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1. Figure 1 shows Mount Tambora in Indonesia erupted in 1815, causing massive destruction
and loss of life.

Figure 1
i) Define genetic drift. [2 marks]
-Gradual changes in allele/gene frequencies of a gene pool within population
-due to chance from random events and not by natural selection.
-Reduce the overall genetic variability

ii) Name the type of genetic drift event that may occur in a population affected by such a disaster.
[1 mark]
-Bottleneck effect

iii) Explain how this event can influence the genetic variation in the surviving population.
[3 marks]
-The disaster randomly eliminates large number of population
-The small surviving population has reduced genetic variation
-Certain alleles may be lost, underrepresented, or overrepresented by chance
-The allele frequencies in the surviving population differ from the original population

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2. Figure 2 shows an enzyme reaction.

Figure 2

a) Which graph shows the presence of enzyme? Explain. [2 marks]

-Graph B
-Graph B has lower activation energy compared to A

b) (i) Name the enzyme involved in 2(a). [1 mark]

-Catalase

(ii) Based on the induced-fit model, explain how the enzyme in 2(b)(i) speeds up the breakdown
of hydrogen peroxide. [3 marks]
-Hydrogen peroxide binds to active site of catalase/enzyme
-The binding induces a slight change in the shape/conformation of active site // The active
site -becomes (fully) complementary with catalase
-Forming an enzyme - substrate complex
-Oxygen and water are formed/released

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3. (a) Explain how redox reactions occur at different stages of the Krebs cycle. [8 marks]

i. Isocitrate is oxidized to α/alpha-ketoglutarate (by donating electron to NAD⁺).

ii. NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH (+ H⁺).

iii. α/alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized to succinyl(-)CoA (by donating electron to NAD⁺).

iv. NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH (+ H⁺).

v. Succinate is oxidized into fumarate.

vi. FAD is reduced to FADH₂.

vii. Malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate (by donating electron to NAD⁺).

viii. NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH (+ H⁺).

Notes

● Point only be rewarded if molecule name is correct

● Point no ii,iv,vi and vii dependent on reaction and correct molecule name
● Point should be in correct order

(b) Explain how a proton gradient is established and used to produce ATP during
chemiosmosis. [5 marks]

i. Chemiosmosis refers to the flow of proton/ hydrogen ion/ H⁺ across inner

mitochondrial membrane/ cristae.// Chemiosmosis refers to the flow of proton/
hydrogen ion/ H⁺ from intermembrane space to matrix of mitochondria.

ii. The electron transport chain (ETC in the inner mitochondrial membrane/ cristae)
involves (three) protein pumps: NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome c/ c reductase,
cytochrome c/ c oxidase.

iii. The energy from redox reactions (electron transfer/ electron transport chain/ ETC)
is used to transport/ pump protons/ hydrogen ions/ H⁺ from the mitochondrial matrix
to the intermembrane space.

iv. (This transport across intermembrane) produces a proton/ hydrogen ion/ H⁺

gradient where a high concentration of protons accumulates.

v. Creates/ Generates/ Produce/ Maintain proton-motive force (across cristae).

vi. Protons/ hydrogen ions/ H⁺ moves/ enter back/ diffuse/ flow across the membrane
(down concentration/ H⁺ gradient) through ATP synthase// Protons/ hydrogen ions/ H⁺

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 moves/ enter back/ diffuse/ flow from intermembrane space to mitochondrial matrix
(down concentration/ H⁺ gradient) through ATP synthase.

vii. ATP synthase catalyses the formation ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate/
Pi// ATP synthase catalyse the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP//ATP synthase uses
proton(-)motive force to phosphorylate ADP to ATP.//The energy release from H⁺ flow
is used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP by ATP synthase.

4. Figure 3 below illustrates the key steps in non-cyclic photophosphorylation and its connection
to the Calvin cycle inside a chloroplast.

Figure 3
i) State two roles of water molecules in non-cyclic photophosphorylation. [2 marks]
-Water undergoes photolysis to replace the lost electrons in Photosystem II (P680⁺)
after photoexcitation.
-Water releases protons (H⁺) that contribute to the proton gradient for ATP synthesis
- Oxygen gas is released as a by-product

ii) Identify the final electron acceptor at the end of non-cyclic photophosphorylation. [1 mark]
-NADP+

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iii) Describe how ATP and NADPH produced during non-cyclic photophosphorylation are
utilized during the Calvin cycle. [3 marks]
- 3-phosphoglycerate is phosphorylated by ATP to produce 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
(3C).
-NADPH reduces 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
- ATP and NADPH enable carbohydrate (glucose) synthesis during the Calvin cycle

iv) Explain the consequences on the electron transport chain and overall photosynthesis if
Photosystem II is damaged. [3 marks]
- Damage to Photosystem II blocks the photolysis of water//leading to interruption in
electron supply to the electron transport chain.
- Without electron flow, production of ATP and NADPH would cease.
-Calvin cycle cannot proceed and glucose synthesis would be drastically reduced.

5. Figure 4 below illustrates the role of chemoreceptors in the regulation of breathing.

Figure 4

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 i. Identify two types of chemoreceptors involved in breathing regulation and state their
specific locations. [2 marks]
- Central chemoreceptors: Located in the medulla oblongata
-Peripheral chemoreceptors: Located in the carotid bodies (walls of carotid arteries)
and aortic bodies (walls of the aorta).
*Locations are dependent on correct chemoreceptors

ii. Describe the mechanism by which chemoreceptors regulate breathing rate when there is a
decrease in blood pH. [4 marks]
- A decrease in blood pH due to increased carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration
stimulates both central and peripheral chemoreceptors
-These chemoreceptors transmit impulses to the inspiratory centre in the medulla
oblongata.
-The inspiratory centre sends impulses via the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm and
via thoracic nerves to the external intercostal muscles.
-Contraction of these muscles enlarges the thoracic cavity//reduces thoracic pressure
below atmospheric pressure//facilitates inhalation//increases the breathing rate.

iii. Explain what occurs to the breathing process when chemoreceptors stop sending impulses
to the inspiratory centre. [3 marks]
-When chemoreceptors stop sending impulses, the inspiratory muscles (diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles) relax.
-The thoracic cavity volume decreases//thoracic pressure increases//exhalation
occurs.
-As a result, breathing slows down//breathing rate stabilizes.

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6. Figure 5 below shows the lateral transport of water and minerals from the surrounding soil to
the root vascular system in a plant.

Figure 5

i) Name three pathways involved in the lateral movement of water across root tissues.
[3 marks]
-Apoplastic pathway, Symplastic pathway, Transmembrane pathway

ii) Explain the process by which water and minerals are transported from the soil into the
root xylem, including the significance of the Casparian strip. [4 marks]
-Minerals are actively transported from soil into root hair cells, lowering their
water potential.
-Water enters root hair cells by osmosis due to higher water potential in the soil.
-Water and minerals move through the cortex via apoplastic, symplastic, and
transmembrane pathways.
-At the endodermis, the Casparian strip blocks apoplastic movement, forcing
substances into the symplast for selective uptake into the xylem.

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7. Figure 6 below shows a nephron, the functional unit of the kidney, where urine is formed
through several processes.

Figure 6

a) Based on Figure 6, which part of the nephron involved in ultrafiltration occurs? Explain how
its structure facilitates this process. [2 marks]
-C (Bowman’s capsule)
-Podocyte blocks macromolecules from entering the lumen//Foot processes are separated
by filtration slits

b) Differentiate between reabsorption and secretion in terms of location, substances involved, and
purpose in urine formation. [3 marks]

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c) A patient is diagnosed with glucose in their urine. Suggest a possible reason for this condition.
[2 marks]
- Under normal conditions, glucose is completely reabsorbed at the proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT) of the nephron.
-If blood glucose concentration is excessively high (e.g., in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus),
the reabsorption capacity (transport maximum) is exceeded//excess glucose remains in
the filtrate and appears in the urine

8. (a) Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction based on Sliding filament theory. [7 marks]

-At thick filament, ATP is bound to the myosin head, which is in low energy configuration.
-Each myosin head containing the ATPase catalyses the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and
inorganic phosphate (Pi), thus energy is released.
-Myosin head now is in high-energy configuration.
-The myosin head binds to exposed myosin binding site on actin filament//cross bridges
are formed.
-ADP + Pi are then released from the myosin head// the myosin head returns to its low
energy configuration.
-The myosin head bends creating a power stroke that pulls the actin filament towards the
centre of the sarcomere.
-Muscle contract//H Zone and I band shorten
-After the process is completed, the myosin heads bind to another ATP molecule, allows
the myosin head to detach from the actin, thereby breaking the cross bridge and
beginning a new cycle.
*any 7 points

b) Phytochrome is a pigment that is involved in the regulation of flowering in plants.

i) Define phytochrome. [1 mark]
-Phytochrome is a blue-green pigment existing in two photo-interconvertible
isomeric forms // photoreceptor pigments for photoperiodism.

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 ii) Name the two forms of phytochrome and describe how they are interconverted by light.
[2 marks]
-Form: Pr (phytochrome red) and Pfr (phytochrome far-red).
-Pr absorbs red light (~660 nm) and is converted to Pfr.
-Pfr absorbs far-red light (~730 nm) and is converted back to Pr.

iii) Explain how phytochrome regulates flowering in short-day plants and long-day plants.
[4 marks]
- In short-day plants, flowering is induced when the night is long enough to allow
Pfr levels to decrease//become low significantly.
-Low Pfr inhibits flowering in short-day plants; thus, low Pfr (after long nights)
promotes flowering.
- In long-day plants, flowering occurs when the night is short, resulting in high Pfr
levels remaining.
- High Pfr promotes flowering in long-day plants.

9. Explain the mechanism of immune response in the human body when exposed to a specific
pathogen. [9 marks]

- Antigen-presenting cell (APC) / Macrophage engulfs and degrades the pathogen into
antigen fragments.
- Class II MHC molecule binds to the antigen and displays it on the APC surface.
- A helper T cell then binds to MHC-antigen complex (via its T cell receptor (TCR) with
the aid of CD4).
- This interaction promotes the secretion of Interleukin-1 by APC to activate helper T
cell.
- Activated helper T cell then proliferates and differentiate into memory helper T cells
and activated helper T cells.
- Antigen also binds to the receptor on B cell and presented as class II MHC-antigen
complex on the surface of the B cell.

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- The activated helper T cell binds to the antigen-presenting B cell and secrete
Interleukin-2.
- Interleukin-2 then activates B cell.
- Activated B cell proliferates and differentiates into plasma cells and memory B cells.
- Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies that bind with the antigen.
- Memory B cell responds during a second infection of the same antigen.
* any 9 points
[Penalty -1 mark if candidate writes BOTH humoral and cell-mediated]

END OF QUESTIONS.

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