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Grammar as Science

Richard K. Larson
illustrations by Kimiko Ryokai
Grammar as Science
Grammar as Science

Text by
Richard K. Larson

Graphic design by
Kimiko Ryokai

Supported by the
National Science Foundation

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
© 2010 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic
or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and
retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.

For information about special quantity discounts, please e-mail special_sales@mitpress

.mit.edu.

This book was set in Times Roman and Univers by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd.,
Hong Kong.

Printed and bound in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Larson, Richard K.
Grammar as science / Richard K. Larson ; designed and illustrated by Kimiko Ryokai.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographic references and index.
ISBN 978-0-262-51303-6 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Grammar, Comparative and general—Syntax—Textbooks. I. Ryokai, Kimiko. II. Title.
P291.L33 2010
415—dc22
2008054058

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Kenneth Locke Hale (1934–2001)

Photo by Sabine Iatridou.

Reprinted with permission.
Contents

Preface for Teachers xiii

Acknowledgments xvii

PART I Setting Out 1

Language as a Natural Object 4
The Terrain Ahead 6

UNIT 1 What Is Linguistics? 9

Leading Questions 9
Studying Knowledge of Language 11
A Talking Analogy 13
Universal Grammar 17

UNIT 2 What Is Syntax About? 21

Review 21
Dividing Up the Problem Area 22
Internal Structure 30

Exercises 33

PART II Grammars as Theories 35

UNIT 3 Introducing Phrase Structure Rules 41

Review 41
Generating Sentences 41
Phrase Structure Rules 44
Tree Diagrams and Derivations 44

UNIT 4 Grammars 53
Review 53
Grammars as Theories 54
The Data of Syntax 55
Formulating a Grammar 60
viii Contents

UNIT 5 Working with Grammars 65

Review 65
Testing a Grammar 66
Revising a Grammar 68
Extending a Grammar 70

Exercises 73

PART III Choosing between Theories 79

UNIT 6 Comparing Rules and Theories 83

Review 83
Comparing Alternative Rules 84
Equivalent Theories 92
Comparing Equivalent Theories 94

UNIT 7 Constituency and Constituency Tests 99

Review 99
More on Conjunction 100
Other Constituency Tests 104

UNIT 8 Trees and Tree Relations 115

Review 115
More about Trees 115
Some Distributional Facts 119
C-Command Phenomena as Constituency Tests 125

UNIT 9 Determining Category 127

Review 127
Determining Category 127
The Category of Words 128
The Category of Phrases 131

UNIT 10 Revising, Refining, and Reconsidering 135

Review 135
Interpreting Test Results 135
More on Revising Grammars 140

Exercises 155
 Contents ix

PART IV Arguing for a Theory 165

UNIT 11 Constructing Arguments I 169

Review 169
Giving an Argument 169
Four Steps of an Argument and Their Relations 171
Convergent Evidence 172
Nonconvergent Evidence 173
Coming Up With the Parts of an Argument 175

UNIT 12 Constructing Arguments II 179

Review 179
Choosing between Alternative Structures 179
Missing Principle 180
Missing Data Summary and Principle 182
Missing Data Summary, Principle, and Conclusion I 184
Missing Data Summary, Principle, and Conclusion II 186

Exercises 191

PART V Searching for Explanation 195

Structural Formulas 198
Explaining Phrase Markers? 199

UNIT 13 Introducing the Lexicon 201

Review 201
Categories and Subcategories 201
The Lexicon 207

UNIT 14 Features, Heads, and Phrases 213

Review 213
Expanding Our Feature Set 214
Where Does a Phrase Get Its Features? 218
Heads and Phrases 222

UNIT 15 Verbal Complements and Adjuncts 227

Review 227
Complements 227
Adjuncts 231
x Contents

UNIT 16 Distinguishing Complements and Adjuncts 235

Review 235
Complement or Adjunct? 235
Three Diagnostics 236

UNIT 17 Attaching Complements 247

Review 247
Complements and Constituency 247
A Locality Constraint 254

UNIT 18 Attaching Adjuncts 259

Review 259
An Apparent Contradiction 259
Adjunction of Modifiers 263

Exercises 269

PART VI Following the Consequences 279

UNIT 19 Complement Sentences I 283

Review 283
Sentence Forms 283
Sentences inside Sentences 285
Selection for Sentence Type 288

UNIT 20 Complement Sentences II 297

Review 297
Finite versus Nonfinite Clauses 298
Selection for Finiteness 300

UNIT 21 Invisible Lexical Items 309

Review 309
Subjectless Infinitives and PRO 309
“Invisible Elements”: Expect versus Persuade 314
Summing Up 324

UNIT 22 NP Structure 327

Review 327
Sentencelike NPs 328
Complements of N 329
 Contents xi

Adjuncts in NP 335
PRO in NP 339

UNIT 23 X-Bar Theory 343

Review 343
More on NP - TP 343
The Structure of PP 345
Abstracting a Common Shape 348
Powerful Implications! 349
Simple Rules versus Complex Structures 353

Exercises 355

PART VII Expanding and Constraining the Theory 363

UNIT 24 Interrogatives and Movement 369

Review 369
The Problem of Constituent Interrogatives 369
Wh-Movement 373
Further Evidence for Movement 375

UNIT 25 More on Wh-Movement 383

Review 383
Movement in General 383
Movement in CP 387
Matrix Interrogatives 392

UNIT 26 Constraints on Movement I 395

Review 395
“Long-Distance” Movement 395
Stepwise Movement 400
The Principle of the Strict Cycle 403

UNIT 27 Constraints on Movement II 405

Review 405
NP Domains 406
Movement and Complete Sentences 406
Movement and Nominals 409
The Phase Principle 410
xii Contents

UNIT 28 Parametric Variation 413

Review 413
Crosslinguistic Variation in Movement 413
“Parameterizing” Principles 415

Exercises 423

References 427
Index 429
Preface for Teachers

The undergraduate curriculum has traditionally been viewed as a domain in which

students are introduced to broad issues of life, society, and thought, and where
skills of general application and utility are developed and strengthened. On the
traditional view, the goal of an undergraduate program is not to recruit and train
potential graduate students, but to inform individuals about the wider implications
of a field, and to foster in them the intellectual skills that that field especially
draws upon.
This book arose out of an effort to rethink part of the undergraduate curric-
ulum in linguistics at Stony Brook University in line with the traditional goals of
undergraduate education. Specifically, it represents an attempt to reconsider the
structure and content of the introductory syntax course from the standpoint of
three broad questions:
1. What is the general educational value of studying syntax?
2. What broad intellectual issues are engaged in studying syntax?
3. What general intellectual skills are developed by studying syntax?
The answers embodied in Grammar as Science are the following:
1. Syntax offers an excellent instrument for introducing students from a
wide variety of backgrounds to the principles of scientific theorizing and
scientific thought.
2. Syntax engages in a revealing way both general intellectual themes
present in all scientific theorizing and ones arising specifically within the
modern cognitive sciences. For example:
• How does a scientist construct, test, evaluate, and refine a theory?
• How does a scientist choose between alternative theories?
• What constitutes a significant generalization, and how does one cap-
ture it?
• When does a scientist propose or assume unseen objects or structure,
and how are such objects or structure justified?
xiv Preface for Teachers

• How secure is scientific knowledge?

• Can one study a human phenomenon as a natural object and gain sci-
entific understanding of it?
• What is the nature of a mental object like a language?
3. Syntax offers an excellent medium through which to teach the skill
of framing exact, explicit arguments for theories—the articulation of
hypotheses, principles, data, and reasoning into a coherent, convincing
whole.
This book is intended both for undergraduates who are majoring in linguistics
and for undergraduates who are taking linguistics courses through a department
of linguistics (as opposed to a department of English or anthropology) but do not
plan to become majors. In my experience, such students generally do not have
significant science background and hence can especially profit by a course of
this kind.
Grammar as Science is not an introduction to scientific theorizing, with
syntax serving as a novel domain to illustrate concepts and results. Rather, it is
an introduction to syntax as an exercise in scientific theory construction. In view
of this, Grammar as Science covers a good deal of standard territory in syntax.
The teacher will find here discussion of core topics such as phrase structure,
constituency, the lexicon, inaudible elements, movement rules, and transforma-
tional constraints. At the same time, the broad goal of developing scientific
reasoning skills and an appreciation of scientific theorizing has entailed some
divergences between Grammar as Science and other introductory syntax books.
First, there is less stress here than elsewhere on providing an up-to-date
introduction to syntactic theory, employing state-of-the-art technical tools. If the
guiding aim is to get students to think precisely and explicitly about natural
language structure and to grasp the process of constructing a theory of that
structure, then the exact tools used in the construction are not of paramount
importance. What is important is that the tools be precise, explicit, and relatively
easy to use. I have found traditional phrase structure rules to be a very natural
first tool in formal language study, one that students take to readily, and one that
permits a very direct grasp of the relation between linguistic rules and linguistic
structure. Accordingly, I make free use of phrase structure rules throughout this
book, despite their being largely obsolete in current linguistic theory.
Second, this book covers a somewhat narrower range of topics than other
books. Again, this is because the primary goal is not to cover the modern field of
syntax, but to introduce students to the process of grammatical theory construc-
 Preface for Teachers xv

tion as a scientific enterprise. Grammar as Science is structured so as to encourage

general reflection on this enterprise. The units are organized thematically into
sections that bring out important components of the enterprise, such as choosing
between theories, constructing explicit arguments for hypotheses, the need for
explaining linguistic phenomena (as opposed to simply describing them), and the
conflicting demands that push us toward both expanding and constraining our
technical tool set. The choice of topics is always guided by this larger program-
matic goal.
Grammar as Science was conceived as part of a “laboratory science” course,
in which students collect and actively experiment with linguistic data. The book
is made up of a large number of relatively short units, each corresponding to a
single class session. The main concepts for each unit are typically few, and arise
in response to specific empirical questions and challenges that are posed. To aid
in making the laboratory experience real for students, Grammar as Science is
designed for use with Syntactica, a software application tool developed at Stony
Brook University that allows students to create and explore simple grammars in
a graphical, interactive way. Grammar as Science can be used independently of
Syntactica as a stand-alone text, but my experience has been that Syntactica adds
much to the course. Specifically, use of this tool
• Confers a dynamic character on the process of hypothesizing grammars.
Students can “try the rules out” and see what happens.
• Permits an incremental approach to building grammars. Students can add
one rule after another and check consequences at each stage.
• Confers a measure of “objectivity” on the issue of whether a rule set does
or doesn’t generate a given tree. If the rules a student has written are
correct, the program will generate the tree. Students find this quite
compelling.
• Inculcates habits of precise thinking and expression. Computers insist
upon a level of precision in their input that is not negotiable.
• Provides a natural route to asking questions about human syntactic
knowledge and its representation. For example, in what way are we or
aren’t we like a machine in which the relevant rules have been entered?
The text layout of Grammar as Science was conceived and executed by
Kimiko Ryokai. It follows Japanese design principles, which emphasize visual/
graphic organization of material. I have found that this format helps students to
understand and retain the material; they also find it enjoyable.
xvi Preface for Teachers

Its good intentions notwithstanding, Grammar as Science could doubtless be

improved in many ways. I warmly welcome all criticisms, comments, and sug-
gestions for revision.

[email protected].
Acknowledgments

The general theme of Grammar as Science draws its inspiration from a remark-
able group of educators, including Ken Hale, Maya Honda, Jay Keyser, Wayne
O’Neil, and Josie White Eagle. Ken Hale and Wayne O’Neil, in particular, have
been central figures in shaping my own thoughts on teaching linguistics as
science. It is a great pleasure to acknowledge their influence. I also thank Noam
Chomsky for cheerfully consenting to play the special role he does in this book.
The innovative graphic layout of Grammar as Science was conceived and
executed by Kimiko Ryokai, whose work I acknowledge with admiration. As
an undergraduate student, Ms. Ryokai introduced me to the unique aspects of
Japanese-style text design, which emphasizes visual presentation and organiza-
tion of material.
I also express my sincere gratitude to Hiroko Yamakido for extensive initial
editing of the manuscript, and my profound thanks to Anne Mark for taking an
extremely complex manuscript and bringing it into final form. My thanks also to
Franc Marušić for preparing the index.
Sincere thanks to Amy Brand for originally bringing the Grammar as Science
project to MIT Press, and to Ada Brunstein for overseeing its completion. MIT
Press has shown astonishing patience with an author who never once met a
deadline.
My profound thanks to the National Science Foundation, which funded the
Grammar as Science project under NSF grant USE-915041.
Finally, my sincere thanks to the generations of introductory syntax students
at Stony Brook University, who, more than anyone else, are responsible for
this book.
PA RT I Setting Out
The study of grammar once enjoyed a central place in education, one going back
to the classic liberal arts curriculum of the late Middle Ages. Grammar was, along
with logic and rhetoric, one of the subjects in the trivium: the core group in the
seven arts students were expected to master. The importance of the “big three”
is reflected in our modern word trivial, which originally applied to knowledge
regarded as so basic that it required no argument. Any educated person could be
assumed to know it.
In an earlier time, studying grammar primarily meant studying Latin and
Greek. Access to the classical languages meant access to the root cultures of
the West, their literature and science. Latin and Greek were viewed as “special
languages”: models of clarity, logical organization, intellectual subtlety, and econ-
omy of expression. Studying how these languages worked was viewed as some-
thing very close to studying the principles of logical, coherent thought itself.
When other languages were analyzed, they were always analyzed on the model
of Latin or Greek.
The curriculum in which grammar held its place of honor is obsolete now;
the time when educated people could attend only to the classics of the West is
long past. Furthermore, we now know that Latin and Greek are, by any reasonable
standard, typical human languages: in no way clearer, subtler, or more logical
than, say, Greenlandic Eskimo or Chinese. The old rationales for studying gram-
mar are gone. Is the relevance of grammar behind us, too?
Not at all! In the last five decades, the subject of grammar has been reborn
in a very different setting. Grammar has emerged as part of a new science,
linguistics, that poses and investigates its own unique and fascinating set of
questions, pursuing them with the same rigorous methodology found elsewhere
in the study of natural phenomena. This new scientific perspective on grammar
owes much to the linguist Noam Chomsky, who introduced it in the mid-1950s
and who has contributed centrally to its development ever since.
4 Part I: Setting Out

When we study human language, we are

approaching what some might call the
“human essence,” the distinctive quali-
ties of mind that are, so far as we know,
unique to man, and that are inseparable
from any critical phase of human exist-
ence, personal or social. Hence the
fascination of this study, and, no less,
its frustration.
—Language and Mind, p. 100

Noam Chomsky
Institute Professor
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

The idea of a “scientific” approach to grammar might strike you as odd at

first. When we think of “science,” we usually think in these terms (see Goldstein
and Goldstein 1984):
• Science is a search for understanding.
• Achieving understanding means discovering general laws and principles.
• Scientific laws and principles can be tested experimentally.
How do such notions apply to grammar? What is there to understand about
grammar? What would general laws and principles of grammar be? And how
might we test laws and principles of grammar experimentally, assuming we could
find them in the first place? Our puzzlement about these questions suggests a
certain implicit view of language, and the kind of object it is.

Language as a Natural Object

From a very early age, children appear to be attuned to the distinction between
natural objects and artifacts. In an interesting series of experiments, psychologist
Frank Keil has shown that whereas very young children judge the identity of objects
largely on the basis of superficial features, at some point they begin to realize that
certain kinds of objects have an inner essence that may sometimes be hidden or
obscured (see Keil 1986). For example, before a certain age children will identify
a black cat that has been painted to look like a skunk as a skunk, whereas after this
age they identify a black cat painted to look like a skunk as a painted cat and not
as a skunk. They realize that being a skunk involves more than looking like a skunk;
the true identity of an object may be concealed by appearances.
 Language as a Natural Object 5

Interestingly, in making this transition, children seem to draw an important

distinction between natural objects, like cats and skunks, and artifacts (things
made by humans). Although they judge a painted cat to be a cat nonetheless, they
understand that an old coffeepot that has been modified into a birdfeeder is now
really a birdfeeder. In other words, they see natural objects as having their own
defining properties, whereas artifacts are whatever we make them to be, as a
matter of convention.
Human language can be viewed in both these ways, as artifact or as natural
object; and how we view it strongly shapes our reaction to the facts it presents
us with. Language has been seen by many people as an aspect of culture, similar
to other basic human institutions and traditions like tool-making or agriculture.
In this view, languages are the product of human imagination and development:
created by humans, taught by humans, and learned by humans. They are cultural
artifacts possessing the properties and obeying the rules that we bestow on them,
and the patterns or regularities we find in them are basically just matters of
convention. Like the birdfeeder, language is what we’ve made it to be, and there
is no more to say. There is no question of understanding anything, or discovering
anything, or testing anything. It is this broad view of language, I believe, that
leads to puzzlement when we think about grammar as science.
But language can instead be seen as a part of the natural world. In a series
of influential works, Noam Chomsky has argued that human language is more
correctly viewed as a natural object, analogous to a limb or a bodily organ (see
Chomsky 2000a). True, language arose in the course of human prehistory, but
it was no more invented or developed by humans than arms or lungs. Rather,
language ability evolved, like other species-specific properties. Likewise,
although languages develop in the course of human ontogeny, they are neither
taught to nor learned by children, any more than children are taught to grow arms
or learn to have hearts. Rather, we humans speak and in so doing provide the
environment—the “nutrition,” to use a Chomskyan metaphor—in which language
can grow and develop in our children.
Under this perspective, languages become objects of the natural world much
like quasars or spinach leaves. They are entities whose properties and structure
are to be determined by naturalistic investigation. Accordingly, when we are faced
with a certain pattern or regularity in linguistic facts, we do not put it aside as a
matter of convention; rather, we start to look for a “law” or principle that predicts
the pattern and suggests an explanation. And we realize that the explanation
may well be hidden to us, and need to be tested for experimentally. Adopting
the naturalistic perspective opens up human language as a new domain, a fresh
territory for scientific exploration.
6 Part I: Setting Out

The Terrain Ahead

This book is an introduction to the modern subject of grammar (now called

syntax) from the perspective of language as a natural object. Its goals are twofold:
• To systematically explore some of the ideas and results in the new terri-
tory of syntax, and
• To provide experience with rigorous scientific reasoning and argumenta-
tion, and the development of scientific theorizing.
Successful exploration requires open eyes and a clear head. You need to be
observant about your immediate surroundings (so you won’t miss anything). You
need to be mindful of how you got there (in case you need to retrace your steps
or reconstruct your route for others). And you need to be logical about where you
will go next (so you don’t just blunder about).
This book consists of short units that usually involve some specific factual
point(s) and a small number of ideas or concepts. These will be your “immediate
surroundings” as we proceed. Try to read and master each unit in a single sitting.
Be observant, and try to see all there is to see.
When the terrain is unfamiliar, where you are and how you got there are
sometimes difficult to keep in your head. Maps are useful for this purpose. The
units of this book are grouped into parts that form the map of the territory we’ll
be exploring:
• Meeting the subject and discovering its questions (Part I)
• Constructing a theory that attempts to answer the questions (Part II)
• Choosing between competing theories (Part III)
• Arguing for one theory versus another (Part IV)
• Searching for deeper explanation (Part V)
• Following the many consequences of a theory (Part VI)
• Enlarging and constraining the tools that a theory employs (Part VII)
Since these divisions mark the stages that researchers typically pass through in
constructing a scientific theory in any domain, they make a good general “route
plan” for us. At the beginning of each part, we will stop and do a “map check”
to make sure we know where we’ve gotten to and where we should go next. Often
we will consult a guide, someone more familiar with the area.
 The Terrain Ahead 7

Science is tentative, exploratory,

questioning, largely learned by doing!
—“Rationality/Science,” p. 91

You won’t need much in the way of equipment to undertake this trip. The
presentation assumes no previous experience either with grammar or with the
broader discipline of linguistics. All you will need is a healthy sense of curiosity
and a willingness to think critically about a subject matter (language) that most
of us take for granted in day-to-day life and rarely think about at all. With that
much, we can begin.
UNIT 1 What Is Linguistics?

Leading Questions

In beginning the study of any field, one good way of orienting yourself is to find
out what problems the field works on. What leading questions does it seek to
answer? In the approach to linguistics we will follow, the leading questions are
very easy to formulate.
In day-to-day conversation, we routinely speak of people “knowing English”
or “knowing Japanese and Korean.” We talk about a language as a body of
knowledge that people do or do not possess. The leading questions of linguistics
arrange themselves around this commonplace way of talking: they address
knowledge of language.
Whenever someone can be said to know something, a number of basic
questions present themselves.

I know X. ?

Knowledge of X

How did the

What exactly does How is that
person obtain that
this person know? knowledge used?
knowledge?
10 Unit 1: What Is Linguistics?

EXAMPLE

?
I know chess.

Knowledge of chess

We say people “know chess” or “don’t know chess.”

The basic questions about knowledge of chess are these:

What exactly does How is the knowledge

How did the
someone know when of chess actually
person learn
he or she knows the used in the process of
the game?
game of chess? playing a real game?

A list of rules for By having some- Do players mentally

moving pieces? one explain the construct a table of rules?
Strategies for rules? By watch- Do they use those rules
moving them? ing other people to produce some kind
play? of mental image of the
board that they manipu-
late in their heads?
 Studying Knowledge of Language 11

Linguistics is concerned with these basic questions as they apply to knowl-

edge of language. It seeks to discover the answers to these questions:

What exactly do How is How is knowledge

people know knowledge of language used
when they know a of language (e.g., in speech and
language? acquired? understanding)?

Viewed in this way—as addressing certain knowledge that we have internalized

in the course of growing up—linguistics is basically a branch of psychology,
broadly understood. Linguistics is trying to find out something about human
minds and what they contain.

Studying Knowledge of Language

Trying to find out what’s in the mind might seem easy at first. Since knowledge
of language is in us—in our minds—shouldn’t we have direct access to it?
Shouldn’t we be able to elicit that knowledge by intensive self-reflection—like
remembering something forgotten through hard, careful thought? Sorry, things
aren’t that simple.

Knowledge of Language Is Tacit

To clarify the problem we face, think about the following sentences, imagining
that they are spoken in a natural way, with no word given special emphasis.
Concentrate on who is understood as the “surpriser” and the “surprisee” in each:

(1) Homer expected to surprise him.

(2) I wonder who Homer expected to surprise him.
(3) I wonder who Homer expected to surprise.

These sentences are similar in form but curiously different in meaning. Any
competent speaker of English will understand sentence (1) to mean that Homer
expected to do the surprising and that he expected to surprise someone other than
himself. Sentence (2) contains the identical substring of words Homer expected
to surprise him, but it is immediately understood to have a very different meaning.
In fact, it has at least two meanings distinct from that of sentence (1): someone
12 Unit 1: What Is Linguistics?

other than Homer (“who”) is expected to be the surpriser, and the surprisee
(“him”) may be either Homer or some third party. Finally, sentence (3) is identical
to sentence (2) minus the word him, but now Homer again must be the surpriser,
rather than the surprisee.
These facts are remarkably intricate and subtle, yet immediately obvious
to anyone who has mastered English. But what principles are we following in
making these judgments?
In fact, we don’t have a clue—not initially, at least. True, we can make
complex judgments about sentences like these. But we cannot directly grasp the
basis of our judgments. People don’t consciously know why, when they say I
wonder who Homer expected to surprise him, the name Homer and the pronoun
him will be taken to refer to different people.
The knowledge that we possess of our language is almost entirely uncon-
scious or tacit knowledge. In this respect, language appears to be similar to other
important parts of our mental life. Sigmund Freud is famous for having proposed
that much of the mind’s functioning and contents lies entirely hidden to con-
sciousness. Freud held that unconscious phenomena and processes are no less
psychologically real than conscious ones, and that appeal to them is just as
necessary for an understanding of human cognition.

I handle unconscious ideas, uncon-

scious trains of thought, and uncon-
scious impulses as though they were
no less valid and unimpeachable psy-
chological data than conscious ones.
[And] of this I am certain—that anyone
who sets out to investigate the same
region of phenomena and employs the
same method will find himself com-
pelled to take the same position ...
—Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of
Hysteria (“Dora”), p. 232

Sigmund Freud
1856–1939

For the most part, the principles and operations behind knowledge of language
lie outside the range of consciousness and cannot be recovered by simply sitting
down, staring off into space, and thinking hard.
 A Talking Analogy 13

A “Black Box” Problem

If we can’t directly intuit what’s in our minds, then our only option is to approach
the investigation of internal things (like knowledge and mental states) as we
would approach the investigation of external things (like birds and planets). That
is, we must formulate explicit theories about what we know, and we must find
ways to test, refine, and extend those theories in order to reach a satisfactory
explanation of the facts. Since we can’t look directly at what’s inside the mind,
our job will be to figure out what’s inside on the basis of what we can observe
from the outside.
Problems of this kind are sometimes called black box problems. In a black
box problem, we have an unknown mechanism that receives observable input data
and produces observable output behaviors. The task is to figure out what’s inside
the box on the basis of inputs and outputs alone.

Observable
input

? Observable
output

In the case of human language, the observable input is the speech data that people
are exposed to as children, the language that they hear around them. The output
is their various linguistic behaviors as children and as adults: the sentences and
other expressions that they produce, their judgments about their speech and the
speech of others, and so on. By carefully examining this kind of information, the
linguist must deduce the language mechanism that lies within the human mind.

A Talking Analogy

To make the black box nature of the problem more concrete, consider a simple
analogy (due to MIT linguist James Harris). For many years, toymakers have
produced talking dolls of various kinds. Some have a string on their back or neck
that you pull. Others have a button on their wrist or stomach. Still others talk
when you talk to them (although these must be turned on initially with a switch).
14 Unit 1: What Is Linguistics?

Imagine yourself an engineer who has been handed a particular model of

talking doll: say, the kind that has a string on its neck. Your task (as set by your
boss) is to discover exactly how the doll talks. In other words, you have to figure
out the properties of the mechanism inside the doll that allows it to do what it
does. Suppose also that a certain constraint is placed on your work: you are not
allowed to open the doll up and observe the mechanism directly. This makes it a
black box problem: you can’t look inside.
To solve this problem, you would have to use what’s observable from the
outside as a basis for guessing what’s inside. Examining the doll, you would
observe things like this:

• The language mechanism is powered exclusively

by pulling the string; there are no plugs or batteries.
• The doll has a fixed repertory of ten or so utter-
ances, which come out in random order (“Mommy,
play with me now,” “I want another drink of water,”
“I’m sleepy, nite-nite,” etc.).
• All repetitions of a particular utterance are
identical.
• The doll always starts at the beginning of an utter-
ance—never in the middle, even if you pull the
string out only partway.
• Submerging the doll in water damages the
language mechanism.
• The language mechanism is apparently about the
size of a tennis ball and is located in the abdominal
region.

Take a few moments now and write down what mechanism you think is inside
the doll, and how these observations imply this mechanism.

Deducing What’s inside the Box from the Output

Thinking about the observable properties of the doll, you can make a pretty good
educated guess about what’s inside, even if you aren’t allowed to cut the doll
 A Talking Analogy 15

open and look inside. For example, since the doll produces a very limited range
of utterances and all repetitons of a particular utterance are identical, it is very
likely that the utterances are stored within the doll as whole chunks, not con-
structed online. That is, it is likely that the doll contains a storage unit loaded
with all of its utterances; pulling the string causes a whole, individual stored
utterance to be played back from its beginning.

It is likely that the doll contains a It is unlikely that the doll

storage unit loaded with all of its mechanism constructs utter-
utterances; pulling the string ances online from smaller
causes a whole, individual stored parts, with the parts and their
utterance to be played back from rules of combination being
its beginning. what’s stored.

Let’s play! Let’s play!

Let’s play! Let’s play

.....
Nite, nite.
....... tennis
soccer

Deducing what’s inside humans is vastly more complex than deducing what’s
inside the doll, but already we can see some things by contrast. For example,
since we humans produce an enormous range of utterances, without exact repe-
titions, it’s very unlikely that we have utterances stored within us as whole
chunks. Rather, we probably do construct our utterances from smaller parts as
we speak, with the parts and their rules of combination being what’s stored. With
humans, then, something different and more complex is involved. As we will see
in later units, the rich complexity of linguistic data—the speech we hear around
us, the output we observe—allows us to conjecture a very rich mechanism inside
the human mind.

Deducing What’s inside the Box from the Input

The data we draw on in solving a black box problem come not only from “output
behavior”: in our present case, the utterances produced by talking dolls, or the
utterances and linguistic judgments produced by talking humans. They also come
16 Unit 1: What Is Linguistics?

from the input the mechanism receives. Often we can deduce what kind of
mechanism is inside the black box by seeing what kind of information initially
went into it.
For example, going back to our analogy, suppose you observe that, for the
doll, “learning” the ten or so utterances that it produces involves a human being
producing each of these utterances. Perhaps you visit the factory where the dolls
are made and you observe a person speaking into a microphone that is connected
to the doll by a wire. You observe that the doll’s speech exactly repeats that of
the person speaking into the microphone, that the utterances the doll ultimately
produces are copies of the human’s speech. Such evidence would clearly support
your hypothesis that the doll contains some kind of storage and playback device—
a disk, a tape player, or something similar. So, the circumstances in which the
doll acquires its language can give us information about the mechanism inside it,
even when we can’t observe this mechanism directly.

Let’s play! Let’s play!

Let’s play!

Comparisons with Human Language

Applying this strategy to human language yields surprising results—indeed, some
of the most fascinating results in all of the cognitive sciences. Clearly, humans
do not learn language like our talking doll, or like a parrot. Although children do
repeat expressions that they hear around them in day-to-day speech, often very
closely matching the intonation, pitch, and timing of words, their speech goes far
beyond what they hear. Children, and indeed humans generally, are extremely
creative in their language use, routinely producing utterances they have never
encountered before.
Furthermore, the data that form the input to human language acquisition are
not clean and precise. Our doll’s utterances were “learned” from very precise,
careful speech uttered into a microphone, perhaps in the sheltered environment
of a sound booth. But these are not the circumstances in which human speech
 Universal Grammar 17

is acquired, with careful models of good sentences presented clearly and coher-
ently. In fact, spoken natural language does not provide particularly good models
for a child to follow in acquisition. The speech that children hear is often char-
acterized by fragmentary and outright ungrammatical expressions, interruptions,
lapses of attention, errors, burps, you name it. When you are listening, speaking,
or holding a conversation, your impression is typically one of connected dis-
course. But that is by no means the reality. The data that children must draw
upon in learning a language are remarkably messy and “defective.” (If you need
convincing of this, simply lay a tape recorder on a table during a normal daily
conversation, and later transcribe three minutes’ worth of the speech you have
recorded. How many complete, coherent, and grammatical sentences do you
observe?)
Finally, the evidence that children draw upon in learning language is at best
extremely indirect. Recall our three example sentences (repeated here):

(1) Homer expected to surprise him.

(2) I wonder who Homer expected to surprise him.
(3) I wonder who Homer expected to surprise.

The judgments we make about

“surpriser” and “surprisee” are
intricate and subtle, but obvious to
anyone who knows English.

How did we learn the principles that underlie these judgments? Surely they were
not taught to us directly or explicitly. They are not found in any English grammar
textbook; they have never even been noticed, except by a minuscule circle of
specialists, and indeed, they are still not known with absolute certainty even by
specialists. Yet every normally developing English-speaking child masters them
at an early age with no special effort.

Universal Grammar

From these reflections, it is clear that language learning and its outcome present
a surprising picture. Our resulting knowledge of language has these properties:
18 Unit 1: What Is Linguistics?

• It is tacit; we come to know many things that we don’t know that we know.
• It is complex; it underwrites very subtle and intricate judgments.
• It is untutored; the vast bulk of it was never taught to us directly.
• It is gained in the face of very impoverished input.

One plausible explanation for this picture—perhaps the only plausible explana-
tion—has been proposed by the linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky suggests that
children come to the task of language acquisition with a rich conceptual apparatus
already in place that makes it possible for them to draw correct and far-reaching
conclusions on the basis of very little evidence. Human language learning
involves a very powerful cognitive system that allows learners to infer their
grammar from the meager data they are presented with in day-to-day speech.
Chomsky terms this cognitive system Universal Grammar, or UG for short.

We may think of Universal Gram-

mar as the system of principles
that characterizes the class of
possible grammars by specify-
ing how particular grammars are
organized (what are the compo-
nents and their relations), how
the different rules of these com-
ponents are constructed, how
they interact, and so on. ...
Universal Grammar is not a
grammar, but rather ... a kind of
schematism for grammar.
—Language and Responsibility,
pp. 180, 183

Noam Chomsky
Institute Professor
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Photo by Donna Coveney/MIT.
Reprinted with permission.

UG in humans is very roughly analogous to the mechanism inside our talking

doll. Although the doll’s device is not a deductive conceptual mechanism, it is
one that allows dolls equipped with it to “learn” or at least be made to “speak”
any language. By simply recording utterances in one or another language on the
 Universal Grammar 19

disk, drum, tape, or whatever device the mechanism uses for storing its messages,
dolls can be made to utter sentences of German, Hindi, Maori, and so on.
Furthermore, just as the doll’s mechanism is part of its basic physical structure,
is specific to that kind of doll, and is found in all dolls of that kind, so too the
basic mechanism that makes it possible for humans to learn language is appar-
ently part of our physical structure (our genetic endowment), is peculiar to the
human species alone, and is found in all members of our species (putting aside
cases of pathology).

Evidence for Universal Grammar

Evidence for basic linguistic endowment in humans comes from at least three
sources:

• The acquisition process is surprisingly uniform for all children, even

though the languages being learned may seem wildly different.
• Although the languages acquired by children are superficially diverse,
deeper investigation reveals significant, shared design features.
• With equal facility and with no special training, all children, of whatever
ethnic or genetic background, learn whatever language or languages they
have significant contact with. No one has a racial or genetic predisposi-
tion to learn one language more readily than another.

These facts would be all but impossible to understand if normally developing

human children did not come to the task of native-language acquisition equipped
with a single standard acquisition device, provided by their biological makeup.
20 Unit 1: What Is Linguistics?

The Task of Linguistics

Given these results, we can reformulate the task of linguistics in investigating
knowledge of language. Linguistics must accomplish the following:

UG Determine the nature of the language

faculty that we are born with (UG).

Determine what we come to know about

AG language as adults (adult grammars of
specific languages: AG).

Determine how we get from UG to

DATA AG given the data we are exposed
to during acquisition.

Determine how the AG

SPEECH we acquire is used in
speaking and under-
standing.
UNDER-
STANDING
UNIT 2 What Is Syntax About?

Review

1. Linguistics addresses
knowledge of language.
• What exactly do we know when
we know a language?
It seeks to answer three
basic questions. • How do we acquire that
knowledge?
• How do we use that knowledge?

2. We figure out what’s in people’s

minds by deducing it from the
It’s a black box
data they are exposed to and the
problem!
behavior they exhibit.

3. We know many complicated

things about our language that we This suggests that some sort of
were never directly taught. More- mechanism must already be in
over, the data from which we place that supports language
draw our knowledge are often acquisition.
defective.
22 Unit 2: What Is Syntax About?

4. Part of language we know as

children, prior to experience. It It’s called Universal
is with us at birth, as part of our Grammar (UG)!
genetic endowment as human
beings.

Dividing Up the Problem Area

In studying people’s knowledge of language, modern linguistics follows a general

methodological principle set down by the French philosopher René Descartes.
Descartes counseled that in approaching any problem, we should begin by trying
to divide it up into smaller, more manageable parts.

We should divide a problem into as

many parts as admit of separate
solution.
—Discourse on Method, p. 92

René Descartes
1596–1650

When you study a new language, there are a number of things you must master,
including pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. These can be viewed as sep-
arate parts of your developing linguistic knowledge, and they correspond approx-
imately to the parts of linguistic knowledge studied by the modern field of
linguistics:
 Dividing Up the Problem Area 23

Pronunciation, vocabulary, and

grammar correspond roughly to
subareas studied by modern
linguistics.

New language

Pronunciation Vocabulary Grammar

Phonology Semantics Syntax

Sound system of The meanings of a Basic structural ele-

a language language’s words ments of a language
and how those and their possible
meanings combine combinations in
in phrases and phrases and
sentences sentences

Linguistics

Syntax in particular studies and describes what people know about the form of
the expressions in their language. It studies the basic grammatical patterns of
language and what gives rise to them.
How do we go about describing what people know about grammatical pat-
terns? To gain some insight into this, let’s start with the broader question of how
we capture patterns in any domain. We’ll pursue it in relation to a question that’s
always close to our hearts (and stomachs): what’s for dinner?
24 Unit 2: What Is Syntax About?

Capturing Patterns: What’s for Dinner?

We’re all used to eating meals on the fly these days: a quick sandwich and soda
at a deli, or perhaps a fresh salad from a salad bar if we’re eating healthy. In
casual meals of this kind, there are few constraints on what can be eaten or the
order in which it’s consumed. Pretty much anything goes. However, when it
comes to a real “sit-down meal”—the sort of thing you might invite a friend over
to your house for—most people have definite feelings about what constitutes a
proper dinner: what it can and should include, and what form it should take.
For example, depending on your nationality or cultural heritage, here are
some possible meals that you might feel to be acceptable:

salad antipasto shabu-shabu Samosas

roast Cornish rigatoni miso soup tandoori

game hens with meatballs chicken

rice cakes
ice cream gelato & green tea sherbet
& coffee

Acceptable!

By contrast, most people would reject menus like these (marked with an
asterisk “*”—sometimes called a “star” in linguistics—to indicate that they are
unacceptable):
 Dividing Up the Problem Area 25

* apple pie
& coffee
* pasta
primavera * miso soup

baked antipasto teriyaki beef

chicken

unprepared gelato sattee

eggplant

unprepared linguini sushi

eggplant marinara

Not acceptable!

What? In What Order? In What Combinations?

Some of our intuitions about what makes an acceptable meal concern what we
eat. For example, traditional American meals don’t include unprepared vegetables
of certain kinds like eggplant or parsnips. Nor do they include raw fish—fish that
isn’t cooked, smoked, or salted in some way.
Other intuitions about what makes an acceptable meal concern the order in
which we eat various dishes. For example, whereas the first menu here is accept-
able, the second isn’t:

salad * salad
Here it’s not the foods that are
unacceptable; rather, it’s the
ice cream sequence in which they’re
roast Cornish
game hens & coffee consumed.

ice cream roast Cornish

& coffee game hens
26 Unit 2: What Is Syntax About?

Finally, there are constraints on what combinations of things should appear

together in a single meal. For example, while sattee, sushi, and teriyaki beef are
all fine items on a Japanese menu, in Japanese culture they probably wouldn’t be
eaten all together in a single meal. In the same way, in American culture baked
chicken and hot dogs wouldn’t be eaten together—a meal would include one or
the other, but not both.

Categories and Arrangements

Suppose you were asked to describe what constitutes an acceptable or “well-
formed” traditional American meal—that is, to work out the pattern behind
possible American dinners. How would you go about it?
One natural idea would be to divide the various foods into categories and
subcategories. If you look at the suggested menus in a traditional cookbook, you
will find terms like appetizer, main course item, and dessert (categories). The
various foods (subcategories) can be classified according to these categories:

French onion soup, five-leaf salad,

Appetizer
antipasto, shrimp cocktail, ...

Roast Cornish game hen, turkey,

Main course item
spaghetti with meatballs, ...

Dessert Ice cream, apple pie, cake, cookies, ...

With this classification, you could then state the pattern of an acceptable Amer-
ican meal in terms of the arrangements of these general categories. For example,
you might say that a possible dinner has the following general pattern:

Appetizer Main course item Dessert

This strategy would capture what is eaten (the things in the categories), the order
in which they are eaten (expressed by the order of the general categories), and
the combinations.
Of course, many subtleties could come into play at this point. For example,
some foods can occur in more than one category. Many main course items like
 Dividing Up the Problem Area 27

shellfish can also be served as appetizers as long as the portion is small enough.
You might want to classify such foods as both appetizers and main course items:

Appetizer Mussels Mussels can be served as

an appetizer or the main
course.
Main course item Mussels

A very formal meal might include a first course or a fish course before the main
course and possibly liqueur after dessert. This means that you would have to add
items to the general pattern:

Appetizer First course Main course Dessert

Appetizer First course Main course Dessert Liqueur

To summarize: there are numerous factors to consider in describing an

American meal completely. Foods have to be cross-classified to some extent, and
there is a (potentially large) number of patterns to account for. Nonetheless, the
basic procedure used here appears sound and capable of being extended to these
other cases without too much difficulty.

Capturing Syntactic Patterns

The example of eating patterns suggests a general strategy for capturing all
patterns that hold for some collection of objects. We proceed as follows:

• Classify the objects into general categories.

• State the possible patterns that we observe as arrangements of the
general categories.
28 Unit 2: What Is Syntax About?

Let’s try applying this lesson to sentence patterns using the following simple
grammatical data. The three lists contain both acceptable and unacceptable sen-
tences; the unacceptable ones are marked with an asterisk.

I II III
Bart ran. Homer chased Bart. Homer handed Lisa Maggie.
Homer sleeps. Bart saw Maggie. Marge sent Bart SLH.
Maggie crawls. Maggie petted SLH. *Sent Marge Bart SLH.
*Ran Maggie. *Chased Bart Homer. *Marge Bart SLH sent.
*Crawls Homer.

Following the strategy suggested above, we might begin by classifying the expres-
sions in I–III into different general categories. Just as traditional cookbooks
separate foods into different menu items like appetizer and main course, tradi-
tional grammar books separate the words into different parts of speech. Parts of
speech represent general categories of words. Traditional parts of speech include
categories like noun, verb, preposition, adjective, and article. For present pur-
poses, the two traditional categories of noun and verb will suffice for dividing up
all the words in I–III:

N(oun)s Homer, Marge, Lisa, Bart, Maggie,

Santa’s Little Helper

ran, sleeps, crawls, chased, saw, petted,

V(erb)s
handed, sent

Next, just as we analyzed acceptable patterns of meals into sequences of general

categories of foods, we analyze the acceptable patterns of English sentences into
sequences of our general categories of words:

Acceptable English sentences (I): N V

Acceptable English sentences (II): N V N
Acceptable English sentences (III): N V N N

As in the case of meals, these rules state what can appear (the words in the
categories), the order in which they appear (expressed by the order of the general
 Dividing Up the Problem Area 29

categories), and their possible combinations (expressed by what’s in the separate

categories).
Once again, there are many additional points and subtleties. Just like some
foods, certain words seem to occur in more than one category. For example, the
sequence of sounds that we pronounce “saw” can appear as a noun, as in The saw
was old, or as a verb, as in Bart saw Maggie. Furthermore, just as there are
additional menu items and patterns beyond appetizer–main course–dessert, there
are many additional categories of words (adverbs, intensifiers, conjunctions,
determiners, etc.) and many patterns of categories beyond those just considered.
These don’t seem to raise any problems of principle, however. As before, the
basic procedure appears sound and capable of being extended to other cases. We
simply introduce new words, new categories, and new patterns.

Speakers Know Patterns

The results above allow us to formulate an explicit hypothesis about what speak-
ers know when they have systematic knowledge of some structured domain. We
could hypothesize that they know categories and patterns . In the case of sentence
patterns, we would be making the following conjecture:

Category!
Speakers of English know
that words of these types
Speakers of English know
can be arranged in the
that the sentences in
three patterns N-V, N-V-
groups I, II, and III con-
N, and N-V-N-N to form
tain words of two basic
acceptable sentences.
types. Call these types
N(oun) and V(erb).
Pattern!

This would be the kind of knowledge that a syntactician might reasonably

attribute to speakers of English. Attributing this type of knowledge to speakers
constitutes an explicit proposal about (part of) what those speakers know about
the structure of their language.
30 Unit 2: What Is Syntax About?

Internal Structure

The hypothesis that speakers know categories and patterns entails that their
knowledge of syntax is structured in a certain way. Our explanation for how
English speakers are able to recognize well-formed sentences involves seeing
those sentences as divided into parts that are arranged in certain definite ways.
The hypothesis states that a well-formed sentence of English is composed of
nouns and verbs, and it is the way these parts are arranged that determines well-
formedness.
There is strong evidence that our grasp of syntax must be like this: structured
out of parts. To appreciate this, recall the properties distinguishing a human’s
linguistic behavior from that of a talking doll:

Human
Doll

Small, fixed stock of Open-ended set of possible

utterances VS utterances showing creativity
and novelty

Utterances have no Utterances have complex

internal structure; stored VS structure; produced “online,”
as wholes stored as parts and patterns

Many exact repetitions Few repetitions (aside from

VS fixed social formulas)

As we saw, a talking doll produces a small number of utterances, usually no more

than ten or twelve; and each repetition of a given utterance is identical to any
 Internal Structure 31

other (ignoring wear and tear on the doll). On this basis, we quickly concluded
that the doll’s linguistic mechanism must be some form of playback device, in
which each utterance the doll can produce is stored as a separate unit.
Human linguistic capacities are nothing like this, however. For one thing,
human linguistic competence allows us (at least in principle) to produce infinite
collections of well-formed sentences. Consider, for example, this set of sentences
(from Platts 1979, p. 47):

The horse behind Pegasus is bald.

The horse behind the horse behind Pegasus is bald.
The horse behind the horse behind the horse behind
Pegasus is bald.
The horse behind the horse behind the horse behind
the horse behind Pegasus is bald.
...

Clearly, this list could be

extended indefinitely—it has
infinitely many members.

Although this set of sentences is infinite, English speakers recognize that every
sentence in the set is a well-formed sentence of English. Of course, our actual
capacity to produce or process sentences like these is limited in certain ways.
When the sentences get too long, we can’t get our minds around them: we forget
how they began, or we get distracted, or we simply lose track. Consequently, we
can’t show our mastery of them in the usual ways. But it seems that these
limitations reflect constraints on such things as memory and attention span and
have little to do with specifically linguistic abilities. If we had unlimited attention
spans, life spans, memories, and so on, we would presumably be able to produce
all the sentences in the set.
The infinite size of such collections shows that unlike the doll’s mechanism,
our minds don’t simply store the sentences that we produce and understand as
separate units. Our brains are finite objects with finite storage capacity. One
simply cannot get an infinite object into a finite brain. On the other hand, if
sentences are structured, and built up out of smaller parts, then our ability to
produce an infinite number of sentences can be explained. Suppose we know a
basic stock of words and a basic stock of patterns for combining them. Suppose
further that we are able to reuse patterns in the process of constructing of a
sentence. Then this will be enough to produce an infinite set:
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måhända ringa, ersättning för den långa tid reqvirenterne å de
utlofvade "Tillförliga underrältelserne" & nödgats vänta, skola de
äfven vid denna skrift hafva att beräkna sig samma förmåner
tillgodo; de förra — till 100 procent billigare, än det blifvande
boklådspriset.

Då inom Sverige och Norrige ännu i denna dag finnas mer än 120
särskilda församlingar, hvilka till större eller mindre del bebos af
dessa finnar eller deras afkomlingar, till ett antal af omkring 40,000
personer, af hvilka mer än 15,000 ännu begagna det finska
tungomålet; då deras vidsträkta och glest befolkade bygder,
sammanräknade, upptaga en area af omtrent 450 qvadrat-mil, utan
att tala om de landsträckor, som af dem eller deras förfäder först
uppodlade, sedermera blifvit inkräktade af Svenskar, och till Svenska
bygder förvandlade, så synes såsom sakens historiska vigt borde
vara satt utom all fråga — så mycket mer som detta förhållande,
hvilket äger rum nästan i sjelfva hjertat af de båda konungarikena,
hittills icke annorlunda än högst ofullständigt och till en ganska ringa
del varit kändt blott af få; och äfven detta — endast ryktesvis genom
opålitliga, misstydda eller missförstådda berättelser.

*****

Enär intet Språk bör vara oss Finnar kärare och närmare till hjertat
än modersmålet, hoppas man att allt som kan tjena att utvidga vår
kunskap om dess grammatikaliska byggnad, dess filosofiska
konstruktion, dess poetiska och onomatopojetiska väsende och
natur, dess slägtskapsförhållanden och beröringspunkter, med andra
närbeslägtade tungomål, med ett ord allt som kan tjena att uppfatta
ej blott dess formläror och märkvärdigt egna utvecklade karakter,
utan hela dess andeliga lif, såsom bärande en stämpel af folkets, bör
vara välkommet ej blott för Språkforskaren och Vettenskapsmannen
enskild, utan för oss finnar i gemen. Med anledning häraf, och i
händelse företaget möter uppmuntran, ämnar undertecknad
framställa de åsigter härom, hvilka, till följd af ett under längre tider
redan fortsatt studium häraf, hos honom gjort sig gällande. I sådan
afsigt ämnade jag under titel "Kielitär eller Forskningar i Finska
språkets grammatikaliska grunder" utgifva ett arbete, hvilket skulle
utkomma i fria Häften, beräknade till 5, 6, à 7 ark hvarje, förutan
tabeller; och hvilket arbete jag härmedelst, jemte de andre, får
anmäla till Subskription på samma villkor som ofvanföre blifvit
nämndt, att nemligen priset för Subskribenter skall betydligen
modereras efter det möjligen blifvande Boklådspriset. Och ehuru
Språkets karakter blifvit, genom de många i sednare tider utkomne
Grammatikor och Språkläror på sät och vis, och till stor del känd, är
det likväl ännu mycket, och just det intressantaste deraf, som
återstår för oss att lära känna; helst Grammatikan aldrig ingår i
filologiska och filosofiska undersökningar.

*****

Då näst Finska språket, af de vettenskapliga sludierne inom vårt

land, intet bör vara oss heligare än Finska Historien, vill jag likaledes
begagna detta tillfälle, att, i händelse företaget möter framgång, till
utgifning och Subskription anmäla den i företalet till 2:dra Delen af
Otava under N:o 7 anmälde skriften Walaistaja eller Handlingar till
Upplysning i Finlands äldre Historia. Att, närmare än hvad der skett,
detaljera planen dervid, tillåter icke utrymmet nu. Blått det bör jag
kanske nämna, att Skriften, hvilken komme att utgifvas i lösa Häften,
blir ytterst vigtig för vår historia, såsom innehållande sjelfva dess
källor och urkunder; samt, med hänsigt till vidd och omfång, ganska
dyr — isynnerhet för köpare, hvars pris alltid kommer att beräknas
något högre än Subskribenternes.
 *****

Slutligen och sist hemställer jag till den läsande och tänkande
allmänhetens behjertande, huruvida icke med hänsigt till de
framsteg den Finska Litteraturen redan gjori under de sednare åren,
det vore nyttigt och nödvändigt att äfven den sanna och sunda
kritiken ginge dermed i bredd, såsom en probersten, eller såsom en
vigt på vågen, för att mäta värdet deraf, på det att allt det dugliga af
hvad den Finska bokpressen frambringar, måtte blifva allmänt kändt,
framstäldt och åskådligt; det möjligen odugliga likaså.

Sjelf är jag visserligen oförmögen att i detta fall utöfva

granskarens och domarens kall; men i samråd och i förening med
andra af landets yngre litteratörer, tror jag dock att detta icke skulle
blifva särdeles svårt, åtminstone i de flesta fall. Då de, om ej alltid
under namn dock under pretext af Recensioner, i tidningarne
stundom förekommande tillfälliga bedömmanden af utkomne
arbeten, ej blott med afseende å det lilla utrymme ett tidningsblad
medgifver, måste vara knapphändiga och ofullständiga, utan och
visat sig vara ytliga och mindre grundliga, ofta ensidigt uppfattade,
och vanligen upplöst sig till ett stundom oförtjent beröm, stundom
obehörigt tadel utan att hvarken i det ena eller andra fallet genom
verkligen ådagalagde skäl styrka eller bevisa sina påståenden, så
ämnar undertecknad, ifall företaget genom tillräcklig subskriptions
teckning kan bära sig, i förening med andre, hvilka dela dessa
tänkesätt, åtaga sig det för ingen del lönande, i många afseenden
besvärliga, ansvarsfulla och vanligen otacksamma gransknings-
kallet, i hvilket fall en Skrift i fria Häften skulle komma att, under
Rubrik af Seulajaiset å Finska Språket utgifvas, hvars uteslutande
åliggande det vore att med sanning och oväld närmare och
grundeligen granska icke blott alla de å finska språket hos oss
utkommande skrifter, utan äfven alla de i Finland äfvensom
annorstädes utkommande arbeten, hvilka på ett eller annat sätt röra
vårt folk, vårt land eller värt språk; samt i brist deraf äfven meddela
andra litterära nyheter, hvilka för oss kunna vara af intresse.

Jag har trott mig böra begagna detta tillfälle att på en gång, och i
ett sammanhang, anmäla alla dessa skrifter, hvarvid jag ännu en
gång får återhemta, att jag icke i något fall kan utfästa mig till
någon bestämd tid, såvida erfarenheten visat att ett sådant
bestämmande sällan låter realisera sig, så länge man endast kan
kommendera sin vilja, men icke förmågan, hvilken ofta är beroende
af en hop yttre omständigheter och förhållanden; allt beror dock
hufvudsakligast på den uppmärksamhet, den bildade klassen af
Finlands allmänhet, täckes skänka dessa företag; hvarföre den eller
de, som ni älska för framgången af den inhemska ännu allt för
spädväxta finska Litteraturen, täcktes å bifogade Subskriptionslista
(hvilken till sådant ändamål kan från boken bortklippas) anteckna sitt
och deras namn, hvilka genom subskription önska befordra ett eller
flere af dessa företag, jemte antalet af de äskade exemplaren, och
orten dit de böra försändas, hvilka listor de sedan ville vara gode och
antingen sjelfve, eller genom ombud, insända direkte till mig, då vid
reqvisition af 11 exemplar, enär de utlösas, det 12:te fås på köpet.

Som jag hört den plägseden någongång klandras, att i böcker

aftrycka prenumeranternes eller subskribenternes namn, hvilket man
endast velat anse som ett medel att erhålla dem, hvarigenom priset
onödigtvis ökades men icke värdet af boken; så nödgas jag härvid
yttra en motsatt åsigt: ty skulle jag för min del knappast tro att
någon, af sådan anledning, lade sig till ett arbete, och äfven om så
vore, vore denna fåfänga minst att tadlas; men deremot anser jag
det i många afseenden, ej blott för det närvarande utan äfven i en
framtid, vara för vettenskapen och historien intressant att lära sig
närmare känna de män, som på sin tid nitälskat för litterära och
patriotiska företag; ty dem som icke göra det finna vi nog ändå
öfverallt, och dem vill förmodligen ingen heller känna. För författare
och förläggare är det dessutom icke blott smickrande och
uppmuntrande att se sina arbeten blifva lästa, utan är det ofta
ganska vigtigt att derefter kunna bedöma och bestämma sina
företag; liksom det å andra sidan, för publiken är ganska lätt att, af
den aftryckta subskribent-förteckningen, spörja hos hvilka de hafva
tillfälle att öfverkomma boken.

Af sådan orsak, och för att tillika, å ömse sidor, veta till hvilka
exemplar skola afsändas, ämnar jag äfven i de särskilda nu
annoncerta skrifterna (i händelse de utkomma) aftrycka resultatet af
Subskribent-listorne; men skulle någon vara nog finkänslig, att icke
vilja synas passera, för hvad han i detta fall är, skall, om så önskas,
namnet uteslutas.

Helsingfors sjelfva Jubel-dagen den 15 Julii 1840.

C. A. Gottlund.

*****

Å följande, af mig, på eget förlag utgifvne Skrifter, finnas hos mig

ännu exemplar att tillgå till nedanstående priser:

Otava, eli Suomalaisia huvituksia. 1:sta Delen med antiqvitets

plancher och musik-bilagor 8 R:dr.

D:o d:o 2:dra Delen med plancher 6 R:dr.

 Wäinämöiset, yksi kokous meijän nykyisten Runojoin virren
teoista. 1:sta Delen 1 R:dr.

Försök att förklara Caj. Corn. Taciti omdömen öfver Finnarne,

jemte en Öfversigt af deras fordna vidskepelse. Ett bidrag till
upplysning i Finnarnas historiska fornhäfder 2 R:dr.

Kustroff och Woronitschff, eller de båda Brottslingarne. En Rysk

berättelse från förra århundradet. (Öfversättning frän Finskan) 24 sk.

Dissertatio de Proverbiis Fennicis. 24 sk. allt B:co.

HELSINGFORS,

Tryckt, hos J. Simelii Enka, 1840.

Fotnoterna:

[1] Med afseende å häxeri och trollkonst hafva vi, i detta fall, en
redan nog beryktad tillhålls- och tillflykts ort i Pohjola, Pimentola,
Lapin moahaan lankeaiseen, m.m. likaså hafva Kipumäki och
Kipuvuoren kukkula blifvit gjorde till plågans hem- och förvisnings-
ort; men att i köld, i mörker och i en evig natt, äfven vilja förlägga
sångens och skaldens hemland, går väl icke an; hvarföre vi äfven
trott oss härtill böra söka ljusare trakter.

[2] Vi kunna på sådan grund icke gilla de vittra försök som

någongång blifvit gjorde att från sagoverlden och den mytiska
perioden nedflytta Väinämöinen inom historiens gebit (jemför t.ex.
Väinämöinen, af Brakel) innan tiden för hans historiska existens
blifvit närmare, åtminstone problematiskt, konstituerad. I anledning
häraf — månne icke ett historiskt utredande häraf, förtjente mera
uppmärksamhet och prisbelöning än öfversättningen af några mer
eller mindre stympade Runofragmenter?

[3] Vi hafva redan en gång tillförene begagnat denna utväg i

ingress-Runan till skriften Väinämöiset (tryckt i Stockholm 1828)
men, — den gången var det Väinämöinen sjelf som drömde.

[4] Den benämnes då ofta i detta fall luvut, så vida den blott
läses; eller, med afseende ä innehållet, synnyt, sanat, loihteet, m.m.

[5] Bland dessa den deklamatoriska Runans förtjenster, är att den

sällan och aldrig behöfver tillgripa dessa många prosodiska figurer
och andra stundom mindre regelrätta uttryck för att i nödfall fylla
versens meter, icke heller i sådan afsigt emot språkets lagar begagna
mindre vanliga konstruktioner och talesätt.

[6] Detta kadanserande, skanderande och intonerande, eller

rättare aksentuerande på oriktiga stafvelser, hvilket på ett eget,
stundom icke obehagligt, sätt afbryter det lagformiga, och liksom
upplöser språket i dess elementer, har af någre blifvit jemfördt med
och äfven ansedt såsom cessurer midt i orden, och på grund deraf
åberopadt såsom en af Runans största och första egenskaper och
förtjenster. Vi anse det icke så; väl måste de långa orden i Finska
språket sönderfalla inom tvenne takter, om de skola kunna
användas, hvilket blir nödvändigt; deraf har detta stundom äfven
kommit att gälla om de korta. Men detta synes oss ursprungligen
mera vara en följd af nödvändighetens lag, än utgöra sjelfva
grunden och hufvudvillkoret för Runans metriska bestånd.
 [7] Jemför t.ex. p. 16 v. 35; p. 24 v. 76, 87, 88, 91, 92; p. 30 v.
129; p. 50 v. 103-105; p. 56 v. 15, 16, m.fl. st.

[8] Sällan torde Finlands Universitet och Vettenskaperna i vårt

land egnas ett tillfälle att, på en gång, begå så många glada
högtider och fröjdefester som i år; hvarföre vi äfven trott oss här
böra nägot närmare nämna derom.

Onsdagen den 15:de Juli firade Universitetet sin här ofvannämnde

inaugurationsfest, enligt ett förut härom tryckt ceremoniel; hvartill
icke blott alla i staden befintliga stater och korpser blifvit, jemte
stadens samtliga invånare, i vanlig väg, genom utfärdadt program
inhjudne; utan hade dessutom alla landets högre digniteter och
auktoriteter, genom särskilda skrifvelser, blifvit härtill inviterade;
äfven som cirkulär-bref, i samma afsigt, blifvit från båda Stiftens
Domkapitel utfärdade till landets samteliga presterskap och
skolstater. Likaså hade Universitetets Konsistorium enkom låtit utgå
skrifvelser härom, jemte inbjudningar, såväl till Kejserliga
Vettenskaps-Akademin och Kejserliga Ryska Akademin, jemte lärare-
personalen vid Kejserliga Universiteterna i S:t Petersburg, Moskva,
Dorpat, Kasan, Kieff, Charkoff, som ock till Kongl. Vettenskaps-
Akademin, Kongl. Vitterhets-, Historie- och Antiqvitets-Akademin,
samt Kongl. Svenska Akademin i Stockholm, äfvensom till
Lärarepersonalen vid de Kongl. Universiteterna i Upsala, Lund,
Köpenhamn och Christiania. Redan dessa förberedande åtgärder
bevisa den vigt Universitetet äfven hos utländningen sökt fästa vid
detta sitt jubileum; också har ingenting härvid blifvit försummadt
som kunde tjena att öka dagens glans och högtidlighet. Staden,
redan förut mycket freqventerad af Bad- och Brunns-gäster, hvilka så
väl till sjöss som lands hitstormat från S:t Petersburg och Reval, såg
sig i en hast nästan sagdt öfversvämmad ej blott af vänner och
bekanta från landsorterna, utan äfven af en talrik skara utländningar,
förnämligast vettenskapsmän och litteratörer. Professorer och
Akademici från Dorpat, S:t Petersburg, Kieff, Stockholm och Upsala,
dels såsom deputerade för dessa Akademier, dels i enskild tag, hade
infunnit sig; äfven en hop studenter hade på Kejserlig befallning från
de båda förstnämnda Universiteterna inställt sig här, och Koll. Rådet
J. F. Ziebert äfvensom Doktor C. Fr. Walther i Reval har ej blott
personligen anländt utan, i likhet med K. Universitetet i Dorpat och
Wladimirska Universitetet i Kieff, genom tryckta och till Alexanders-
Universitetet ställda afhandlingar och gratulations-skrifter, med
fägnad betygat sitt deltagande i denna Universitetets glädjefest.
Dock var Auras gamla Skald, Biskopen i Hernösands Stift, m.m.
Doktor Franzén, måhända den kärkomnaste och dyrbaraste af alla
gäster. Anländ redan den 11 om aftonen, emottogs han med sång
och glädjebetygelser, ett stycke utanför staden, af den studerande
ungdomen.

Efter det samtliga Stater i full procession från Senats-Huset

anländt till Kyrkan, öppnades dagens högtidligheter, (redan om
morgonen tillkännagifne genom kanonskott), under vocal- och
instrumental-musik, af Universitets Rektor, Professoren och Riddaren
Dokt. Ursin, med ett latinskt tal, i den nya och vackra, ännu oinvigda
Lutherska kyrkan; hvarefter Professoren och Ridd. Doct. Linsén
orerade på Svenska, tolkande Universitetets ljufva känslor, hopp och
minnen vid hugkomsten af denna dag och dess betydelse för
Finland; hvilket allt slutades med ett tal på Ryska språket af e.o.
Professoren Solovieff. Härefter, och sedan medaljer öfver dagens
högtid blifvit till flere af de närvarande utdelte, tågade processionen
till den gamla Lutherska kyrkan, hvarefter församlingens Kyrkoherde
Kontrakts-Prosten och Ord. Ledam. Filos. Dokt. Crohns höll en för
tillfället lämpad predikan, efter hvars slut lofsången N:o 84 i gamla
Sv. Psalmboken, under kanondunder, afsjöngs vid akkompanjemang
af orgeln. Till kl. 4 e.m. samma dag hade Alexanders-Universitetet i
Societets-Husets stora lokal till middag inbjudit medlemmar af
samtliga stater, in och utrikes litteratörer, vettenskapsmän, m.fl., der
ett bord var arrangeradt för mer än 300 personer; och hvarvid,
under kanonskott, hurra, fanfarer och taffelmusik, lifliga skålar
tömdes för hela det Kejserliga Huset.

Dagen derpå, den 16:de, var Teologic Doktors-Promotion, som

under öfliga ceremonier för sig gick i det nya templet; och hvarvid
Domprosten i Åbo Professoren och Ordens-Ledamoten Doktor
Gadolin, såsom Promotor, efter utfärdadt program, och efter uppläst
allernådigst tillstånd, och aflagd Doktors-ed, förklarade 19
medlemmar af det andliga ståndet till Teologie Doktorer, nemligen 7,
med stöd af aflagda Specimina och i grund af författningarne, och 12
såsom heders-Doktorer, till följd af ett Kejserligt reskript. De förre
voro: Borg, Aar Gust. Fil Mag. Teol. Licent. och Docent i Teologin vid
Alex. Univ.; — Estlander, Carl Jos. Fil. Dokt. Teol. Lic. Ord. Led.
Kyrkoherde i Wörö; — Frosterus. Benj. Fil. Dokt. Teol. Lic. Professor,
Prost och Kyrkoherde i Wasa; — Frosterus, Rob. Walent. Fil. Dokt.
Teol. Lic., Prost och Kyrkoherde i Idensalmi; — Gadolin, Jak. Alg. Fil.
Dokt. Teol. Lie. Adj. i Teologin vid Alex. Univ.; — Lille, Bengt Ol. Fil.
Dokt. Teologie Lic. och Professor vid Alex. Univ.; — Schauman, Fr.
Ludv. Fil. Mag. Teol. Lic. Adj. i Teol. och Pastor i Teologiska
Seminarium vid Alex. Univ. De sednare voro: Referendarie-
Sekreteraren i Eklesiastik-Expcditioncn vid Kejs. Sen. för Finl. Fil.
Doct. och Ord. Led. Carl Gabr. Westzynthius; — Professoren i Teol.
Moralen vid Alex. Univ. Fil. Dokt. Joh. Matth. Sundvall; —
Professoren i Teol. Dogmatiken, Fil. Dokt. Ax. Ad. Laurell; —
Eloquent. Lekt. vid Åbo Gymnasium, Ord. Ledam. Fil. Dokt. Er.
Elfgren; — Kyrkoherden i Kimito, Kontr. Prosten, Fil. Dokt. Gabr. Hirn;
— Kyrkoh. i Hvittis, Kontr. Prosten, Ord. Led. Fil. Dokt. Wilh.
Åkerman; — Kyrkoh. i Nagu, Fält-Prosten Fil. Dokt. Mich. Avellan; —
Kyrkoh. i Lappfjerd, Prosten, Ord. Led. Fil. Dokt. Jak. Jon Estlander;
— Kyrkoh. i Jockas, Kontr. Prosten, Ord. Led. Fil. Dokt. Carl Gust.
Nykopp; — Kyrkoh. i Hauho, Prosten, Ord. Led. Fil. Dokt. Carl El.
Alopaeus; — Kyrkoh. i Savitaipale, Prosten, Ord. Led. Joh.
Stråhlman; — Kyrkoh. i Helsingfors, Kontr. Prosten, Ord. Led.
Professoren, Fil. Dokt. Er. And. Crohns. Doktorsfrågan framställdes af
Adj. i Teor. och Prakt. Filosofin, Professoren Germ. Fr. Aminoff, och
besvarades af Primus, Kyrkoherden i Wasa Benj. Frosterus; hvarefter
hölls tacksägelse och förbön af Ultimus Kyrkoherden i Idensnlmi Rob.
Wal. Frosterus. Predikan hölls af t.f. Öfverläraren i Romerska Språket
och Litter. vid Wiborgs Gymnasium, Fil. Dokt. Fr. Joak. Ekman.

Samma dag kl. 8 om aftonen gaf Helsingfors stads Handels-

Societet, till firande af denna Alexanders Universitetets sekularfest,
en stor och lysande bal i Societets-Husets stora lokal, hvartill
omkring l,400 biljetter voro utdelte.

Dagen derpå den 17:de Juli anställdes, efter ett förut derom af
Promotor Professoren och Riddaren Wilh. Gabr. Lagus å Svenska
språket utfärdadt Program, Juris utriusque Doktors-Promotion, i den
nya Lutherska kyrkan; hvarvid 11 personer undfingo Doktors-hatten;
af hvilka 3 voro dertill i laglig ordning legitimerade; 3 hvilka väl icke
fullgjort alla prestanda, och 8 härvid till heders-Doktorer utnämnde.
De förre voro: Juris utriusque Licentiaterna Ekelund, Carl Evert Fil.
Dokt. Professor i Romerska och Ryska Lagfarenheten, Ridd. —
Nordström, Joh. Jah. Fil. Doct. Professor i Folk- och Stats-Rätten.
samt National-Ekonomin; — Palmén, Joh. Phil. Fil. Mag. Adj. i Finl.
Allm. samt Rom. och Ryska Lagfar. De sednare voro: Bergbom, Joh.
Erik, Jur. utr. Kand, Fil. Dokt. och Assessor i Kejs. Wiborgs Hof-Rätt;
— Edelheim, Paul, Jur. utr. Kand. Fil. Dokt. Protok. Sekr. i Just. Dep.
af Kejs. Sen. för Finl.; — Hjertman, Chr. Ludv. Jur. utr. Lic. Fil. Dokt.
Assessor i Kejs. Wasa Hof-Rätt. De sistnämnde voro: Geh. Rådet, v.
Ordf. i Just. Dep. af Kejs. Senaten för Finland, Riddaren, Friherre Ax.
Gust. Mellin; — Geh. Rådet, Prokuratorn i Kejs. Senaten för Finland,
Riddaren Carl Joh. Walléen; — Presidenten i Kejs. Wasa Hof-Rätt,
Riddaren Carl Ad. Adlerstjerna; — Presidenten i Kejs. Wiborgs Hof-
Rätt, Fil. Dokt. och Ridd. Grefve Carl Gust. Mannerheim; —
Presidenten i Kejs. Åho Hof-Rätt, Ledam. i Ekon. Depart. af Kejs.
Sen. för Finland, Riddaren Carl Fr. Richter; — Verkel. Stats-Rådet,
Ledam. i Just. Depart. af Kejs. Sen. för Finl., Lagm. i Wiborgs
Lagsaga, Ridd. Friherre Gust. v. Kothen; — Verkel. Stats-Rådet,
Ledam. i Just. Dep. af Kejs. Sen. för Finland, Lagm. i Karelska
Lagsagan, Ridd. Carl Gerh. Hising; — Verkel. Stats Rådet, Ledam. i
Just. Dep. af Kejs. Sen. för Finland, Lagm. i Wasa Lagsaga, Ridd.
Alb. Fr. Rich. de la Chapelle. Promotor framställde Doktorsfrågan,
som besvarades af Primus Professoren Ekelund, hvarefter
Professoren Nordström såsom innehafvande det andra rummet,
slutade Promotionsakten med tacksägelse och förböner. Predikan
hölls af Seminarii Pastorn, Theol. Doktorn Schauman, såsom vanligt,
i gamla Lutherska kyrkan, dit processionen tågade från den nya.

Dagen derpå den 18:de Juli hölls i vanlig Ordning Medicine och
Kirurgie Doktors-Promotion, hvartill Promotor, Universitetets Rektor,
Professoren och Riddaren Dokt. Nils Abr. Ursin, utfärdadt Program;
och hvarvid 28 Medicine Licentiater erhöllo Doktors-insignierna,
förutan en Heders- och en Jubel-Doktor. De förre voro: Ahlqvist,
Gust. Joh., — Ahlstubbe. Lars Is. Fil. Mag. Stads-Fysik. i
Fredrikshamn; — Arnell, Henr. Edv. Fil. Mag. Öfver-Läkare vid Första
Finska Sjö-Equipaget; — Asp, Gust. Fil. Mag. Provincial-Läkare i
Uleåborg: — Avellan, Frans Wilh. Fil. Mag.; — de Besche. Georg, Fil.
Dokt. Provincial-Läkare i Wib. Distr.; — Bonsdorff, Evert Julius, Fil.
Mag. Anat. och Fysiol. Adj. Anatom. Prosektor; — Cajander, And. Fil.
Mag.; — Churberg, Matt. Chr. Fil. Mag.; — Crusell, Gust. Sam. Fil.
Mag.; — Dahl, Osc. Emil, Fil. Mag. ex. ord. Kanslist vid Kolleg. Med.;
— Elfving, Joh. Fredr. Fil. Dokt. Stads-Fys. i Björneborg; — Ehrström,
Carl Rol. Prov. Läkare i Torneå; — Ervast, Peter Fil. Mag. Stads-
Läkare i Brahestad; — Ervast, Peter And. Fil. Mag. ex. ord. Läkare
vid Medicinal-Öfverstyrelsen; — Florin, P. Ulr. Fil. Mag. Prov. Läkare i
Kexholm; — Frosterus, Abr. Fil. Mag. Stads-Fys. i Nykarleby; —
Höglund, And. Magn. Fil. Mag. Prov. Läkare i Heinola; — Ingman, Er.
Alex. Fil. Mag. Stads-Läkare i Kristinestad; — Lilius, Aug. Magn. Fil.
Mag.; — Lindeqvist, Carl Henr. Fil. Doct. Prov. Läkare i Lovisa; —
Palin, Carl Henr. Fil. Mag. ext. ord. Läk. vid Medic. Öfver-Styrelsen;
— Sahlberg, Reinh. Ferd. Fil. Amanuens vid Univ. Museum; —
Schildt, Wolm. Styrb. Fil. Mag. Prov. Läk. i Saarijärvi distr.; —
Sourander, Joh. Ern. Fil. Mag.; — Tapenius, C. Nils And. Fil. Mag.
Läk. vid Lif-Gardets Finska Skarpskytte-Bataillon; — v. Willebrand,
Knut Felix, Fil. Mag.; — Wirzén, Joh. Ern. Adhemar, Fil. Mag. Med.
Adj. och Bot. Demonstr. t.f. Stabs-Läkare vid Första Finska Sjö-Equip.
Heders-Doktor vardt Professor Emerit. och Ridd. Joh. Gadolin; och
Jubel-Doktor Medicine Doktorn och f.d. Regements-Läkaren Chr.
Aeimelé. Doktorsfrågan framställdes af Medicinska Fakultetens
Adjunkt, Doktor Sten Edv. Sjöman, och besvarades af primus,
Adjunkten och Prosektorn Ev. Jul. Bonsdorff. Predikan hölls af
Kyrkoherden i Wiktis, Prosten och Ord. Led. Hipping. Samma dag
gåfvo de nyss promoverade Medic. Doktorerna i Societetshusets
stora lokal en middag, hvartill 280 personer voro inviterade.

Den 19:de Juli var Sön- och Böndag, hvarföre alla dessa slags
offentliga högtidligheter och fröjdebetygelser måste för en stund
afbrytas; dock yttrade sig glädjen i många enskilda kretsar; så t.ex.
hade en hop af Rysslands yngre Poeter och Roman-författare, denna
dag, tillställt en middag för de yngre af Finlands Skalder och
litteratörer, minnesvärd genom Franzéns närvaro, för att gemensamt
liksom knyta en närmare inbördes vänskap oeh bekantskap. En
annan middag gafs samma dag af 1819 års Promoverade Magistrar,
att förtiga flere andra sådane.

Måndagen den 21 Juli försiggingo Filosofie Doktors och Filosofie

Magisters Promotionerna, enligt derom förut af Promntor
Professoren och Ridd. Dokt. Carl Reinh. Sahlberg utfärdadt program.
Till Doktorer utnämndes ej blott Filos. Licentiaterna Hertzberg, Fredr.
Fil. Mag. Docent i Grek. Litter. vid K. Alex. Univ. — Lundahl, Gust. Fil.
Mag. och — Moberg, Ad. Fil. Mag. Kemie Docent vid samma Univ.,
utan hade Fakulteten den lyckan att vid denna sin andra sekularfest
tilldela sin högsta värdighet åt flere om vettenskapernas och
upplysningens befrämjande på mångfaldigt vis förtjente inhemske
och utländske män, bland hvilka i första rummet må nämnas dess
om Universitets väl i så många afseenden vakande tjenstförrättande
Kansler, Minister-Stats-Sekreteraren, Verkeliga Geheime-Rådet, m.m.
Grefve Rob. H. Rehbinder; — Ledamoten i Kejs, Sen. Ekon. Dep.
Geheime-Rådet och Ridd. Guvern. Lars Gabr. v. Haartman; —
Ledam. i samma Dep. Landsh. och Riddaren Aug. Ramsay; — Kejs.
Vett. Akademins i S:t Petersburg Ordin. Ledam. och Ständige
Sekreterare, Verkel. Stats-Rådet och Ridd. Paul Henr. Fuss; — Med.
Prof. vid Kongl. Univ. i Upsala, Ridd. Isr. Hvasser; — f.d. Magistrats-
Sekreteraren i Wiborg Jak. Judén; — Ledarn, af Kejs. Vettensk.
Akad. i S:t Petersb. Stats-Rådet och Ridd. Peter v. Köppen; — Ordin.
Led. af samma Akad. Kolleg. Råd. och Ridd. Emil Lenz; — Öfver-
Intend. vid Bergsst. i Finl. Ridd. Nils Gust. Nordenskiöld; — Ordin.
Ledam. af K. Vett. Akad. i S:t Petersburg, Stats-Råd, och Ridd. Mich.
Ostrogradskij; — Professoren och n.v. Rektorn vid Kejserl.
Universitetet i S:t Petersb. Verkel. Stats-Rådet och Ridd. Peter
Pletneff; — Verkel. Stats-Rådet och Ridd. Wasilij Shukowskij, anställd
hos H. K. H. Cesarewitsch och Stor-Fursten Thronföljaren; —
Direktorn för Silkes-odlingen i Södra Ryssland, Stats-Rådet och Ridd.
Christ. Steven; samt — Arkiatern f.d. Med. Prof. o. Ridd. Joh. Agap.
Törngren. (Således Tillsammans 17 Doktorer). Doktorsfrågan
framställdes af Professoren Nervander och besvarades af Primus,
Kemie-Docenten Moberg.

Härefter blefvo till Filosofie-Magistrar följande 96 Filosofie

Kandidater promoverade: Ahlberg, Magn. Abr. Aboens; — Ahlroth,
Wilh. Boreal; — Arppe, Ad. Edv. Savolax-Karelare; — Blank, Jak.
Fredr. Syd-Österb. e.o. Kanslist vid K. Kolleg. Med.; — Blom, Er. Joh.
Sav. Karel. t.f. Kollega vid Triv. Skolan i Lovisa; — Blåfjeld, Knut G. R.
Tavast.; — Bodén, Alex. Ern. Ab.; — Bremer, Walfr. Leop. Ab.; —
Brunou, Carl Paul Collin, Sav. Karel.; — Cannelin, Gust. Nord-Öst.; —
Collan Clas, Sav. Karel.; — Collan, Fabian, Sav. Karel.; — Collan,
Alex. Sav. Karel.; — Crusell, Knut Wiht. Bor. Kollega Super, vid Triv.
Skolan i Tavastehus; — Edgren, Clas Joh. Syd-Öst.; — Ehrström,
And. Joh. Er. Syd-Öst.; — Elmgren, Sven Gabr. Ab.; — af Enehjelm,
Georg Edv. Satak.; — Engel, Joh. Wilh. Nyl.; — Engelberg, Aug. Bor.;
— v. Essen, Carl Gust. Syd-Öst.; — Finelius, Carl Aug. Syd-Öst.;
Komminister; — Florin, Frans Edv. Tavast.; — Forsius, Carl Henr. Sav.
Karel. — Forsman, Osk. Wilh. Syd-Öst. Kommin.; — Forstén, Gust.
Fr.; Sav. Kar. — Friberg, Joh. Gabr. Satak.; — Gallenius, Zak. Ulr. Syd-
Öst.; — Gonander, Georg Gust. Boreal; — Granfelt, Ax. Fredr. Satak.;
— v. Haartman, Carl Fr. Gabr. Ab.; — Hackzell, Joh. Matth. Tavast.;
— Hallsten, Alex. Gust. Jul. Syd-Öst.; — Helander, Carl Sak. Nord-
Öst.; — Helsingius, Gust. Fredr. Tavast. e.o. Aman. vid Universitetets
Bibl.; — Helsingius, Henr. Emil, Tavast.; — Helsingius, Joh. Chr.
Tavast.; — Hjelt, Fr. Wilh. Gust. Ab.; — Hildeen, Han. Ezech. Bor.; —
Hildeen, Gabr. Bened. Bor.; — Hirn, Gabr. Wilh. Tav. e.o. Kanslist vid
K. Kolleg. Med. — Holmström, Bernh. Gust. Ab.; — Holmström, Peter
Joh. Syd-Öst.; — Holsti, Rud. Isr. Syd-Öst.; — Hongelin, Magn. Nyl.;
— Hornborg, Maur. Wib. Rysk Språklärare vid Trivialskolan i Lovisa;
— Hydén, Matth. Joh. Ab.; — Hyrén, Fredr. Wib.; — Häggroth, Joh.
Leonh. Ab.; — Hällström, Henr. Sav. Karel.; — Höckert, Aug, Benj.
Syd-Öst.; — Idman, Carl Gust. Satak.; — Idman, Fredr. Ferdinand,
Satakundens; — Indrenius, Immanuel, Wib.; — Ingman, Alb. Sav.
Karel.; — Ingman, Herm. Syd-Öst.; — Jungberg, Jos. Isaak, Satak.;
— Keckman, Carl Sak. Nord-Öst. — Krogius, Georg, Sav. Kar.; —
Kruskopf, Fredr. Const. Wib.; — Lagus, Joh. Gabr. Nord-Öst.; —
Lindeqvist, Gabr. Wib.; — Lindström, Knut Leg. Ab.; — Lundahl, Carl
Satak. — Mansner, Raph. Fredr. Wib.; — Modeen, Alex. Edv. Wib.; —
Molander, Cl. Herm. Sav. Karel,; — Nylander, Fredr. Nord. Öst.; —
Palmros, Carl Henr. Ab. Med. Kandidat; — Paqualin, Joh. Chr. Bor.; —
Perander, Henr. Gottl. Sav. Karel.; — Pipping, Joak. Wilh. Bor.; —
Rahm, Joh. Jak. Syd-Öst.; — Renvall, Torst. Thure, Boreal; — Ruuth,
Alex. Bor.; — Savander, Carl Gabr. Sav. Karel.; — Saxén, Carl Joh.
Aug. Ab. Lärare vid Helsingfors Vexel-Undervisnings-skola; — Schildt,
Bror Ernst Hannibal, Sav. Karel. — Smalén, Sam. Joh. Gust. Nyl.; —
Sohlberg, Herm. Fredr. Syd-Öst.; — Staudinger, Joh. Just. Syd-
Österb.; — Stenberg, Chr. Wib.; — Stenbäck, Lars, Syd-Öst. e.o.
Amanuens vid Univ. Bibl.; — Stenius, Carl Chr. Sav. Karel. Lärare vid
Kretsskolan i Nyslott; — Strömberg, Joh. Otto, Ab.; — Strömsten,
Otto Chr. Syd-Öst.; — Svanström, Just. Theod. Bor.; — Topelius, Zak.
Nord-Öst.; — Törnudd, And. Nord-Öst.; — Ursin, Julius, Sav. Karel.;
— Wacklin, Alfr. Nord-Öst.; — Waenerberg, Gabr. Maur. Nyl. e.o.
Aman. vid Unv. Bibl.; — Walleen, Carl Edv. Sav. Karel.; — Wegelius,
Jak. Es. Syd-Österb.; Komminister; — Zitting, Joak. Sav. Karel.; —
Åkesson, Ax. Erik, Nyl. Dessutom blefvo såsom Jubel-Magistrar
promoverade Biskopen i Hernösands Stift m.m. Doktor Frans Mich.
Franzén; — Domprosten i Åbo, m.m. Doktor Gust. Gadolin; —
Prosten och Kyrkoherden i Töfsala Erl. Rosenback; — Kyrkoherden i
Messuby Abr. Lilius. Magisterfrågan framställdes af Professoren Joh.
Magn. af Tengström, och besvarades af Primus Ad. Edv. Arppe;
hvarefter Ultimus Gust. Sam. Smalén och Ultimus af Doktorerne,
Docenten Hertzberg gemensamt slutade akten med tacksägelsetal.
Predikan hölls af Kyrkoherden i Wiborg, Filos. Dokt. Joh. Gabriel
Norring. Samma dag gåfvo Magistrarne en s.k. Promotionsbal, i
Societets-Huset, för 1200 personer. Att förtiga Spektakler, Koncerter
och Brunsbaler, som dagligen vexlat om med hvarandra, må nämnas
att äfven litteraturen firat årets Jubel-fest, genom en mängd arbeten
som under dessa dagar åtkommit, och än flere hafra icke kunnat
lemna pressen, i anseende till stadenns få Boktryckerier, och brist på
dagliga arbetare.
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