A TEACHING AND LEARNING CYCLE

Beverly Derewianka
University of Wollongong

The teaching-learning cycle is based on the

notion of having high expectations
supported by strong scaffolding and
explicit teaching. It is based on Vygotskian
principles of learning through interaction
with more proficient others in the context
of shared experience. The activities are
carefully ordered to build up students’
knowledge and abilities so that they can
experience success. It is not, however,
intended as a strict sequence – teachers
will move between stages of the cycle as
needed.

In particular, the teacher:

• identifies the language demands of
the task;
• explicitly teaches students the genres needed for success in schooling;
• is concerned with deep learning of content together with learning the language of
the content area;
• makes explicit the learning intention and success criteria for each stage of the cycle;
• constantly assesses students’ progress at each stage of the cycle and responds to
identified needs.

A. INITIAL FIELD BUILDING

In the first stage, Building knowledge of the field, the teaching and learning cycle generally
involves a focus on engaging students, finding out what they know of the topic under focus,
and beginning to develop shared understandings. This field building continues throughout
the other stages of the teaching learning cycle so that students’ understanding of the topic
accumulates and becomes increasingly sophisticated. It is important that this knowledge is
shared (rather than simply drawing on prior experience or personal knowledge) so that all
students can contribute equally to discussions and can write confidently about the subject
matter. Emphasis at this point is usually on students’ spoken language, although the talk will
frequently take place around written text, image, and other artefacts. This stage can include
such activities as hands-on tasks, videos, computer apps, field experience, and guest
interviews. Importantly, the activities are interactive so that students have opportunities to
use, hear, and see the language associated with the topic.

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 1

Start writing
Drawing on any prior knowledge and/or the preliminary understandings built through the
initial field-building, students could be asked
to write a first rough draft early in the cycle
(notes, dot points, images). This is the raw
material that they will continue revising and
crafting as they work through the unit,
incorporating content and language points
from focus lessons along the way. This rough
draft (and subsequent drafts) also provides
the teacher with insights into student
strengths and weaknesses and potential
teaching points (e.g. during guided
reading/writing sessions). By starting the
writing process early and revisiting the
evolving text often, with input and guidance,
the writing task is not as daunting as when
the writing is all left to the end. (It is
important to establish routines for saving each draft, whether hard copy or digital.)

B. SUPPORTED READING
THE READING-WRITING CONNECTION

In order to write, students

need to gather information
and ideas from texts they read
and other sources. Most
students, however, will need
support in how to read the
increasingly complex texts of
school.

The Supported Reading stage

continues to build knowledge
of the field, but now with an
emphasis on reading carefully
selected texts or text extracts
in the topic area. This stage
recognises that students need to be taught how to read texts that are more challenging,
dense and abstract, particularly in the secondary years. The teacher will typically orient the
students to the genre and the content of the text and will guide the class to skim the text to
get an idea of how it will unfold by looking at contents pages, headings, sub-headings,
images, captions, and so on. The teacher might then focus on key paragraphs, helping the
students to gain meaning from the text, particularly in relation to the task at hand. The
teacher can support the students in vocabulary development, scanning for specific

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 2

information, practising research skills, taking notes using graphic organisers, annotating the
text with questions and comments, and answering text-dependent questions.

While any number of proven activities can be used to support students’ reading, most
teachers will be familiar with the common practices of modelled, shared, guided,
collaborative and independent reading.

MODELLED READING
This is where the teacher models the comprehension strategies he/she would use when
reading a relevant text, using a ‘think-aloud’ technique:

Modelled reading is more effective when teachers not only ‘think aloud’ but explain and
justify the strategies they are using, give students a chance to ask similar questions of the
text, and provide intensive practice for students in using these strategies. It is often
advisable to focus on only one or two strategies at a time that are particularly relevant to
the task, the genre and/or the students’ observed needs.

SHARED READING
We can’t assume that students can read independently the kinds of texts they will
encounter across the learning areas, particularly complex texts, digital/online and
multimodal texts. They need to be guided to read key texts strategically and with purpose
(e.g. in relation to the task). In shared reading sessions, the teacher reads the text with the
class, engaging the students by asking questions, dealing with vocabulary in context,
explaining the relationship between written text and images, interpreting key messages,
demonstrating comprehension strategies (e.g. skimming to get an overview of the text;

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 3

consulting index), drawing attention to relevant language features (eg simple sentence for
effect, tightly crafted sentence to express complex ideas, unusual structures,
nominalization), and so on.

A reading session might integrate elements of read-aloud by the teacher, some modelled
reading, and some shared reading.

GUIDED READING (e.g. DIFFERENTIATED SUPPORT)

Students will generally have different levels of reading proficiency. By grouping them
according to need, teachers are able to work with students with similar needs and
proficiency to extend their reading capacity. While various groups work collaboratively on
reading activities associated with the current task, the teacher is free to work with a
particular group on guided reading activities to address specific aspects of reading relevant
texts.

If a teacher has identified, for example, that certain students are having problems following
the cohesive relationships in a text, the group might be guided to identify how the language
creates links across the text. Some students might need support in decoding words in a
mentor text while others might need help with more advanced strategies such as unpacking
dense, compact sentences.

COLLABORATIVE/INDEPENDENT READING
While the teacher is working with a particular group, the other students can do structured
reading activities related to the current curriculum task in pairs or groups or independently.

It is useful to base reading activities on skills and strategies that have been introduced
previously in the unit, using texts relevant to the topic, e.g.:
• Identify main gist; summarise paragraphs; underline topic sentences
• Identify text purpose
• Analyse the function of each stage of the text
• Scan text for specific information (e.g. related to development of written task)
• Highlight sections/words hard to understand
• Colour-code target language features (e.g. different types of sentences, lengthy noun
groups)
• Make structured notes relevant to the task
• Synthesise information from different sources
• Represent the text visually (e.g. transfer information from the text to a graphic organizer)
• Make inferences
• Ask questions of the text
• Identify relationship between written text and accompanying images
• Interpret diagrams
• Make connections to self, text/s and the world
• Evaluate/improve poorly written text
• Appreciate features of a well-crafted text

The activities should preferably involve multiple readings and physical annotation of the
text, drawing on skills such as problem-solving, decision-making, evaluating, summarizing,
synthesizing, note-making, and so on.

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 4

The following can be used to support students’ comprehension:
• Massive exposure through extensive and/or targeted reading of rich texts (fiction and non-
fiction).
• Constant reinforcement in class and use of metalanguage to name up the comprehension
strategies.
• In modelled reading, demonstrate how you would read a text with challenging sentences,
thinking aloud about how you might tackle them.
• In shared reading, discuss the language of the text. Draw students’ attention to author’s
choice of effective sentence structure (eg simple sentence for effect, tightly crafted
sentence to express complex ideas, unusual structures, nominalization). Use authentic
texts/sentences, including from students’ own texts where appropriate.
• In guided reading, listen to students read sentences aloud and respond to cues that indicate
a lack of awareness of sentence structure (e.g. intonation, pausing, fluency).
• In collaborative reading (pairs/group), provide tasks involving analysis/ critical appreciation
of choices made by authors/students (e.g. colour-coding of different types of clauses).
• In independent reading, ask students to review their own written texts (e.g. reading
sentences aloud for coherence).
• Information transfer activities - demonstrating understanding by converting information
from, e.g.:
- from image to oral
- from image to written text
- from oral to image
- from oral to written text
- from written text to oral
- from written text to image
- from oral to dramatization

As students extend their understanding of the topic through reading and other field-building
activities, they can integrate their new knowledge into their evolving draft.

C. LEARNING ABOUT THE GENRE

Now that students have
started to generate ideas
for their writing, the
emphasis at this point turns
more to the composition
and crafting of the
students’ written texts.

The focus shifts from field

to genre, focusing on the
purpose for writing. It may
involve the teacher
engaging the class in
deconstructing an example
of the genre that the
students will later be
writing. It often takes more than one encounter with models of the genre for learners to

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 5

internalise the focus genre and its distinctive patterns of language. At this stage, the class is
developing a shared metalanguage to refer to various aspects of texts (the purpose and
name of the genre, the labeling of stages and phases, the terminology used for the various
language features).

During this phase of the cycle, we deconstruct a model text similar to the one being written
by the students. The model text might be written by the teacher (at the level of a high-
achieving student) but could also be a high quality text written by a student from a previous
year (or an amalgam of student texts), or a published text – which might need to be
modified. (If you have written the model text, share with your students your drafts and the
process you went through in composing the text.)

Again, a variety of activities can be used to familiarise students with the characteristics of
the genre (e.g. comparing genres, sorting and sequencing). It is common, however, to begin
by reinforcing the purpose for writing, followed by the typical stages that the text goes
through in achieving its purpose, and selected language features.

THE SOCIAL PURPOSE (GENRE)

The instructional task will probably involve a particular purpose for writing, such as
describing, explaining, recounting or persuading. Sometimes the purpose will be relatively
clear-cut and obvious. At other times, however, the task might involve a combination of
genres or a less common genre.

See the final page for an overview of genres typically found in educational contexts.

HOW IS THE TEXT ORGANIZED?

Each genre is organized differently. A genre will unfold in characteristic stages depending on
its purpose.

At this stage, the teacher is helping students to identify the typical stages a genre goes
through in achieving its purpose. A procedure, for example, would generally include the goal
of the activity, the materials involved, and the steps for carrying out the task.

Within each major stage of the genre, students might be guided to identify minor phases
(e.g. development of setting or characters in a narrative; foreshadowing of arguments in a
persuasive text).

Students can be asked to revise their evolving draft, now focusing on how they are
organizing their text into coherent stages.

KEY LANGUAGE FEATURES

Now that the text has developed to a point where the content/field has been more fully
developed and the overall structure of the text is in hand, it is time to start crafting the text
in terms of language choices. At this stage, it would be appropriate to focus on selected
language features that are characteristic of the genre (or of a particular stage of the genre)
and/or the topic/task, and/or observed student needs. Students learn about language at the

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 6

levels of text, clause, group or phrase, and word, and about different kinds of images in
order to answer such questions as Why that choice in that text? What is the effect of that
choice on meaning? Depending on the genre, such features might include cohesive devices,
multimodal elements, attention to reader needs and interests, citing of references,
expression of attitudes, resources for rich description, the language of cause and effect, and
effective sentence structure. It is generally advisable to focus on only one or two features at
this stage and perhaps consolidating previous learning about language if appropriate.

At this point, the class can be guided to again revise their draft, highlighting changes they
have made in relation to the target language feature/s of the unit. This allows for efficient
conferencing with teacher and/or peers, as the focus features are easily identified, allowing
the student to explain why certain choices have been made and their effect.

D. SUPPORTED WRITING
As with supported reading, a range of activities can be used to support students’ writing.
Here we will focus on such familiar practices as modelled, shared, guided, collaborative and
independent writing.

MODELLED WRITING
In modelled writing, use a ‘think-aloud’ technique to demonstrate the choices you would
make when composing a text similar to the one students are writing. This might last for only
a brief time, might target only selected strategies, might blend with shared writing (below),
and might involve the whole class or a smaller group.

SHARED WRITING/JOINT CONSTRUCTION

While some students will be ready to get on with their own texts at this point, many
students will benefit from participating in
jointly composing a text similar to the one
they are writing. The students come to the
activity with some preparation so that they
have something to contribute (e.g. notes
from previous field-building activities).

The teacher guides the shared writing of

the text, soliciting contributions from the
students and demonstrating how to shape
these into coherent, interesting written
text (e.g. developing an
overview/skeleton/graphic organizer of the
text; focusing on a particular stage or
phase of the text; developing a paragraph
around a topic sentence; demonstrating
how to change their spontaneous oral offerings into more ‘written’ language; extending
their suggestions by asking ‘how?’, ‘why?’, ‘which one?’, etc; sharing poorly written
sentences with students and asking for suggestions for improvement; explaining why a

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 7

certain choice might be preferable over another; extending students’ vocabulary
repertoires; asking students to decide whether to use a simple, compound or complex
sentence; engaging the reader.)

During a joint construction, the teacher takes a dominant role, leading by shaping the text
as it unfolds (Could we say that in fewer words?), asking questions to solicit student
responses (What’s a more technical term for that?), making suggestions (How about we
move this sentence to here?), recasting as necessary (You mean ...) and reminding students
of the stages, phases, and features of the deconstructed text (What do we need in the
opening stage of the text? Let’s build some description into that noun group). The focus for
the joint construction can include choices about whole text, paragraph or sentence
structure. Although spelling and punctuation can be attended to as necessary, the emphasis
is on the process of composing rather than creating a polished text.

The students are thus given an opportunity to experience what is involved in composing
such a text and can incorporate these understandings into their draft.

Differentation of support
• For less proficient students, you could jointly reconstruct the model text together (in
students’ own words), e.g. using a graphic organizer of the text as a scaffold, or drawing
on students’ notes from a previous shared reading of the model text, or modifying the
model text by omitting ‘chunks’ for the students to fill in, or leaving key sentence starters
as prompts for students. This might be particularly useful for students learning English as
an additional language.
• For more proficient students, you might jointly construct the beginning of the text and
then ask groups to collaboratively develop other stages/ phases/ episodes/ paragraphs,
guided by the overview of the text (see above). Groups/pairs can then share their draft
for discussion/feedback by the class or other groups. Group contributions can be
compiled to form a class publication.
• For advanced students, model/ jointly construct a text similar to the one the students will
be writing, using the same genre but then asking the students to innovate on the model
text in their own writing, e.g. by …
o changing the field slightly (e.g. model an information report on koalas but let the
students choose a different marsupial for their text; model an explanation of
earthquakes but the let students choose a different natural disaster)
o or changing the audience for their text (e.g. writing to persuade an unknown authority
figure rather than a familiar adult)
o or writing from a different perspective
o or changing the characters/setting/ending in a narrative
In this case, students might need to conduct additional research, make notes, consider
the impact of their changes, and so on.

GUIDED WRITING
In guided writing, discuss language choices as you observe students composing their texts.
This is an opportunity to provide feedback to groups of students with similar needs on such
matters as sentence structure, vocabulary development, cohesion, punctuation and
spelling. It is also an opportunity to consolidate understandings about the field or genre.

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 8

COLLABORATIVE WRITING
In collaborative writing, design pair/group activities related to reviewing students’ drafts,
drawing on understandings developed in previous lessons (e.g. discussion of choices in
composing sentences; combining simple sentences into compound and complex sentences
where appropriate; expanding sentences; pruning sentences; providing students with
possible alternatives for sentences and asking them to justify their choice; discussing
relationships between images and written text; improving a poorly designed diagram;
encouraging peer feedback on engaging the audience; justifying choices made in the
revision of their previous drafts.) Throughout the cycle, but particularly at this point,
students could be referring to the rubric relating to the successful achievement of the
overall task.

E. INDEPENDENT WRITING
At this point, students are in a position to take full control of their own texts. They have
developed their knowledge of
the field, they have shaped their
text into stages that achieve the
purpose, and they have
incorporated key language/
multimodal features. They are
now at a stage where they can
edit the text to flow smoothly, to
improve vocabulary choices and
to attend to the needs of the
reader. If the student is
developing a text that involves
the same genre as the model
text but employs a slightly
different field, the student might
need to undertake additional research into that field (e.g. researching an explanation of
floods where the teacher might have modelled an explanation of drought).

Finally, students can proofread their texts to attend to spelling, punctuation and
grammatical accuracy. Provide guidelines for students to revise, edit and proofread their
texts. They can also polish up the presentation of the text (e.g. font selection, headings,
images, layout).

A key scaffolding strategy for this stage of the curriculum cycle is the provision of explicit
criteria to guide the students’ work. Such criteria may be jointly constructed, but the
important thing is that the criteria reflect the shared language and understandings about
the genre and topic that the class has been working on. The criteria provide a useful tool for
students to reflect upon their own work as they complete it.

At this stage, students can share their published texts with others, including peers and
parents, feeling a sense of achievement as they look back over their saved drafts and
observing the progress they have made throughout the cycle.

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 9

 SOME COMMON PURPOSES FOR WRITING IN SCHOOL

Genre family Purpose

Factual Personal recount Recounting an event in which you participated
stories Factual recount Objectively recounting an incident or event
Autobiographical Recounting one’s own life stages, including empathetic
recount recounts
Memoir Reflecting on significant events in one’s life
Biographical recount Recounting life events, often with an evaluation of the person
Storying

Historical recount Recounting historical events

Historical account Recounting and explaining historical events
Imaginative Narrative Resolving a complication in a story
stories Literary recount Recounting an event/ series of events using literary language
Anecdote Sharing an emotional, amusing incident
Drama scripts Stories for performance
Verbal art Poetry Carefully crafting language for an aesthetic or emotional
response
Response Personal response Reacting emotionally to a text or work of art
Review Providing a summary, analysis and evaluation of a literary or
Evaluating

visual text
Critical analysis Assessing the merit of a text, artefact, idea or proposal
Persuasion Argument Arguing for a point of view
Discussion Weighing two or more points of view
Inquiries Procedure Telling how to do something
Investigation report Researching a topic using a variety of sources
Inquiring

Problem-solution Devising a solution to a problem

report
Design portfolio Designing and creating a product, service, performance or
artwork
Experiment report Reporting on the findings of an experiment
Explanations Sequential Explaining why something happens or how something works
explanation in a linear or cyclical sequence
Causal explanation Explaining how something works or why something happens
Explaining

System explanation Explaining the components of a system, their functions and

how they work together
Factorial explanation Explaining the factors that lead to a particular outcome
Consequential Explaining the effects of a particular input
explanation
Description Particular Describing a particular person, place or thing
description
Information Descriptive report Describing a general class of things
Describing

reports Comparative report Comparing and contrasting two or more things

Classifying report Classifying things into ‘types of’
Compositional Describing parts of wholes
report

B. Derewianka, University of Wollongong 10