TERM PAPER

Physiology and Functional Systems of Circulation in Insects

Submitted to:
Dr. Saraswati Neupane
Senior Scientist (S4), Entomology, NARC

Submitted by:
[Your Name]
ENT-01M-2024

Introduction

Insects are among the most successful and diverse organisms on Earth, comprising more
than a million known species (Uvarov, 1928). This remarkable success is largely attributed
to their compact and efficient physiological systems, including their circulatory system.
Unlike vertebrates, insects do not have a closed vascular system. Instead, they possess an
open circulatory system in which hemolymph circulates freely through a body cavity known
as the hemocoel (Hillyer & Pass, 2020). This paper explores t...

Circulatory System Architecture in Insects

The insect circulatory system is composed of three primary components: hemolymph,

circulatory organs (including the dorsal vessel and accessory pulsatile organs), and body
cavities or sinuses. Hemolymph acts as the circulatory fluid, and its movement is largely
dependent on the action of muscular pumps rather than vascular pressure (Kanost, 2009;
Chapman et al., 2019).

Hemolymph: Composition and Multifunctionality

Hemolymph is a multifunctional fluid that comprises plasma and hemocytes. Plasma,

making up 90% of the hemolymph, includes organic solutes such as trehalose, proteins,
amino acids, and various ions (Kanost, 2009). The remaining 10% is constituted by
hemocytes, which play a central role in immune defense, including encapsulation and
phagocytosis (Siddiqui & Al‐Khalifa, 2013). Although hemolymph does not transport oxygen
in most insects, it supports other vital functions such as heat regulation, hydraul...
Connective Tissue and Circulatory Support

The insect body contains connective tissues made up of elastin, collagen, and resilin, which
are crucial for the anchorage of internal organs and assist in circulation by maintaining
body shape and mechanical stability (Ashhurst, 1968; Locke & Huie, 1972). These tissues
also support the action of alary muscles, which control hemolymph flow within the dorsal
vessel.

Major Circulatory Organs and Sinuses

The dorsal vessel is the central pumping organ of the insect circulatory system. It is
differentiated into the heart in the abdominal region and the aorta in the thorax (Miller,
1997a). The heart is divided into chambers, each with a pair of incurrent ostia that allow
hemolymph to enter during diastole and prevent backflow during systole (Lehmacher et al.,
2012). The hemocoel is organized into three sinuses: the pericardial sinus (surrounding the
heart), the perivisceral sinus (containing internal o...

Mechanism of Circulation and Blood Flow

The rhythmic contractions of the dorsal vessel drive hemolymph circulation. During
diastole, the heart expands, drawing hemolymph from the pericardial sinus into the
chambers. Systole, the contraction phase, propels hemolymph into the aorta and toward the
head (Miller, 1997b). Circulation is facilitated further by diaphragms and accessory
pulsatile organs located at the base of legs, wings, and antennae (Pass, 2000). These organs
help maintain localized hemolymph flow, especially in appendages.

Heartbeat Dynamics and Temperature Response

The heartbeat in insects is controlled by pacemaker cells located at the posterior end of the
heart. Alary muscles initiate contraction sequences that generate heartbeat pulses. These
rates vary according to the insect’s life stage and ambient temperature. For example, the
larvae of Sphinx ligustri show a pulse rate of 40–50 beats per minute, which drops to 10–20
in pupal stages (Tartes et al., 2002).

Additional Functional Aspects of Circulation

Insects rely on hemolymph to serve additional roles such as wound healing, osmotic
regulation, and reflex bleeding, which helps repel predators through hemolymph exudation
(Roux et al., 2017). Hemolymph also acts as a metabolic medium, facilitating the
distribution of nutrients and removal of wastes, often working synergistically with the
excretory system.

Conclusion

The insect circulatory system, though structurally simpler than that of vertebrates, is
remarkably effective in fulfilling the physiological demands of the organism. The open
nature of the system allows for efficient interaction between hemolymph and body tissues.
Through specialized organs and regulatory mechanisms, insects maintain homeostasis and
resilience in diverse environmental conditions. Understanding this system enhances our
knowledge of insect physiology and offers insights for entomologic...

References

Ashhurst, D. E. (1968). The connective tissues of insects. Annual Review of Entomology,

13(1), 45–74.
Chapman, R. F., Douglas, A. E., & Simpson, S. J. (2019). The Insects: Structure and Function.
Cambridge University Press.
Hillyer, J. F., & Pass, G. (2020). The insect circulatory system: structure, function, and
evolution. Annual Review of Entomology, 65, 121–143.
Kanost, M. R. (2009). Hemolymph. In Encyclopedia of Insects (pp. 446–449).
Lehmacher, C., Abeln, B., & Paululat, A. (2012). The ultrastructure of Drosophila heart cells.
Arthropod Structure & Development, 41(5), 459–474.
Locke, M., & Huie, P. (1972). The fiber components of insect connective tissue. Tissue and
Cell, 4(4), 601–612.
Miller, T. A. (1997a). Control of circulation in insects. General Pharmacology, 29(1), 23–38.
Miller, T. A. (1997b). Insect physiology and functional morphology. In Comprehensive Insect
Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology (Vol. 3).
Pass, G. (2000). Accessory pulsatile organs: Evolutionary innovations in insects. Annual
Review of Entomology, 45, 495–518.
Roux, O., et al. (2017). Mechanism of reflex bleeding in the larvae of the ladybird Diomus
thoracicus. Arthropod Structure & Development, 46(4), 529–536.
Sanger, J. W., & McCann, F. V. (1968). Ultrastructure of moth alary muscles and their
attachment to the heart wall. Journal of Insect Physiology, 14(11), 1539–1544.
Siddiqui, M., & Al‐Khalifa, M. S. (2013). Review of haemocyte function in insects. Italian
Journal of Zoology, 81(1), 2–15.
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ntroduction

Insects, representing the most species-rich class of organisms, exhibit remarkable structural
and physiological adaptations. Their physiology encompasses a range of organ systems vital
for survival and ecological success (Uvarov, 1928). Despite the incredible diversity across
insect species, their internal architecture follows a relatively conserved layout. The insect
body is divided into three primary sections: head, thorax, and abdomen. The head features
various sensory organs and specialized mouthparts tailored to feeding habits. The thorax,
which houses the locomotory appendages, supports wings and legs, while the abdomen
contains vital internal systems including digestion and reproduction.

Among these systems, the circulatory system stands out due to its open nature—a
characteristic shared with other arthropods. Instead of closed blood vessels, insects possess
a hemocoel where hemolymph, their circulatory fluid, flows freely around organs, ensuring
direct contact and exchange (Yan & Hillyer, 2020). Hemolymph plays a multifaceted role,
from nutrient transport to immune defense and thermoregulation. Supporting this system
are connective tissues and key circulatory organs such as the dorsal vessel, hemocoel,
accessory pulsatile organs, and specialized phagocytic structures.

Circulatory System Overview

Insect circulation is orchestrated by an open circulatory design, where hemolymph

performs essential physiological roles beyond nutrient delivery—including osmoregulation,
wound healing, and immune response (Chapman et al., 2019; Hillyer & Pass, 2020).

Hemolymph Composition and Function

Hemolymph, analogous to blood and lymph in vertebrates, comprises around 90% aqueous
plasma and 10% cellular elements known as hemocytes (Kanost, 2009). It is generally
colorless but may contain pigments like hemoglobin in specific larvae, such as chironomids.
The plasma is rich in inorganic ions, proteins, lipids, amino acids, and sugars—most notably
trehalose. The cellular fraction includes hemocytes like prohemocytes, plasmatocytes,
granulocytes, and adipohemocytes, each contributing to immune defense, detoxification,
and coagulation (Roux et al., 2017).

Hemolymph functions include:

 Lubrication: Facilitates smooth movement of internal tissues.

 Hydraulics: Aids processes like ecdysis and wing expansion through pressure
regulation.

 Transport and Storage: Moves nutrients, hormones, and metabolic waste.

 Defense: Provides immune protection via phagocytosis and encapsulation.

  Thermal Regulation: Helps maintain internal temperature gradients (Heinrich,
1976).

 Osmoregulation: Maintains ionic balance for cellular processes.

Connective Tissue Role

Insects possess a relatively simple form of connective tissue, which includes fibrous
elements like collagen, resilin, and proteoglycans. These provide structural support and
elastic recoil to assist organ function and movement (Ashhurst, 1968; Locke & Huie, 1972).

Circulatory Organs and Structures

Dorsal Vessel

The primary circulatory organ, the dorsal vessel, extends longitudinally along the insect's
body and functions as a muscular pump. It consists of the anterior aorta and the posterior
heart, both formed from contractile myocardial cells (Miller, 1985). The heart is
chambered, equipped with incurrent ostia that permit unidirectional hemolymph flow
during diastole (Lehmacher et al., 2012). Alary muscles attach the heart to the body wall,
coordinating contraction cycles (Sanger & McCann, 1968).

Hemocoel and Sinuses

The hemocoel is divided into three major sinuses:

 Pericardial sinus: Surrounds the heart.

 Perineural sinus: Encloses the nerve cord.

 Visceral sinus: Contains internal organs like the gut and gonads (Sigle & Hillyer,
2018).

This compartmentalization ensures effective distribution of hemolymph throughout the

insect’s body.

Accessory Pulsatile Organs

To enhance hemolymph flow to extremities, insects rely on accessory pulsatile organs

located at the base of appendages such as wings, legs, and antennae. These function
independently of the dorsal vessel and are vital for fluid circulation in these regions (Pass,
2000).

Phagocytic Organs
These specialized structures, often located anteriorly in the abdomen, filter hemolymph and
play a role in immune defense. They consist of multinucleated phagocytic cells and interface
directly with the dorsal vessel (Siddiqui & Al‐Khalifa, 2013).

Circulation Mechanism

Blood circulation in insects occurs via rhythmic contractions of the heart, alternating
between two phases:

 Diastole: Heart muscles relax, and hemolymph enters through the ostia due to
pressure gradients.

 Systole: Muscles contract, pushing hemolymph forward into the aorta, which
delivers it to the head before it flows back through the sinuses (Miller, 1997b).

This process ensures even distribution of nutrients and waste removal. Between these
phases, a short resting period called diastasis occurs.

Accessory pulsatile organs and diaphragmatic movements further assist hemolymph

circulation to and from the extremities (Pass, 1985).

Heartbeat Regulation

The insect heartbeat is driven by the contraction and relaxation of alary muscles. The
pacemaker, located at the posterior end of the dorsal vessel, initiates this rhythmic activity
(Tartes et al., 2002). Heartbeat frequency is influenced by temperature, developmental
stage, and activity level. For example, the larval stage of Sphinx ligustri shows a higher pulse
rate compared to the pupal stage.

Conclusion

The insect circulatory system exemplifies a highly efficient, open network suited to the
physiological demands of these small but complex organisms. It supports nutrient
transport, immune function, and thermoregulation, all while being structurally simple yet
functionally diverse. Key components such as hemolymph, dorsal vessel, hemocoel, and
associated organs operate synergistically to maintain homeostasis. Understanding this
system offers insights into insect biology and provides a foundation for innovations in pest
management and comparative physiology.