali tai luuletus,

joka esti heitä tuntemasta pakollisen valvomisen kuormaa. Se oli
kuuluisan Delobellen näyttelijäkunnia.

Siitä asti, näet, kun Delobelle oli jättänyt maaseudun teaatterit

tullakseen näyttelemään Parisiin, odotti hän vaan, että joku
ymmärtäväinen tirehtööri, kaitseleva ideaali-tirehtööri, joka keksii
nerot, tulisi tarjoamaan hänelle hänen mittaisen roolin. Kentiesi olisi
hän voinut, alussa etenkin, saada keskulaisen paikan jossakin
kolmannen luokan teaatterissa, vaan Delobelle'pa ei tahtonut
häväistä itseään.

Hänestä oli parempi odottaa, taistella, niinkuin hän sanoi!… Ja

nähkäähän, millä tavoin hän käsitti taistelun.

Aamuisin huoneessaan, vieläpä usein vuoteessaankin, kertoi hän

entisen repertoaarinsa rooleja; ja vavisten kuuli Delobelle'n naisväki
väliseinän takaa katkelmia Antoonio'sta ja Lasten lääkäristä
lausuttavan mahtipontisella, jyrisevällä äänellä, joka sekaantui
suuren parisilaisen työpesän pauhinaan. Sitte, aamiaisen jälkeen oli
hän poissa kotoa yöhön saakka: hän teki "bulevaardi-kävelynsä," se
on, astuskeli verkalleen Château d'Eau'n ja Madeleinen väliä,
hammaspuikko suupielessä, lakki hiukan toisella korvalla, hansikkaat
aina kädessä, harjattuna ja loistavana.

Tuo pukukysymys oli hänestä hyvin tärkeä. Sen piti hän

suurimpana onnistumisen toiveena, houkuttimena tirehtöörille —
tuolle mainiolle ymmärtäväiselle tirehtöörille, — jonka päähän ei olisi
koskaan juolahtanut ottaa palvelukseen kulunut, huonosti puettu
mies.

Myöskin Delobelle'n naisväki piti tarkan huolen siitä, ett'ei häneltä

mitään puuttunut; ja kyllä tarvittiinkin lintuja ja kärpäsiä tuollaisen
jyhkeän velikullan kaunistamiseksi! Näyttelijä piti sen vallan
luonnollisena.

Hänen mielestään vaimonsa ja tyttärensä ponnistukset ja puutteen

näkö eivät tarkoittaneet häntä nimen-omaan, vaan tuota salaperäistä
ja tuntematointa neroa, jonka ikäänkuin tallettajan hän arveli
olevansa. — Chèben ja Delobellen perheiden asemassa oli
jonkinlaista yhtäläisyyttä. Delobelleläisten vaan ei ollut niin ikävä.
Noista pienistä kasvuillaan eläjistä tuntui heidän ahdas elämänsä
valottomalta, aina yhdenlaiselta, kun taas näyttelijän perheelle toivo
ja mielenkuvitus kaikkialla avasi oivallisia näkö-aloja.

Chèbeläiset olivat ikäänkuin umpikujassa elävät ihmiset,

Delobelleläiset asuivat ikäänkuin pienen, likaisen, kolkon kadun
varrella ilman päivää ja ilmaa, vaan siitäpä oli piakkoin käypä iso
bulevaardi. Lisäksi ei rouva Chèbe enää luottanut mieheensä, kun
taas hänen naapurinsa, tuon ainoan taikasanan "taiteen" nojassa, ei
ollut koskaan epäillyt miehestään.

Ja sillä välin otti herra Delobelle, monta monituista vuotta, turhaan

vermuutti-naukkuja teaatteriasiamiesten kanssa, absinttia taputtajain
päämiesten kanssa ja bitteriä vaudeville'in kirjoittajien ja
näytelmöitsijäin sekä tuon useiden suurten kappalten kuuluisan
sepustajan kanssa. Tarjoomuksia yhä vaan ei tullut. Ja niin oli mies
parka, kertaakaan näyttelemättä, luisunut nuoresta rakastajasta
vanhempien rooliin, sitte raha-asioitsijaksi, sitte korkeasukuiseksi
isäksi, vihdoin ukkonahjukseksi…

Ja siinä hän pysyi!

Kahteen tai kolmeen toviin oli hänelle hankittu tilaisuus ansaita

elatuksensa, koettamalla asettaa hänet klubin tai kahvilan hoitajaksi
ja suurien makaasiinien, niinkuin Phares de la Bastille'n ja Colosse de
Rhodes'in, tarkastajaksi. Siihen oli hyvät käytöstavat tarpeeksi, eikä
niitä Delobelle'lta puuttunut, Jumala nähköön!… Vielä vai, suuri mies
hylkäsi kun hylkäsikin sankarimaisesti kaikki hänelle tehdyt
tarjoomukset.
 — Minulla ei ole oikeutta luopua teaatterista!… sanoi hän.

Kuulla tuommoisia raukan suusta, joka vuosikausiin ei ollut

näyttämölle astunut, oli vastustamattoman koomillista. Mutta halua
ei ollut nauraa, kun näki hänen vaimonsa ja tyttärensä yöt päivät
nielevän arsenikki tomua ja kun kuuli heidän, taittaessaan neulojaan
pikkulintusten messinkilankaa vasten, totisina kertovan:

— Ei, ei! Herra Delobellellä ei ole oikeutta luopua teaatterista.

Onnellinen ihminen, jolle hänen mulkosilmänsä, aina suopea

hymynsä ja tapansa hallita näytelmissä, oli elinajaksi hankkinut tuon
"hemmoitellun" ja ihmetellyn kuninkaan pojan harvinaisen aseman!
Kun hän käveli ulkona, tervehtivät häntä Francs-Bourgeois-kadun
puotilaiset Parisilaisten tavanmukaisella kunnioituksella ja
ihastuksella kaikkea kohtaan, mikä vaan teaatteria koskee. Hän oli
aina hyvin puettu! Ja sitte niin hyvä, niin kohtelias!… Ihme sentään,
että hän, tuo Ruy-Blas, Antonio, Marmori-tyttöjen Rafaelia, Savannin
rosvojen Antreas, joka lauantai-ilta, modistikotelo kainalossa, kantoi
naistensa työtä Saint-Denis-kadun kukkamyymälään…

Entä sitte! Semmoistakin asiaa toimittaessaan oli tuossa mies-

vietävässä niin paljon jaloutta ja luonnollista arvollisuutta, että neiti,
jolla oli toimena tarkastaa Delobelle'n tiliä, oli pahemmassa kuin
pulassa antaessaan noin moitteettomalle herrasmiehelle vaivalloisesti
ansaitut vähäiset viikkorahat.

Vaan niinäpä iltoina, näette, ei näyttelijä tullut kotia päivälliselle, ja

sen naisväki tiesi jo edeltäkäsin. Hän muka tapasi aina bulevaardilla
jonkun vanhan toverin, kova-osaisen, niinkuin itsekin oli —
jommoisia kyllä löytyy tuossa pyhässä ammatissa — ja niitä hän
kestitsi ravintolassa tai kahvilassa. Sitte toi hän varsin uskollisesti, ja
siitä annettiin hänelle kiitokset, loppurahat kotiin, toisinaan
kukkakimpunkin vaimollensa, pikku lahjan Désiréelle, jotakin pientä,
joutavaa. Mitäs tehdä? Semmoista se tottumus teaatterissa on.
Melodraamassa voi kyllä pian heittää kultaa ikkunasta ja sanoa:

"Se, hupsu, tuoss' on kukkaro, meno sanomaan rouvalle, että

häntä odotan."

Huolimatta suuresta innostaan ja vaikkapa ammattinsa oli kyllin

tuottoisa, olivat Delobellen naiset usein pulassa, varsinkin Parisin
kauppalakon aikana.

Onneksi oli käsillä kelpo Risler, joka aina oli valmiit auttamaan
ystäviään.

Vilho Risler, kolmas asujain portailla, oli elänyt siinä noin viisitoista
vuotta nuoremman veljensä Franssin kanssa. Molemmat,
suurikasvuiset, rotevat, valkoveriset Schveitsiläiset olivat tuoneet
mukanaan himmeän työhuoneensa tukehduttavaan ilmaan maa-
elämän terveyden ja raittiuden. Vanhempi oli piirustaja Fromont'in
tehtaalla ja kustansi veljeään, joka kuunteli Chaptal'in luentoja
tullakseen Centralikouluun.

Tultuaan Parisiin ja tietämättä, miten järjestää pienen taloutensa,

oli Vilho saanut naapureiltaan, Chèben ja Delobellen naisilta neuvoja
ja opetusta, joka ehdottomasti oli suureksi avuksi tuolle
suoramieliselle, kainostelevalle, hiukan "jörölle" miehelle, jota sitä
paitsi hänen ulkomaalainen murteensa ja näkönsäkin vaivasi. Jonkun
aikaa naapureina oltuaan ja keskinäistä palvelusta osoitettuaan,
olivat veljekset Risler jo ikäänkuin jäseninä molemmissa perheissä.
 Juhlapäivinä oli heidän syömäneuvonsa aina pantu esille
jommassa kummassa paikassa, ja molemmille isänmaastaan poissa-
oleville veljille oli hyvin mieluista tavata noissa köyhissä perheissä,
ehkä yksinkertaisia ja puutteenalaisia olivatkin, hellää ja perheellistä
kohtelua. Ammatissaan sangen taitavan piirustajan palkka salli
hänen auttaa Delobelleläisiä, kun vuokra oli maksettava, ja tulla
Chèbelään "setänä," tuoden aina mukanaan surpriissejä ja lahjoja,
niin että pikku-tyttö, hänet, nähtyään, heti juoksi hänen taskujaan
koettelemaan ja kiipesi hänen syliinsä.

Sunnuntaisin vei hän kaikki teaatteriin; ja melkein joka ilta kävi

hän herrojen Chèben ja Delobellen kanssa oluenpanimossa Blondelin
kadun varrella, jossa hän kestitsi heitä oluella ja prachtelilla. Olut ja
prachtel, ne ne olivat hänen heikkoutensa.

Hänestä ei ollut suurempaa onnea, kuin istua oluttuopin ääressä

molempain ystäväinsä kanssa ja kuunnella heidän juttelevan, itse
yhtymättä muuten kuin suurella naurulla tai pään pudistuksella
heidän puheluunsa, joka oli ylipäätään pitkä valitustulva yhteiskuntaa
vastaan.

Lapsimainen arkaluontoisuus ja saksalainen murre, joka

lakkaamattomasta työssä-olosta yhä oli säilynyt hänen kielessään,
vaivasivat häntä kovin hänen ajatuksiaan lausuessaan. Sitä paitsi
herättivät hänessä pelkoa hänen ystävänsäkin. Heillä oli häneen
verrattuna joutilaan ihmisen suunnaton etevyys työtä tekevän
rinnalla; ja herra Chèbe, joka ei ollut niin hienotunteinen, kuin
Delobelle, ei pitänyt minäkään huomauttaa häntä siitä. Herra Chèbe,
se katseli häneen hyvin korkealta! Hänestä, näet, oli mies, joka,
niinkuin Risler, teki työtä kymmenen tuntia päivässä, siitä päästyään,
kykenemätön niitäkään järkevää mielipidettä lausumaan. Toisinaan
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