Electrical equipment’s in main circuit of substation

These includes bus bars, CB, isolator with or without earthing switch, power transformer,
CTs, VTs, surge arresters, line trap unit, coupling capacitors compensating equipments, etc.
These equipments are connected in accordance with single diagram, bus bar scheme and
the substation layout.
Bus bar: bus bars are either in the form of aluminium tubes (ridged) or flexible Aluminium
Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR). In MV and LV indoor bus bar applications copper
(aluminium) ridged bars are used. Tubuler bus bars are mounted on post insulators, whereas
ACSR are supported on strain insulators.
The main functional requirement of bus bar system is:
- To carry 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 continuously and limited over loading
- With stand 𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 and specified transient over voltage without flashover
- To provide low resistance path for current flow
- For HV, EHV, and UHV out door bus bars should have minimum corona losses

Circuit Breaker (CB): CB is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and
breaking current under normal and abnormal (short circuit) condition for specified time. CBs
are mounted on support structures. CBs are classified on the bases of the medium used for arc
extinctions. They are: SF6, Air blast, vacuum, minimum or bulk oil, air-magnetic, miniature
CBs.
Technical particulars of a CB:
- Type of medium for arc extinction
- Rated voltage (power frequency phase-phase highest voltage)
- Rated breaking current, kA
- Rated continuous current
- Type of construction (indoor, outdoor, metal-clad, SF6 gas insulated type etc)
- Type of operating mechanism (pneumatic, spring, hydraulic)
- Total breaking time (e.g. 2, 3, 5 cycles)
- Structural form (live tank, dead tank type)
An example of bus bar specification is given in the following table.

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 Table 2.1: specification example of bus bar

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Table 2.2 Sample specification of CB

Sample specification of CB is illustrated in Table 2.2 and photo of SF6 is shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Photograph of CB in Electrical Substation

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Isolator (Disconnect switch): A disconnect switch is a mechanical device used to change
connections within a circuit or isolate a circuit from its power source, and is normally used to
provide isolation of the substation equipment for maintenance. Typically a disconnect switch
would be installed on each side of a piece of equipment to provide a visible configuration that
the power conductors have been opened for personnel safety. Once the switches are placed in
the open position, safety grounds can be attached to the de-energized equipment for worker
protection. Switches can be equipped with grounding blades to perform the safety grounding
function.

Disconnect switches are designed to continuously carry load currents and momentarily carry
higher capacity for short-circuit currents for a specified duration (typically specified in
seconds). They are designed for no load switching, opening or closing circuits where negligible
currents are made or interrupted, or when there is no significant voltage across the open
terminals of the switch. They are relatively slow-speed operating devices and therefore are not
designed for arc interruption. Disconnect switches are also installed to bypass breakers or other
equipment for maintenance and can also be used for bus sectionalizing. Interlocking equipment
is available to prevent inadvertent operating sequence by inhibiting operation of the disconnect
switch operation until the fault and/or load currents have been interrupted by the appropriate
equipment.

Single-phase or three-phase operation is possible for some switches. Operating mechanisms

are normally installed to permit operation of the disconnect switch by an operator standing at
ground level. The operating mechanisms provide a swing arm or gearing to permit operation
with reasonable effort by utility personnel. Motor operating mechanisms are also available and
are applied when remote switching is necessary.

Fig.2.11: Configurations of isolator poles

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Disconnect switch operation can be designed for vertical or horizontal operating of switches.
Operating mechanisms are normally installed to permit operation of the disconnect switch by
an operator standing at ground level. The operating mechanisms provide a swing arm or gearing
to permit operation with reasonable effort by utility personnel. Motor operating mechanisms
are also available and are applied when remote switching is necessary.

Disconnect switch operation can be designed for vertical or horizontal operating of the switch
blades (see Fig.2.11). Several configurations are frequently used for switch applications
including:

 Vertical break
 Double break switches
 Center break switches
 Hook stick switches
 Vertical reach switches
 Grounding switches
Phase spacing is usually adjusted to satisfy the spacing of the bus system installed in the
substation.
Earthing Switch is connected between the line conductor and earth. Normally it is open and
when the line is disconnected, earthing switch is closed so as to discharge the voltage trapped
on the line capacitance to earth. This voltage is significant in the high voltage system and
should be discharged to earth before proceeding maintenance work. Specification example for
Isolator is given in Table 2.3.
Load break switches: A load break switch is a disconnect switch that has been designed to
provide making or breaking of specified currents. This is accomplished by addition of
equipment that increases the operating speed of the disconnect switch blade and the addition
of some type of equipment to alter the arcing phenomena and allow the safe interruption of the
arc resulting when switching load currents.

Disconnect switches can be supplied with equipment to provide a limited load switching
capability. Arcing horns, whips and spring actuators are typical at lower voltages. These
switches are used to de-energize or energize a circuit that possesses some limited amount of
magnetic or capacitive current, such as transformer exciting current or line charging currents.

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 Table 2.3 Sample specification of Isolator

An air switch can be modified to include a series interrupter (typically vacuum or SF6) for
higher voltage and current interrupting levels. These interrupters increase the load break
capability of the disconnect switch and can be applied for switching load or fault currents of
the associated equipment.

High-Speed Grounding Switches

Automatic high-speed grounding switches are applied for protection of transformer banks when
the cost of supplying other protective equipment is too costly. The switches are generally
actuated by discharging a spring mechanism to provide the “high-speed” operation. The
grounding switch operates to provide a deliberate ground on the high-voltage bus supplying
the equipment (generally a transformer bank), which is detected by protective relaying
equipment remotely, and operates the transmission line breakers at the remote end of the line
supplying the transformer. This scheme also imposes a voltage interruption to all other loads
connected between the same remote breakers. A motor-operated disconnect switch is
frequently installed along with a relay system to sense bus voltage and allow operation of a
motor-operated disconnect switch when there is no voltage on the transmission line to provide
automatic isolation of the faulted bank, and allow reclosing operation of the remote breaker to
restore service to the transmission line.

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The grounding switch scheme is dependent on the ability of the source transmission line relay
protection scheme to recognize and clear the fault by opening the remote line circuit breaker.
Clearing times are necessarily longer since the fault levels are not normal within the levels
appropriate for an instantaneous trip response. The lengthening of the trip time also imposes
additional stress on the equipment being protected and should be considered when selecting
this method for bank protection. Grounding switches are usually considered when relative fault
levels are low so that there is not the risk of significant damage to the equipment with the
associated extended trip times.

Power Fuses: Power fuses are generally accepted means of protecting power transformers in
distribution substations. The primary purpose of power fuse is to provide interruption of
permanent faults. Fusing is an economical alternative to circuit switcher or circuit breaker
protection. Fuse protection is generally limited to voltages from 34.5kV through 69kV, but has
been applied for protection of 115 – 138 kV transformers.

To provide the greatest protective margin, it is necessary to use the smallest fuse rating
possible. The advantage of close fusing is the ability of the fuse unit to provide backup
protection for some secondary faults. For the common delta-wye connected transformer, a
fusing ratio of 1.0 would provide backup protection for a phase to ground fault as low as 230%
of the secondary full-load rating. Fusing ratio is defined as the ratio of the fuse rating to the
transformer full load current rating. With low fusing ratios, the fuse may also provide backup
protection for line-to-ground faults remote to the substation on the distribution network.

Fuse ratings also must consider parameters other than the full load current of the transformer
being protected. Coordination with other overcurrent devices, accommodation of peak over-
loadings, and severe duty may require increased ratings of the fuse unit. The general purpose
of the power transformer fuse is to accommodate, not interrupt, peak loads. Fuse ratings must
consider the possibility of nuisance trips if the rating selected is too low for all possible
operating conditions.

The concern of unbalanced voltages in a three-phase system must be considered when selecting
fusing for power transformer protection. The possibility of one or two fuses blowing must be
reviewed. Unbalanced voltages can cause tank heating in three phase transformers and
overheating and damage to three phase motor loads. The potential of ferro resonance must be
considered for some transformer configurations when using fusing.

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Fuses are available in a number of tripping curves (standard, slow, and very slow) to provide
coordination with other system protective equipment. Fuses are not voltage-critical; they may
be applied at any voltage equal to or greater than their rated voltage. Fuses may not require
additional structures, and are generally mounted on the incoming line structure, resulting in
space savings in the substation layout.

Circuit Switchers: Circuit switchers have been developed to overcome some of the limitations
of fusing for substation transformers. They are designed to provide three-phase interruption
(solving the unbalanced voltage considerations) and provide protection for transient over-
voltages and overloads at a competitive cost between the costs of fuses and circuit breakers.
Additionally, they can provide protection from transformer faults based on differential, sudden
pressure, and over-current relay schemes as well as critical operating constraints such as low
oil level, high oil or winding temperature, pressure relief device operation, and others.

Circuit switchers are designed and supplied as a combination of a circuit breaking interrupter
and an isolating disconnect switch. Later models have been designed with improved interrupter
have reduced the number of gaps and eliminated the necessity of the disconnect switch blades
in series with the interrupter. Interrupters are now available in vertical or horizontal mounting
configurations, with or without an integral disconnect switch. Circuit switchers have been
developed for applications involving protection of power transformers, lines, capacitors, and
line connected or tertiary connected shunt reactors.

Circuit switchers are an alternative to the application of circuit breakers for equipment
protection. Fault duties may be lower and interrupting times longer than a circuit breaker. Some
previous designs employed interrupters with multiple gaps and grading resistors and the
integral disconnect switch as standard. The disconnect switch was required to provide open-
circuit isolation in some earlier models of circuit switchers. Circuit switchers originally were
intended to be used for transformer primary protection. Advancements in the interrupter design
have resulted in additional circuit switcher applications, including:

- Line and switching protection

- Cable switching and protection
- Single shunt capacitor bank switching and protection
- Shunt reactor switching and protection (line connected or tertiary connected
reactors)

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Power transformers: Power transformers are necessary between consecutive voltage levels
to stepping-up and stepping down the AC voltage.
The KVA rating of power transformers covers wide range from few KVA to several MVA
(from 5KVA to 650MVA or above). The choice of KVA rating of power transformers in a
particular installation depends up on KVA load.
The following data is essential to specify transformer:
 Number of phase, number of windings
 Frequency
 MVA or KVA rating
 Voltage ratio
 Connection (vector) group
 Cooling methods
 Tap changing requirements
 Rated insulation level of windings
 Reference Standards
Transformers are installed either outdoor or indoor. Some distribution transformers are pole
mounted (outdoor). The transformers design and construction can be described to the following
assemblages:
 Tank
 Cooling and magnetic circuit
 Winding and insulation system
 Leads and terminal arrangements
 Tap-changer and voltage control
 Bushings, CTs
Cooling methods for Power Transformers
The cooling systems are necessary for dissipating the heat generated in the transformer due to
winding and core losses. Various cooling methods of power transformers are given in Table
2.5.
Tap-changers: The voltage control of transmission and distribution system is accomplished
by tap-changing transformer. There are three types of tap-changers:
 Off-circuit tap-changers
 Off-load tap-changer
 On-load tap-changer

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Current transformers (CTs) and Voltage transformers (VTs): These are instrument and
protection transformers which have low volt-ampere (VA) ratings.

Fig. 2.12 Power Transformer Photograph

CTs: These are two types of CTs. They are:
 Measuring CTs
 Protective CTs
Measuring CTs are used with meters, whereas protective CTs are uses protection relays. The
secondary current of CT is usually 1 or 5A.
The rated characteristics of CTs:
 Rated primary current
 Rated short time current (primary)
 Rated exited current
 Rated burden
 Current error or ratio error
 Accuracy class
 Insulation level (primary)

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 Table 2.4 Sample specification of power transformer

In Table 2.6 sample specification for CTs are illustrated.

Table 2.5: Cooling Methods of Power Transformer

Symbol Full-name Description

O.N.A.N This is widely used for transformers upto
Oil Natural Air Natural 30 MVA. Transformers are fitted with
panel type radiators for Oil Natural
circulation.
O.N.A.F This is widely used for transformers between
30 MVA and 60 MVA. The panel type
Oil Natural Air Forced radiators are provided with cooling fans.
Fans are switched on during heavy loads
only.
O.F.A.F This method is used for transformers above
Oil Forced Air Forced 60MVA. The oil is circulated through
coolers. The coolers have cooling face to
exchange heat from oil to air.

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 O.F.W.F The heat is exchange from oil to cooling
Oil Forced Water Forced water. Both oil and cooling water are
circulated through heat exchanger.
A.N The ambient air is used for cooling. This
Air Natural method is useful for oil less transformers
(dry more type) upto 1.5MVA.
VTs: These are also classified into two. Namely: measuring and protective VTs. There are
three types of VTs constructions:
 Electromagnetic VTs
 Capacitor VTs (CVTs)
 Coupling capacitor VT (CCVTs) which serve as combined VT and coupling capacitor.
Specification for VTs:
 Rated primary voltage
 Rated secondary voltage
 Rated burden
 Supply frequency
 Number of phases
 Class of accuracy
 Insulation level (primary)

Table 2.7 shows VT specification example and photo of CTs & VTs are shown in Fig. 2.13

Surge Arresters (Lighting Arrester)

Surge Arrester (SA) diverts the transient over voltages to earth and protect the substation
equipment from overvoltage surges. There are two types of arrestor design: a) conventional
gapped arrestors; b) Metal oxide (MOA) or zinc-oxide (ZOA) arrestor.

The sample specification of SA is illustrated in Table 2.8.

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 Table 2. 6 Specification Example for Circuit Breaker

Table 2. 7 Specification Example for VTs

Table 2.8 Specification Example for SA

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 a) VTs

b) CVTs

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 c) CTs

d) CTs and CBs

Fig. 2.13 Different photographs of VTs and CTs in electrical substation

Substation Earthing System

A substation earthing is very important for safety of personal and needs careful attention while
designing, erection and routine maintenance.

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The substation earthing system is necessary for connecting neutral points of transformers and
generators to ground and also for connection non-current carrying metal parts such as
structures, overhead shield wires, tanks, frame, etc to earth. The function of substation earthing
is to provide a grounding mat below ground surface in and around the substation which will
have uniformly zero potential with respect to ground and lowest earth resistance to insure that:

 All non-current carrying parts connected to the earthing system shall be uniformly at
zero potential with respect to ground.
 The floor on which the operational and maintenance staff moves shall be at ground
potential. This means safe step-potential
 During any earth fault in the substation, the potential of structures, tank, and other non-
current carrying parts does not rise to unsafe value (safe touch-potential).

The “step voltage” is the difference in surface potential experienced by a person bringing a
distance of 1 meter with his feet without contacting any other grounded object.

The “touch voltage” is the potential difference between the earth potential rise and the surface
potential at the point where a person is standing, which at the same time having his hand in
contact with an “earthed” structure.

The main design objectives of earthing system are:

 To achieve lowest earth resistance

 To achieve safe “step-potential” and “touch-potential”

The station earthing system is in the form of an earthing mat or earthing mesh level. In
addition to earthing mat a number of earthing electrodes (spikes) are driven in the ground
and connected to earthing mesh (see Figure 2.14). The earthing mesh comprises several
horizontal earthing rods placed below ground level and welded together, which gives low
earth resistance and ensures the entire substation floor level at near ground potential.

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 Fig.2.14: Earthing System
A typical earthing system for a substation (Fig.2.14) comprises the following:

 An earth mat (grid) formed by copper or mild steel bars or bare cables placed in
the ground at a depth of about 0.5m in a horizontal plane. The crossings are
welded. The grid covers the entire substation area and sometimes a few meters
beyond the fencing. The earthing rods are also run along the border of the fencing
of the substation.
 Earth electrodes driven vertically into earth at several locations and connected to
earth mat. Large number of earth electrodes gives lower earth resistance.
 Earth risers are used for connection between the structures, equipment bodies and
earthing mat. These usually clamped or welded or brazed (soldering is not
permitted).
 Earthing strips between the transformer neutrals and the earth mat are usually in
the form of bare copper cables or strips.
Functional requirement of Earthing System
 To provide earth connection for the neutral points of transformer, reactor, capacitors
banks, filter banks, generators.
 To provide low resistance path to the earthing switch earthed terminals, so as to
discharge the trapped charge to charge to earth prior to maintenance or repairs.
 To provide discharge path for lighting over voltage coming via surge arrestors,
shield wires etc.
 To ensure safety of operating staff by limiting voltage gradient at ground level in
the substation.

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  To provide a sufficiently low resistance path to earth to minimize the rise in earth
potential with respect to a remote earth fault. Persons touching any of the non-
current carrying earthed fault. Each structure, transformer tank, body of equipment,
etc, should be connected to earthing mat by their earth connection.
Earthing Materials
Conductors: Bar copper conductor is normally used for substation earthing grid with a typical
cross sectional area of 95mm2 laid at a shallow depth of some 0.25 to 0.5m in 3 to 7m2.
Connections: connection should be bolted joints or welded very well. Soldering is not allowed.
Earthing Electrodes: Rods may be of solid copper or copper clad-steel and are often
purchased in 1𝑚 lengths with screw threads and joints for connecting together in order to obtain
the required depth through the soil.
Equipment and Neutral point earthing
The purpose of equipment earthing and neutral point earthing is distinctly different. Equipment
earthing is connecting to earth the non-current carrying are:
1. To insure freedom from exposure of dangerous electrical shocks to personals.
2. To provide short path for earth fault current and hence larger magnitude of current to
operate overcurrent protection.
Neutral point earthing is the connection of current carrying neutral point of electrical equipment
like generator, transformers etc to earth directly or through a resistance or reactance.
Neutral grounding practice vary from system to system, but the following are usually applied:
 Voltages up to 1kV and HV and above are solidly grounded
 Whereas MV networks uses resistance or reactance grounding
Dimensioning of earthing conductors: The design of conductor cross-section is based on the
following factors:
 Fault current through the earth conductors
 Duration of fault current (1 to 3 sec normally used in design)
 Permitted temperature for the earth conductor (200oC for Al, 400oC for Cu, 500oC for
steel)

The cross-section area of conductor depending on the above three of factors can be calculated
as follow:-

𝐼𝑓 √ 𝑡
𝐴= 𝐾

Where: 𝐴 − cross section area of conductor, mm2

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 𝐼𝑓 − Earth fault symmetrical RMS current, 𝐴
𝑡 − Fault duration, which depend on protection system operating time, second and 1 to
3 second can be taken
𝐾 − Constant, which value is dependent on material, insulation and initial and final
temperature and the following table is recommended.
Final temperature, oC 100 200 300 400
K 105 160 190 214

Step potential (𝑽𝒔 ) and Touch potential (𝑽𝒕 )

This two voltage where defined earlier. Consider the earth fault of 𝐼𝑓 from the line conductor
through substation structure, which have total resistance 𝑅𝑒 . Voltage drop 𝑉𝑒 = 𝐼𝑓 . 𝑅𝑒 will be
developed and distributed along current path between the fault point and earth mat. This voltage
gradient should be held safe limits by proper design of substation earthing system. An operation
and maintenance person is subjected to 𝑉𝑠 and 𝑉𝑡 during an earth fault in the substation.

Fig. 2.15 Earthing mat

Since substation earthing (grounding) is related with over voltage protection system from
lighting and therefore designing aspect of substation earthing system will be covered in more
detail in course “High Voltage Engineering”.

2.6.Substation Auxiliary Power Supplies

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All substations require auxiliary power supplies. Normally both AC and DC power is required
in the substation. AC power is required for substation building small power lighting, heating
and ventilation, switchgear operating mechanism, anti-condensation heater, motors and loads
which operates in AC voltages. DC power is used to feed essential services such as circuit
breaker trip coils and associated relays, Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
and communication equipments. This DC supplies system is at voltages of 220 V, 110 V, 48
V, 24 V etc.

DC Supplies

The power source for DC supply is generally obtained from storage batteries, or from AC/DC
rectifier sets. The application of substation batteries is limited because of high cost and complex
maintenance. Storage batteries are used only for essential circuits. Static rectifiers are used for
some circuits where storage batteries are not required.

The low voltages DC system comprises (see Fig. 2.16):

- Battery room with battery/ battery charger, bus bars etc (see Fig. 2.17)
- LV DC switch board
- LV DC distribution system

All the DC distributions system are generally designed with duplication to ensure availability
and maintainability. Each battery system includes two separate battery sets with one or more
charger sets.

Separated battery charger is provided for different DC voltages battery sets. The ampere hour
capacity of batteries is selected on the bases of total loads for a period of certain autonomous
operation (3 to 6h) without the need of intermediate charging.

The battery chargers are generally static rectifiers from LV AC mains as well as additional
diesel generator sets. All the load groups connected to the DC bus bars are provided with
circuit protection with over-current tripping and alarms. Also necessary measuring instruments
are provided.

Fig. 2.16 DC supply system

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 Fig. 2.17 Photo of battery charging room

AC Supplies

Substation auxiliary AC may be derived from dedicated sources or from additional circuits on
low voltage distributing system. Three examples are shown in Fig. 2.18

 Simple 380 – 415 V three phase circuit allocation fed by distribution substation
transformer(s).
 Tertiary windings on substation main transformer(s) or from earthing transformer
(zigzag star-star) winding.
 Dedicated substation auxiliary transformers and switchgear.

The essential factors to be considered are the level of security of supply required (duplicated
transformers, LV AC sectionalized switch board, key interlocks, etc), the fault level of the LV
AC switchgear (possible high fault level at primary substation sites) and allowance for future
substation extensions.

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 Fig. 2.18 Derivation of substation auxiliary low voltage (LVAC) supplies (a) Distribution substation. (b)
Primary substation with a.c. auxiliary supplies derived from earthing transformer(s). (c) Dedicated and
duplicated auxiliary transformers

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 Individual Assignment
Read and prepare report on the following questions. (10%)
1. Explain the safety rules and regulation and work procedures in electrical
laboratories, workshops or electrical installation in general.
2. Discuss the physiological effect of electric current in human body.
3. Explain in detail the various methods of protection from electric shock
hazards
4. Describe the first aids treatment for electric shock victims
5. Describe the types of storage batteries, their characteristics and
specifications and battery sizing for specific load application at the
distribution substation.

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