Unit-6

Power system protection

A power system deals with generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical
power. Transformers, generators, bus bars, transmission & distribution lines, circuit breakers, etc.
are the elements or equipment of a power system. Each element or equipment of the power system
has its own protective scheme. For example, transformer protection, generator protection, bus bar
protection, transmission line protection, etc. In this way, a power system is divided into several
protection zones.

Protective zone
A protective zone refers to a zone established around each system element. Any fault
occurring within a protective zone will cause the relays to trip, which will open all the circuit
breakers within that zone.
One or at most two elements of a power system are covered by a protective zone. The
protective zones are planned in such a way that they cover the entire power system collectively, no
portion of the power system will be left out of protection. Figure illustrates the various protective
zones of a typical power system.

Note: There must be overlap between adjacent protective zones in a power system. It ensures that
no part of the system is left unprotected.

Overlapped Protective zone

It is necessary to overlap adjacent protective zones so that each and every element of the
system is completely safe. In case the adjacent protective zones are not overlapped, circuit breakers
would not trip for a fault on the boundary of zones, which lies outside any of the zones. As a result,
adjacent protective zones must overlap in order to ensure full protection.
 In a properly protected scheme, if a fault occurs in the overlap zone, more circuit breakers
would trip than are necessary to isolate the faulty element. Having relatively low overlap should
reduce the likelihood of faults occurring in this region, so that tripping of too many breakers should
not happen very frequently.

Dead Spot
A dead spot is a zone that is unprotected. There are no dead spots in a system due to the overlap of
zones.
Relaying Elements
Relaying elements are devices that detect abnormal conditions (like faults) by measuring electrical
quantities (voltage, current, frequency, etc.) and triggering a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty part.

Types:
 Electromagnetic Relays: These use electromagnets to operate a switching mechanism.
 Static Relays: These use solid-state devices to process analog input signals.
 Digital/Numerical Relays: These use microprocessors to analyze electrical signals and
make decisions based on programmed logic.
Examples of Relaying Elements:
 Over current Relays: Detect and react to excessive current flow, often used for overload
and short-circuit protection.
 Distance Relays: Determine the location of a fault on a transmission line based on voltage
and current measurements.
 Differential Relays: Compare currents entering and leaving a piece of equipment (like a
transformer) to detect internal faults.
 Directional Relays: Determine the direction of a fault on a transmission line to coordinate
protection schemes.
 Frequency Relays: Monitor the frequency of the power system and initiate actions if it
deviates from a set value.
 Auxiliary Relays: Used for various functions, such as monitoring circuit breaker status or
providing signals for other relays.

Electrical Quantities Measured by Relaying Elements:

 Current: Measures the flow of electricity, used in over current and differential relays.
 Voltage: Measures the electrical potential difference, used in distance and directional relays.
 Frequency: Measures the rate of alternating current, used in frequency relays.
 Phase Angle: Measures the difference in timing between voltage and current waveforms,
used in directional relays.
 Power: Measures the rate of energy transfer, used in power relays.

Protective relays
A protective relay is an automatic device that detects abnormalities in an electrical circuit and
closes its contacts. This action completes the circuit breaker’s trip coil circuit, causing the breaker to
trip and disconnect the faulty section from the healthy circuit.
  The first part of the circuit is the primary winding of a CT which is also called a current
transformer. This CT is connected with the transmission line in series to be protected.

 The second part includes the secondary winding of the current transformer, CB & the
operating coil of the relay.

 The final part of the circuit is the tripping circuit which may be either AC/DC. So it mainly
includes a source of power supply, the circuit breakers trip coil & the stationary contacts of
the relay.

Working

Once a short circuit at the ‘F’ point on the transmission line occurs, then the flow of current
within the transmission line will increase to an enormous value. So this causes to flow heavy current
throughout the relay coil and makes the protective relay function by simply closing its contacts.

Consequently, it closes the trip circuit of the CB and makes the CB open & separating the
faulty segment from the system. So in this manner, this protective relay ensures the security of the
equipment of the circuit from breaking & typical working of the system.

Reset Level:

The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes in original
position.

Operating Time of Relay:

Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism (for example rotating
disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately closes the relay contacts at the end of its journey.

Operating time is the duration from when the actuating quantity exceeds the pickup level to when
the relay contacts close.
Reset Time of Relay:
The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less than the reset
value to the instant when the relay contacts return to its normal position.

Relay Time: It is the time between the instant of fault occurrence and the instant of closure of relay
contacts.

Breaker Time: It is the time between the instant at circuit breaker operates and opens the contacts,
to the instant of extinguishing the arc completely.

Fault Clearing Time: The total time required between the instant of fault and the instant of final
arc interruption in the circuit breaker is fault clearing time. It is sum of the relay time and circuit
breaker time.

Pickup: A relay is said to be picked up when it moves from the 'OFF' position to 'ON' position.
Thus when relay operates it is said that relay has picked up.

Pickup Value: It is the minimum value of an actuating quantity at which relay starts operating. In
most of the relays actuating quantity is current in the relay coil and pickup value of current is
indicated along with the realy.

Dropout or Reset: A relay is said to be dropout or reset when it comes back to original position Le
when relay contacts open from its closed position. The value of an actuating quantity current or
voltage below which the relay resets is called reset value of that relay.

Time Delay: The time taken by relay to operate after it has sensed the fault is called time delay of
relay. Some relays are instantaneous while in some relays intentionally a time delay is provided.

Sealing Relays or Holding Relays: The relay contacts are designed for light weight and hence they
are therefore very delicate. When the protective relay closes its contacts, it is relieved from other
duties such as time lag, tripping etc. These duties are performed by auxiliary relays which are also
called sealing relays or holding relays.

Current Setting: The pick up value of current can be adjusted to the required level in the relays
which is called current setting of that relay. It is achieved by use of tappings on the relay coil which
are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in the Fig. . The tap values are expressed in terms of
percentage full load rating of current transformer (CT) with which relay is associated.
Thus the value of pickup current can be obtained as

Pickup current = % current setting x rated secondary current of C.T.

So if C.T. is 500/10 A ie. rated secondary current is 10A and the current setting is 150 then pickup
current is 1.5 x 10 15 A ie 150% of 10. So when relay coil current is greater than or equal to pickup
values, relay operates

Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.): The ratio of actual fault current in the relay coil to the pickup
current is called plug setting multiplier (PS.M.) Mathematically it can be expressed as

Let us take a simple example where we have a relay connected to the protection circuit breaker with
a turn ratio given as 200/1 A and 150% current setting.

Relays Pick-Up current will be given by 1 x 150% =1.5 A

Now assuming that there is 1000A of circuit breaker primary fault current, the circuit breaker
secondary fault current will be given by 1000 x 1/200 =5A

And our PSM will, therefore, be given by 5/1.5 = 3.333

Time/P.S.M. Curve: For a relay, a curve showing relation between time and plug-setting multiplier
is provided which is called time/PS.M. curve. A typical curve for a relay is shown in the Fig. 2.

It can be observed that for low values of over currents the operating time varies inversely
with the current. But as the current increases and approaches up to 20 times its rated value then the
time becomes almost constant. This type of characteristics is necessary to ensure discrimination on
very high fault currents flowing through healthy part of the system.

Using this curve and time-setting multiplier, the actual time of operation of a relay can be
obtained. For example, the time in seconds corresponding to PS.M. of 10 is 4 seconds as shown in
the Fig. . Multiplying this by a time-setting multiplier, actual time of operation can be obtained.
Time setting Multiplier: Similar to current setting, a relay is provided with a feature with which its
time of operation can be controlled. This feature is known as time-setting multiplier. Its dial is
calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 as shown in the Fig. .

The value of time-setting multiplier along with the time obtained from time/PS.M. curve
decides the actual time of operation of the relay. For example if time-setting multiplier is selected as
0.2 while time corresponding to PSM. of 10 is 4 seconds then,

Actual time of operation= time in seconds x time-setting multiplier

= 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 seconds

Reach: The limiting distance in which protective system responds to the faults is called reach of the
protective system. The operation beyond the set distance is called over-reach while failure of
distance relay within set distance is called under-reach.

Requirements of Protection Schemes

Protection schemes are required to possess the following properties to perform their functions.

Selectivity: This is the ability of protection devices to isolate only the faulty network of the power
system from the healthy part to minimize the outage area and also to maintain normal power supply
for the rest of the power system. The possibility of failure to operate and failure of protective relays
and circuit breakers should be considered in determining the selectivity of protective relays. Hence,
selectivity is also known as relay coordination. The coordination of primary relays and backup
relays can be achieved by different operation zones and operation time delays.

Reliability: Reliability is the ability of protection devices to operate properly during the period they
are in service. It is also defined as the ability of protective devices to operate properly during their
operational life. It can be categorized as follows:

Dependability: It is the certainty of correct operation in response to system trouble.

Security: It is the ability of the protection schemes to avoid maloperation between faults.

Speed: It is apparent that quick disconnection of the faulted area or the elements can significantly
improve the stability of the power system, reduce outage duration, and minimize the damage of
faulted elements. Therefore, when a fault occurs, the protective relays should identify the fault and
operate as fast as possible. The total time to remove the fault is determined as the sum of operation
time of relays and circuit breakers. Typically, a high-speed relay can operate in the range of 10 to 30
ms. However, high operation time is not always required, especially in low-voltage systems for
economic reasons.

Discrimination: A protection system should be able to discriminate between fault and loading
conditions even when the minimum fault current is less than the maximum full load current.

Simplicity: The term simplicity is often used to refer to the design quality of a protective relay
system. It is obvious that the simplest relay design is not always the most economical. Hence, the
protective system should be as simple and straightforward as possible without disturbing its basic
tasks. This improves system reliability as there are fewer elements that can malfunction and require
less maintenance.

Sensitivity: It is the ability of the protective device to operate correctly to the faults or abnormal
conditions inside the zone of protection. It refers to the minimum level of fault current at which the
protective device operates. Protective devices with good sensitivity can sense any faults within the
zone of protection with respect to different fault locations, different fault types, and even different
fault resistance. The sensitivity factor usually determines the sensitivity of protective relays, which
depends on the parameters of protected elements and operating condition of the power system.

Economics: Besides the six factors mentioned, economics of protective relays is another important
factor that should be considered. A good protective relay system should combine features of both
maximum protection and minimum cost. Moreover, some of these properties are contradictory to
one another, and it is the duty of the protection engineer to maintain a balance among them, when
choosing a protection scheme for a particular application.

Type of protection

Unit and Non-unit Protection

Unit protection scheme is a scheme that operates for a fault within its zone. Here, zone of
protection is decided on the basis of current transformers (CTs), and includes every fault point
inside the CTs where measurement of currents is carried out. This type of protection scheme is
widely used in generators, transformers, and large induction motors. Differential protection scheme
is the best example of this type of protection scheme.

It is universally accepted that the current-based relaying scheme is not a good choice for
transmission line protection as it does not give instantaneous operation throughout the entire line.
Distance relaying scheme is a good replacement for current-based relaying scheme for transmission
line protection. This scheme is not affected by the ratio of source impedance to the impedance from
the relaying point to the fault point. Moreover, it is less sensitive to system conditions and does not
require a communication channel.
A scheme that achieves protection using grading of successive relays is known as non-unit
protection scheme. Over current and distance relays are the best examples of non-unit protection
schemes. However, the reach of distance relays is highly affected by fault resistance, mutual zero
sequence coupling, and shunt capacitances, and is remote in feed. Moreover, the first zone reach of
distance relays is restricted up to 80%-90% of the line because of transient overreach. Therefore, it
is not possible to achieve instantaneous operation throughout the entire line using non-unit
protection schemes. This can be achieved by unit protection scheme. This concept is known as
differential protection of transmission line.
Primary and Backup Protection

Two sets of relays, primary and backup, are usually provided for each zone of protection.
Main or primary protection schemes are always there as the first line of defence. Equally important
and essential is a second line of defence provided by backup schemes, which will clear the fault if
the primary protection schemes fail to operate for some reason. In order to give ample time to the
primary relays to make a decision, backup relays are time delayed. The measures taken to provide
backup protection vary widely, depending on the value and importance of the power system
equipment and the consequence of its failure. Normally, primary relays have a small operation zone
but operate instantaneously, whereas backup relays have a large operation zone, namely,
overreached area, and operate with a particular time delay. There are two kinds of backup relaying.

Local backup: In this relaying scheme, a separate duplicate set of primary relays is used. Recently,
it has been observed that local backup is required at the local station to open all the breakers around
the bus, rather than at the remote terminals.

Remote backup: Remote backup is provided by a relay on the next station towards the source. This
remote relay will trip in a delayed time if the breaker in the faulty section has not tripped because of
some reason. This is the most widely used form of backup protection.

Classification of Protective Relays

Various types of protective relays are used in practice depending on the function, actuating
quantities, or component that is used. The following is the classification of protective relays.

According to the quantities by which the relay operates: These are thermal relays, over current
relays, overvoltage/under voltage relays, under/over frequency relays, over fluxing relay, and power
relays.

According to their construction: These are attracted armature type relay. induction disc or
induction cup type relays, and balanced beam type relays.

According to the number of sensing quantities: Protective relays can be classified as single input
and multiple input relays, based on this parameter. A single input relay measures (senses) only one
quantity, and it responds when input quantities exceed the predetermine threshold. A multiple input
relay measures two or more than two quantities and responds when the output of mixing device
exceeds the predetermined threshold.

According to its function in protective scheme: Relay may be divided into main relays, auxiliary
relays, and signal relays.

According to components and devices used: These are electromagnetic relays (mechanical
devices), static relays (electronic devices), microprocessor relays (sophisticated algorithm), and
digital/numerical relays (fast processor with communication facilities).

According to the characteristic they adopt: Instantaneous relay, time delayed relay, and inverse
time delayed relay are the best examples of this type.
Phase, Amplitude Comparators

Comparator

 The magnitude of voltage & current and phase angle between them may change when a fault
occurs.
 Static relay senses the change in these parameters to differentiate between healthy and faulty
conditions.
 This is achieved by comparing either the magnitudes of voltage &current or the phase angle
between them.
 The circuitry which performs this function is called comparator.

Types of Comparator

1. Amplitude comparator 2. Phase comparator

1. Amplitude Comparator

 It compares the magnitude of two input quantities irrespective of the angle between them.
 The two quantities are operating quantity and restraining quantity.
 When the magnitude of the operating quantity is greater than the restraining quantity, the
relay sends trip signal to C.B.

Types of Amplitude Comparator:

a) Circulating current comparator

 io and ir are operating and restraining currents.

 Under no fault condition, ir > iO. The differential current flows through the relay in -ve
direction.

 During a fault, io > ir . Hence the differential current flows through the relay in +ve direction
to trip C.B
b) Opposed Voltage Comparator:

 VO and Vr are operating and restraining voltages.

 Under no fault condition, Vr > VO. The differential current flows through the relay in -ve
direction.
 During a fault, Vo > Vr. Hence the differential current flows through the relay in +ve
direction to trip C.B.

2.Phase Comparator:

 Period of coincidence of +ve polarity of 2 signals are compared with a reference angle.
(usually 90 degree).

 If the 2 signals have a phase difference of ɸ, then the angle of coincidence ψ = 180 - ɸ.

 If ɸ < 900, then ψ > 900. The phase comparator of the C.B will open , when ψ > 900.

Types of Phase Comparator

a) Block and Spike Phase Comparator:

 In this method, one of the two input signals is converted into a square wave and the other is
converted into a spike during its peak.

 Square wave and spike are given to an AND gate whose output is 1 when both square wave
and spike are coinciding.

 Coincidence will happen only when the angle between the input signals are less than 900
which indicates a fault.

 Output of AND gate is used to trip the C.B.

b) Phase Splitting Comparator

 In this method, two phase shifted (+/-450) components are obtained for each of the input
signals.

 These 4 components are fed into an AND gate.

 Output will be 1 if all 4 signals are positive at a time. This happens only during a faulty
condition.

 Output of AND gate is used to trip the C.B.

Time Grading: Time grading involves setting the operating times of relays in a way that the relay
closest to the fault operates first, followed by relays further away.

 The time settings of these relays are coordinated such that their operating times decrease
consecutively as you move towards the power source (or substation).
 In the event of a fault, the protective devices operate in a time-graded manner to isolate
only the faulted section while keeping other unaffected lines in service.

Types of Relays:
Definite Time Relays: The operating time of these relays is independent of the magnitude of the
fault current.
Inverse Time Relays: The operating time of these relays is inversely proportional to the fault
current magnitude (i.e., the higher the fault current, the shorter the operating time).

Current Grading:
When the impedance among two substations is sufficient, current-graded protection can be used as
an alternative or in addition to time-graded protection for transmission lines.

High-speed high-set over current relays are used in current-graded systems.

The above image shows a simple current-graded radial feeder protection arrangement.

It uses high-set over current relays at A, B, and C to detect faults between A and B, B and C, and
beyond C. The current setting decreases from supply to remote line termination.
  If a fault is near station B in section BC, the relay at A may perceive it as in section AB
due to small fault current differences. This is because relays cannot distinguish between
faults in the next section and the end of the first section.
 Reasons for this include:
o Small fault current differences,
o Uncertain fault current magnitude, and
o Different relay accuracy under transient situations.
 Therefore, relays protect just 80% of the line for discrimination. Current grading alone
cannot safeguard, hence time-graded inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays should
be used.
 Relay configuration might be difficult due to varying fault currents for different fault kinds.
 A system lacking directional control is unsuitable for ring mains, parallel feeders, &
interconnected systems where power can flow in either direction to the problem.

Electromechanical (Electromagnetic) Relay

The earliest protective devices were fuses that were, and are, used in many situations to isolate the
faulted equipment. This development was followed by the evolution of circuit breakers equipped
with series trip coils. Later, first generation electromechanical relays came in the industrial market
in 1901. These relays operate on the regulation of a mechanical force generated through the flow of
current in windings wounded on a magnetic core and hence the name electromechanical relay.
Advantages
The following are the merits of electromechanical relays:
1. They are reliable in nature and still used by the utilities.
2. This relay provides isolation between the input's and output's quantities.
3. They are rugged in nature as they can withstand voltage spike due to surges and can carry
substantial currents.
Disadvantages
The demerits of electromechanical relays are as follows:
1. They consist of moving parts and suffer from the problem of friction.
2. They produce low torque.
3. They suffer from the problems of high burden and high power consumption for auxiliary
mechanisms.

Classification of Electromagnetic relays

Depending upon working principle these can be divided into following types of electromagnetic
relays.
1. Attracted Armature type relay
2. Induction Disc type relay
3. Induction Cup type relay
4. Balanced Beam type relay
5. Thermal Relay
Attracted Armature Relay

Attracted armature relay is a simple type of protective relay, which generally consists of an
electromagnet and a hinged armature or plunger/solenoid. It can be energized either by AC or DC
supply. The attracted armature relay operates on the principle of electromagnetic force produced,
which attracts the plunger or hinged armature. A restraining force is provided by means of a spring
so that the armature returns to its original position when the electromagnet is de-energized.
Whenever the force developed by the electromagnet exceeds the restraining force, the moving
contact closes due to movement of the armature. Sometimes, multiple contacts are mounted in
parallel, which cause a single input to actuate the number of outputs. Figure 1.4 shows a hinged type
(Fig. a) and a plunger type (Fig. b) attracted armature relay.
If an AC current is used, the restraining force produced by the spring is constant and the
developed electromagnetic force is pulsating in nature. Hence, the relay will chatter and produce
noise. To overcome this problem, the magnetic pole is split in such a way that it produces two
phase-shifted fluxes in the pole such that the resultant flux is always positive and constant. These
relays are fast in operation (10 and 50 ms) and fast in reset because of the small travel distance and
light moving parts. Operating power, which depends on the construction, is of the order of 0.05-0.2
W. However, for a relay with several heavy duty contacts, the operating power can be as large as 80
W.
These relays are used for the protection of AC and DC equipment as an instantaneous relay
that has no intentional time delay.

Fig. Attracted armature relay (a) Hinged armature type relay (b) Plunger type relay

Induction Relay

The induction relay operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction Hence, it is a split-phase
induction motor with contacts. They are the most widely used relays for protection of lines or
apparatus. Operating force is developed due to the interaction of two AC flux displaced in time and
space in a movable element (rotor). Depending on the type of rotor, whether a disc or a cup, the
relay is known as induction disc relay or induction cup relay.

Induction Disc Relay

Figure 1.5 shows the most commonly used shaded pole type induction disc relay. This relay is
generally activated by current flowing in a single coil placed on a magnetic core having an air gap.
The main air-gap flux caused because of the flow of current is split into two out-of-phase
components by a shading ring. which is made up of copper that encircles the portion of the pole face
in each pole. The air-gap flux of shaded pole lags behind the flux of non-shaded pole. The rotor
(made up of copper or aluminium disc) is pivoted in such a way that it rotates in the air gap between
the poles. The phase angle between the two fluxes, piercing the disc, is decided at the design stage.

Induction Cup Relay

Figure 1.6 shows the constructional view of induction cup relay. In this relay, the rotating magnetic
field is produced by the pair of relay coils. A rotor is a hollow metallic cylindrical cup that is
arranged between two/four/eight electromagnets and a stationary iron core. The cup (looks like an
induction rotor) is free to move in the gap between the electromagnet and the stationary iron core.
The rotating field induces current into the cup, which then causes the cup to rotate in the same
direction. The rotation depends on the magnitude of the applied AC quantities and phase
displacement between them. Induction cup relay is more efficient than the induction disc relay as far
as torque is concerned. Moreover, induction cup relay is faster than induction disc relay. Further, it
is also used in systems where directional control is required.

Balance Beam Relay

Balance beam relay is one type of attracted armature device. As shown in Fig. 1.7, the relay with
two coils surrounding the iron core is used to compare two quantities, P and Q. Operating coil
produces operating torque, whereas the restraining coil produces restraining torque. These two coils
are connected in such a way that their electromagnetic forces are in opposition. The electromagnetic
force produced is proportional to the square of the supplied quantity (Ampere-turns). When the
operating torque exceeds the restraining torque, the movement of armature closes contacts. This
relay has the tendency to overreach because of a low ratio of reset to the operating current. Balance
beam relay is widely used as a differential relay to compare two AC quantities.
Thermal Relay

Overload situation occurs many times during the operation of electrical equipment. Any electrical
equipment has the ability to withstand the overload condition for a definite period of time depending
on the severity of overload. Thermal relays are required to protect the equipment against the
overload condition. The name thermal relay itself suggests that the device operates on the principle
of heating effect of electrical current. The characteristic of thermal relay should match with the
thermal withstanding characteristic of an equipment to be protected. Thermal relay requires a longer
time (in seconds) to operate compared to over current relay used for over current detection, which
requires a very small time (in millisecond). Figure 1.2 shows the time-current characteristic of
thermal relay, over current relay, and thermal withstand capability of the equipment to be protected.

It has been observed from Fig. 1.2 that over current relays cannot be used for overload protection of
equipment. This is because over current relays cannot fully exploit the thermal withstand capability
of the equipment as it operates in the range of milliseconds. Such fast operation of over current
relay is not desirable for an overload condition of the equipment.

Figure 1.3 shows the replica-type thermal relay. It consists of bimetallic strips made up of nickel
alloyed steel. These are heated by a heater element that absorbs the output of a current transformer
in a power circuit. At one end of a bimetal strip, an insulated arm with trip contacts is provided. The
arm is connected to a spring, which provides a tension against the closing of trip contacts. The
characteristic of the heater element and bimetallic strips is in approximation to the heating curve of
the equipment to be protected. Under normal operating condition, the bimetal strips remain in
straight position against the action of spring tension. When the overload condition is detected (120%
to 140% of the rated current), the bimetal strips bend and allow the trip contact to energize the trip
circuit. Thermal relay is normally used for low-voltage and low-power-rating induction motor and
DC motor where resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are not generally built-in in the protected
motor.
 Directional Relay

A directional relay is a type of protective relay used in power systems to detect the direction of
current flow, crucial for isolating faults and maintaining system stability. It operates by measuring
the phase angle between current and voltage to determine the direction of fault current.

The relay constantly monitors the current and voltage signals from the CTs and PTs,
respectively. These transformers reduce the current and voltage levels to reasonable amounts for the
relay to handle. The relay compares the phase angle of the current and voltage signals. By
examining the phase connection between current and voltage, the relay can determine the direction
of power flow in the electrical circuit.
Based on specified parameters and logic, the relay determines whether the current flow is in
the intended (ahead) or opposing (reverse) direction. If the current flows in the forward direction
according to the established values, it indicates normal operation. However, if the current flows in
the opposite direction or exceeds predefined thresholds, signaling a failure, the relay takes
preventative action.
When the directional relay detects a fault or abnormal state, it sends a trip signal to the circuit
breaker connected with the faulty component of the system. This step separates the problematic
portion from the remainder of the system, preventing equipment damage while also ensuring the
electrical network’s stability and safety.

Advantages:
 Improved Fault Clearing: By isolating faults quickly and selectively, directional relays
contribute to faster restoration of power systems.
 Enhanced System Stability: They help prevent cascading failures by isolating faults to their
origin.
 Selective Protection: Directional relays allow for more precise protection of power systems,
ensuring that only the faulty section is isolated.

Application of directional relay –

 Installed to protect transformers, circuit breakers, and other substation equipment from faults,
hence ensuring transmission system reliability.
 Used to protect electrical equipment and humans in mines where electrical risks are common.
  Employed to protect important machinery and equipment from electrical problems, reducing
downtime and production losses.

Impedance Relay
The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the faulty section and
the position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or distance relay. It is a
voltage controlled equipment.
The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the impedance of
the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for closing their contacts. The
impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the CT and PT
respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay starts operating then the relay
starts operating.

Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay

In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current. But when
the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes less. The line
current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus, the impedance
decreases because of which the impedance relay starts operating.

The figure above explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer
supplies the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of the current
transformer. The current transformer is connected in series with the circuit.

Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line AB.
The Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall
below the impedance Z then the relay starts working.

Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below the relay
setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command to the circuit
breaker. If the fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay remain unclosed.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay

The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the impedance
relay. The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the voltage storage
element generates the restoring torque. The torque equation of the relay is shown in the figure below
The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and current. When
the relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation becomes

Types of Distance Relay :

Distance relays are classified into two types for the protection of transmission lines. They are,

 Definite Distance Relay (impedance, reactance, or mho type).

 Time Distance Relay (impedance, reactance, or mho type).

Definite Distance Relay :

Working of Definite Distance Relay :

Under normal conditions, the restraining torque i.e., the torque provided by the restraining coil due
to the voltage element, is greater than that of the operating torque provided by the operating coil due
to the current element and thus the relay contacts remain open. Hence the relay is inoperative.

When a fault occurs within the protected zone, the voltage applied to the relay decreases and the
current increases i.e., the ratio V/I which is the impedance also decreases.

Once the ratio falls below the preset value, the operating torque prevails the restraining torque
which in turn pulls the beam towards the operating coil side. This causes the moving contact to
close the contacts of the trip circuit and thus the relay operates by opening the circuit breaker.

The torque produced by the voltage coil is proportional to V2 while that by the current coil is I2. The
relay will operate when the torque produced by the voltage coil is less than that produced by the
current coil. From this, we can write,

Where K1 and K2 are constants that depend on the ampere-turns of the two electromagnets. Thus,
the setting value of the relay can be changed on the coil.
Time Distance Relay :

Woking of Time Distance Relay :

When there is no fault in the line i.e., under normal operating conditions, the force exerted by the
restraining coil will be greater than the force exerted by the operating coil. This doesn't allow the
upper spindle to rotate and it remains at the same position holding moving contact away from the
trip circuit. Thus the trip circuit is left open in normal conditions i.e., the relay is inoperative.

When a fault occurs, the disc starts rotating and it also rotates the spindle which carries it. The
rotation of the spindle causes the spiral spring to wound up till the tension of the spring is sufficient
to pull the upper spindle from the force exerted by the pole face of the restraining coil.

Once the force exerted by the operating coil becomes greater than the restraining coil. The upper
spindle starts rotating and closes the trip circuit by making moving contact in contact with the trip
circuit contacts and thus opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.

The angle through which the disc must rotate to close the trip contacts (i.e., to pull the upper
spindle) depends on the force exerted by the restraining coil on the upper spindle.

This force is thus proportional to the voltage of the system. The greater this force, the greater will be
the travel of the disc. So rotation of the disc is proportional to the system voltage. But the time that
the disc takes to rotate through a certain required angle varies inversely with the operating current.

But generally, the force exerted by the restraining coil is proportional to the V. While the torque
produced on the disc is proportional to I. Hence the time distance characteristics of this relay are
nonlinear in nature, as shown above. This type of relay has an operating time of 0.2 seconds.
Differential Relay
A differential relay is a protective device that detects faults by comparing the difference in current
entering and leaving a protected section of an electrical system, like a transformer or motor, and
trips a circuit breaker if the difference exceeds a predetermined value.
It works on the principle of comparison between the phase angle and the magnitude of the same
electrical quantities.
The following are the essential condition requires for the working of the differential protection
relay.

 The network in which the relay use should have two or more similar electrical quantities.
 The quantities have the phase displacement of approximately 180º.
The differential protection relay is used for the protection of the generator, transformer, feeder, large
motor, bus-bars etc.

Classification of the differential protection relay.

 Current Differential Relay

 Biased or Percentage Differential Relay
 Voltage Balance Differential Relay
Current Differential Relay
A relay which senses and operates the phase difference between the current entering into the
electrical system and the current leaving the electrical system is called a current differential relay.
An arrangement of over current relay connected to operate as a differential relay is shown in the
figure below.

The arrangement of the over current relay is shown in the figure below. The dotted line shows the
section which is used to be protected. The current transformer is placed at both the ends of the
protection zone. The secondary of the transformers is connected in series with the help of the pilot
wire. Thereby, the current induces in the CTs flows in the same direction. The operating coil of the
relay is connected on the secondary of the CTs.
In the normal operating condition, the magnitude of current in the secondary of the CTs remains
same. The zero current flows through the operating coil. On the occurrence of the fault, the
magnitude of the current on the secondary of CTs becomes unequal because of which the relay
starts operating.
Biased or Percentage Differential Relay
This is the most used form of differential relay. Their arrangement is same as that of the current
differential relay; the only difference is that this system consists an additional restraining coil
connected in the pilot wires as shown in the figure below.

The operating coil connects in the centre of the restraining coil. The ratio of current in the current
transformer becomes unbalance because of the fault current. This problem is resolved by the use of
the restraining coil.
Voltage Balance Differential Relay
The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the feeders. For the protection of
the feeders, the voltage balance differential relays are used. The voltage differential relay uses two
similar current transformer places across the protective zone with the help of pilot wire.
The relays are connected in series with the secondary of the current transformer. The relays are
connected in such a way that no current flows through it in the normal operating condition. The
voltage balance differential relay uses the air core CTs in which the voltages induces regarding
current.
When the fault occurs in the protection zone, the current in the CTs become unbalance because of
which the voltage in the secondary of the CTs disturbs. The current starts flowing through the
operating coil. Thus, the relay starts operating and gives the command to the circuit breaker to
operate.

Advantages

 Digital signal handling is completely possible with a 16-bit microprocessor.

 This is the most significant protection within the power system.
 Measuring accuracy is high on all the ranges of settings because of a precise 16-bit analog-
to-digital conversion method.
 These are very simply adaptable to different alarm & substation systems.
 These relays are very responsive because they cannot differentiate between minor faults &
heavy loads.
 These relays avoid malfunctions within a network.
Disadvantages
 The current differential relay accuracy in heavy current flow will get affected because of
the pilot cable’s capacitance.
 The current transformers in this relay cannot have similar characteristics or ratings
because of the pilot cable impedances & constructional errors. So this causes a relay to
operate incorrectly.
 The construction of a voltage balance type relay becomes complex to achieve the perfect
balance between CTs.
 The protection of this relay can be used effectively for shorter-length lines.
Applications

 This relay is very frequently used in protecting generators & transformers from localized
faults.
 Usually, these relays are mainly used for protecting the equipment from internal faults. So,
Merz price protection is one type of differential relay, used to guard the alternator’s stator
winding from the inner faults.
 This kind of relay protects the winding of a transformer.
 These are perfectly suitable for the protection of compact items and also power system
equipment like bus bars, generators, reactors, transmission lines, transformers, feeders,
etc.
Static Relay
The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such type of
relays, the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc.

Initially, the secondary current of CT is rectified and filtered. The filtered output of rectifier is
supplied to the timing and curve shaping circuit, which contains non-linear resistors and RC
networks to shape the time-current characteristic. The output of timing circuit is given to the level
detector, which compares the relay quantities with reference quantities. If the magnitude of the
relaying quantities exceeds the magnitude of the reference quantities (threshold value), it generates
a voltage signal. The generated voltage signal is amplified by an amplifier block and fed to the
tripping circuit. The tripping circuit may be an electromagnetic one or a static one. At last, the
tripling circuit generates a tripping command, which will be given to the trip coil of circuit breaker.
Suitable DC auxiliary power supply is provided to static relay from separate rectifier or from station
battery.

Advantages of static relays

Static relays have many advantages in comparison to the corresponding electromagnetic relays.
These are as follows:
1. Static relays do not contain moving parts. Therefore, they are free from problems such as contact
bouncing, arcing, erosion, friction, and maintenance.
2. Static relays have high operating torque with respect to electromechanical relays.
3. Static relays place significantly less burden on instrument transformers than that placed by
electromechanical relays.
4. Static relays are compact in size.
5. Static relays can incorporate variety of functions in a single unit.
6. Absence of moving parts in static relays leads to quick response and quick reset action. Further,
they are free from the problem of overshoot owing to the absence of mechanical inertia.
7. Greater sensitivity can be obtained in static relays owing to the provision of amplification block.
8. The use of electronic devices enables achieving a greater degree of superiority in determining the
operating characteristic closer to ideal characteristic as per requirement.
Limitations of static relays
However, static relays also have certain shortcomings as listed here.
1. Electronic components are more sensitive to voltage spike and other transients that cause
malfunctioning of static relays.
2. Auxiliary DC supply is required to operate the static relay.
3. The characteristics of electronic devices are affected by variation in temperature and ageing of
semiconductor devices.
4. Static relays have low short time overload capacity compared to electromagnetic relays.
5. The reliability of static relays depends on the quality and number of small components and their
electrical connection.
6. Static relays, for a particular function, are costlier compared to the corresponding electromagnetic
relays.
7. Complex protective functions require highly trained persons for the servicing of static relays.
Therefore, the prime problem with electromechanical and static relays is that there is no continuous
check on their operational integrity.
Classification of Static Relays
Various static relays have been designed by various manufacturers. They are classified according to
the type of measuring unit and comparator they possess.
Electronic relays: These relays use electronic valves for measuring unit and electronic tubes for
comparator.
Magnetic amplifier relays (Transductor) :These relays possess operating winding
and controlling winding. Both are wounded on a common magnetic core. Restraining quantities are
applied to the control winding, whereas relay quantities are applied to the operating winding. When
operating value exceeds the magnitude of restraining value, a voltage is induced in the output
winding wounded on the same core.
Rectifier bridge relays: These relays make use of semiconductor devices. They
consist of two rectifier bridges and a moving coil element. These are arranged in such a way that
they work either as amplitude comparators or as phase comparators.
Transistor relays: As transistors are able to perform amplification, summation,
switching, and comparison tasks, they overcome many problems. Hence, it is possible to develop
sensitive, high-speed, and precise static relay. Transistor circuit provides the necessary flexibility to
outfit various relay requirements and to design various relay characteristics. These static relays are
most widely used in practices for the protection of electrical equipment and distribution feeders.
Static relays are also classified according to the protection requirement.
1. Static over current relays
(a) Static instantaneous over current relays
b) Static definite minimum time over current relays (DMT)
(c) Static inverse definite minimum time over current relays (IDMT)
2. Static directional relays
3. Static differential relays
4. Static distance relays
Digital Relay
A digital relay consists of the following main parts: processor, analogue input system, digital output
system and independent power supply. Figure presents a simplified block diagram of a digital relay.
Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more analog signals in three steps:
1. Conversion of analogue signal to digital form
2. Processing of digital form
3. Boolean decision to trip or not to trip.
The main difference between digital and conventional relays pertains to the method of input signal
processing. In the case of digital relays, input signals are converted into digital form within the
analogue input system before being analysed by the processor. Digital relays possess advanced
programmable functionality providing high performance level, flexibility as well as additional
monitoring capabilities.
Advantages Of Digital Relay
1. High level of functionality integration.
2. Additional monitoring functions.
3. Functional flexibility.
4. Capable of working under a wide range of temperatures.
5. They can implement more complex function and are generally more accurate
6. Self-checking and self-adaptability.
7. Able to communicate with other digital equipment (pear to pear).
8. Less sensitive to temperature, aging
9. Economical because can be produced in volumes
10.More Accurate.
11.plane for distance relaying is possible
12.Signal storage is possible
Limitations Of Digital Relay
1. Short lifetime due to the continuous development of new technologies.
2. The devices become obsolete rapidly.
3. Susceptibility to power system transients.
4. As digital systems become increasingly more complex they require specially trained staff for
Operation.
5. Proper maintenance of the settings and monitoring data.
Transformer Protection
The transformer has been a part of transmission and distribution systems. Since it is part of every
network, it is important to provide proper protection to it. Since transformers are expensive and
unwieldy to transport in the event of a fault, it is advisable to provide proactive protection.
In general, the faults in a transformer occur because of the weakening/failure of insulation. This
insulation failure may cause the following faults:
1. Turn-to-core fault (earth fault)
2. Turn-to-turn fault (inter-turn fault)
In both situations, the temperature of the transformer oil will increase, and this may lead to
mechanical damage to the transformer tank and thus to the transformer. The transformer is
submerged in insulating oil. The insulation may weaken because of aging, contaminated oil, and
corona discharge in the insulating oil. Transient overvoltage due to switching/lightning surges also
causes overheating of the insulating oil. Increase in the temperature of transformer coils gives rise to
the formation of gas in the tank, and if this condition is left unnoticed for some time, the tank
pressure may rise, causing mechanical damage.
The transformer is also subjected to some abnormal operations that are quite similar to the fault
conditions, but do not require the protective gear meant for the protection of the transformer. These
conditions are as follows:
1. Magnetizing inrush
2. Overfluxing
3. Low oil level
Although these abnormal conditions are not faults in a transformer, prolonged exposure to these
conditions results in overheating of the transformer winding and damage to the insulation.
Magnetizing Inrush
Magnetizing inrush is a condition when the transformer draws a very large current from the supply
while the load current is either zero or of nominal magnitude.
When a sudden large change in transformer input voltage is made, the induced back electromotive
force is absent in the transformer winding but transformer impedance is present to restrict the input
current. The losses in the transformer are kept to a minimum by the low transformer winding
impedance. Thus, a large current is sourced into the transformer. This phenomenon is known as
magnetizing inrush.
 During magnetizing inrush, a large flux results in saturation of the transformer core.
 Under the magnetizing inrush condition, the current in the transformer winding, which may
be as high as 12-15 times of the rated current, will be rich in harmonics content.
 The magnetizing inrush will occur not only when the transformer is switched on but also
when a fault outside the transformer is cleared.
 Inrush can also occur when a bank is parallel with the second energized bank.
Therefore, any protective relay whose operation is based on either the magnitude of the input
current or the difference in the input or output current will operate. Conventionally, during this
phase (when a transformer is energized) current-magnitude-based protective relays are blocked for
the initial few cycles till the input current settles down around the rated current, based on which
current-based relay settings are done.
Overfluxing
The steady state value of flux in a transformer core is directly proportional to the ratio V/f. As
transformer operates just below the knee region of the B-H curve. Therefore, either an increase in
voltage or decrease in frequency will result in an increased value of the core flux, driving it into the
saturation region. Because of this core saturation, the induced voltage in the two windings and their
corresponding currents will become flat topped.
Usually, 10% of overfluxing can be allowed without damage. This will result in overheating or
heating of the transformer winding. If this condition is allowed to continue for long, it will cause
damage to/weakening of the transformer insulation and gas formation in the transformer oil.
The transformer should be isolated in 1 or 2 minutes if overfluxing persists.
In such cases V/f relays are used to detect overfluxing in the transformer.
Low oil level in transformer tank
The transformer oil continuously absorbs heat from the transformer's winding either because of
copper losses occurring in the winding or because of overheating of the transformer coils owing to
faults internal or external to the transformer.
 This results in regular decomposition of the transformer oil in the tank.
 Furthermore, transformer oil samples are drawn at regular intervals to check their quality and
to proactively detect faults in the transformer windings through gas content analysis of the
transformer oil.
These two factors can result in reduction in the transformer tank oil up to a level when some part of
the winding does not remain submerged in the transformer oil.
Whatever may be the reason, if the level of the transformer tank oil is below the critical level,
causing, in part, dry winding, it will result in overheating of the exposed part. This overheating of
the transformer winding will result in weakening of the solid insulation, thus leading to a hot spot
development. If not attended to in a timely manner, this will precipitate a solid internal fault in the
transformer, requiring compromise with power supply and major maintenance of the transformers.
Oil level can be determined by the means of alarm indicators for immediate attention.

Gas cushion: The presence of oxygen or moisture may lead to deterioration of the transformer oil.
Hence exclusion of this presence is necessary. Since the operating pressure varies within the tank,
hence sealing of the tank is not an option. Pressure indicators and conservators are used to counter
the expansion and contraction of oil. Whereas silica gel is provided in the breathing vent to absorb
the moisture content. Sometimes a nitrogen cylinder is provided to provide an inert atmosphere
maintaining the pressure between 0.5 and 0.8 atm.

Oil pumps and forced air fans: The top oil temperature normally gives the indication of the
load on the transformer. A rise in temperature would indicate an overloading situation or due to the
fault in cooling system. A hermometer with alarm contacts will indicate the temperature rise in oil
Buchholz Relay
The Buchholz relay protects the transformer from internal faults. It is the gas actuated relay. The
Buchholz relay is placed between the main tank and the conservator. Such type of relay is used in
the transformer having the rating higher than 500KVA. It is not used in small transformer because
of economic consideration.
Working Principle

When the fault occurs inside the transformer, the temperature of the oil increases. The oil evaporates
in the form of the gas. The generation of the gas depends on the magnitude of the fault occurs inside
the transformer. The internal failure occurs in the transformer either because of the insulation
breakdown between the winding or the winding have the weak initial contact.

The fault induces the arc which increases the temperature of the gas. The oil becomes evaporated
and moves upwards. The Buchholz relay detects the failure and gives the alarm to the personnel.
The transformer is disconnected from the main supply for maintenance.

Construction

The Buchholz relay has two hinged which is placed in the metallic chamber. This metallic chamber
is connected through the pipe between the conservator and main tank.

The one of the hinged is placed in the upper portion of the metallic chamber along with the mercury
switch. This mercury switch is used for activating the alarm. The other float is placed in the lower
portion of the metallic chamber along with the mercury switch. The mercury switch is used for
actuating the tripping circuit.
Operation of Buchholz Relay

The internal fault of the transformer induces the arc inside the main tank. The oil of the transformer
starts heating because of the thermal effect. The gas moves upwards, and few of their vapours are
collected in the upwards area of the main tank. Because of the evaporation, the level of oil inside the
transformer tank starts decreasing.

The mercury switch placed inside the metallic chamber becomes tripped, and the relay gives the
alarm to the personnel. The supply of the transformer becomes close, and it is disconnected to the
system for maintenance. The relay has test cock which is used for releasing the pressure of the
chamber.

When the severe fault occurs inside the transformer, the lower mercury switch placed inside the
metallic chamber becomes slightly tilted because of which the tripping circuit becomes closed.
Thus, the transformer is disconnected from the main circuit.

Sudden Pressure Relay

The gas pressure relay facilitates the protection of a transformer merely in conjunction with a simple
differential relay. This relay has to be made stable against the inrush current. In addition to the Buchholz
relay, another gas-operated relay is used for the protection of the transformer. This relay operates in the
eventuality of a sudden large formation of gas in the transformer tank. Owing to its operating characteristic,
it is known as sudden pressure relay (SPR). The operation of this relay is based on the rate of rise of the gas
in the transformer. Thus, it can be used for the protection of any transformer having a sealed gas chamber at
the top of the tank. In general, to facilitate its maintenance, this relay is fastened to the manhole cover of the
transformer tank. Care should be taken to mount the manhole above the oil level. Figure shows the
construction of gas-operated SPR. The design of this relay is such that it only operates on dynamic pressure
changes; thus, under static pressure, it remains stable. Utility engineers recommend SPR for all transformers
greater than a size of 5 MVA. In contrast to the Buchholz relay, which operates even for light internal faults,
this relay operates only for heavy internal faults of the transformer. Although for light internal faults it is
more sensitive than the differential relay, it cannot dispose off the differential relay. The reason is that the
differential relay not only takes care of the transformer internal faults but also provides protection against
faults outside the transformer tank (e.g., bushing faults). The operating time of SPR varies over a large span
depending on the rate of gas formation.
Oil and Winding Temperature Relay

For monitoring the formation of hot spots in transformers, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
are embedded in the transformer windings.
Since oil carries away heat from the transformer winding, some RTDs are also deployed for the
monitoring of transformer oil temperature.
The prevailing temperature information from all of these RTDs is given to a temperature scanner
The winding temperature can also be measured by inserting a small current transformer (CT) in series with
the main winding of the transformer. The secondary of this CT is connected to the heaters inside the
transformer tank. The sensing bulb (RTD) is surrounded by the heater and measures the temperature
proportional to the current flow through the windings. The output leads of the sensing bulb are connected to
the winding temperature inductor (WTI) and alarm/protective unit. Figure shows the connection of the WTI
with the transformer. When the temperature of any RTD (corresponding voltage input from the RTD)
crosses the threshold value, an alarm is actuated. This alarm is used by the operator to take a decision
regarding the continuation of service of the transformer under consideration. Furthermore, if the temperature
continues to rise beyond the alarm limit, the signal is used to close the contacts of all or one of the auxiliary
relays that are transferred to the master trip relay to disconnect the transformer.

Over Current and Earth Fault Protection of Transformer

Backup protection of electrical transformer is simple Over Current and Earth Fault protection are
applied against external short circuit and excessive over loads. These over current and earth Fault
relays may be of Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) or Definite Time type relays (DMT).
Generally IDMT relays are connected to the in-feed side of the transformer.

Over current relays cannot differentiate between external short circuits, overloads, and internal
faults of the transformer. Backup protection, using over current and earth fault protection on the in-
feed side, will activate for any of these faults.

Backup protection is usually installed on the in-feed side of the transformer, but it should trip both
the primary and secondary circuit breakers.
Over current and earth fault protection relays can also be placed on the load side of the transformer.
However, they should not trip the primary side circuit breaker like the backup protection on the in-
feed side.

The operation of these relays is governed by current and time settings, along with the relay’s
characteristic curve. This allows the use of the transformer overload capacity and coordination with
other relays at about 125% to 150% of the full load current, but below the minimum short circuit
current.
Backup protection of transformer has four elements; three over current relays connected each in
each phase and one earth fault relay connected to the common point of three over current relays as
shown in the figure. The normal range of current settings available on IDMT over current relays are
50% to 200% and on earth fault relay 20 to 80%.

Another range of setting on earth fault relay is also available and may be selected where the earth
fault current is restricted due to insertion of impedance in the neutral grounding. In the case of
transformer winding with neutral earthed, unrestricted earth fault protection is obtained by
connecting an ordinary earth fault relay across a neutral current transformer.
The unrestricted over current and earth fault relays should have proper time lag to co-ordinate with
the protective relays of other circuit to avoid indiscriminate tripping.

Differential Protection of a Transformer

Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-to-phase fault and
phase to earth faults. The differential protection used for power transformers is based on Merz-
Prize circulating current principle. Such types of protection are generally used for transformers of
rating exceeding 2 MVA.
Connection for Differential Protection for Transformer

The power transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected on the other side. The CTs
on the star connected side are delta-connected and those on delta-connected side are star-connected.
The neutral of the current transformer star connection and power transformer star connections are
grounded.

The restraining coil is connected between the secondary winding of the current transformers.
Restraining coils controls the sensitive activity occurs on the system. The operating coil is placed
between the tapping point of the restraining coil and the star point of the current transformer
secondary windings.

Working of Differential Protection System

Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current are balanced on both the side of the
power transformers. When the internal fault occurs in the power transformer windings the balanced
is disturbed and the operating coils of the differential relay carry current corresponding to the
difference of the current among the two sides of the transformers. Thus, the relay trip the main
circuit breakers on both sides of the power transformers.

Transformer Feeder Protection

In a method to supply bulk power from a major switching station, sometimes the transformer is
connected directly without any provision of switchgear. Even though it is cost effective, but it
would require adequate protection schemes. In addition to the protection provided for transformer
and feeder when considered separately, the need for some means of inter-tripping between the HV
and LV circuit breakers becomes essential.
For countering this, two basic systems of protection can be done: unit and non-unit systems. In unit
systems, the differential scheme can be applied separately for the transformer and feeder or
considering both the transformer and feeder as an overall unit. In both the cases pilot wire is
required. In non-unit systems, it provides back up protection for both the faults occurring outside the
protected zone as well as that in the zone faults.
Feeder Protection
The main requirement of the feeder protection are;
1. During the short circuit, the circuit breaker nearest to the fault should open and all other
circuit breakers remain in a closed position.
2. If the breaker nearest to the fault fails to open then, backup protection should be provided by
the adjacent circuit breaker.
3. The relay operating time should be small to maintain the system stability without necessary
tripping of a circuit.
Time Graded Protection
This is a scheme in which the time setting of relays is so consecutive that in the event of a fault, the
smallest possible part of the system is isolated. The applications of time graded are explained below.
Protection of Radial Feeders
The main characteristic of a radial system is that power flow only in one direction, i.e. from the
generator or the supply end to the load end. It has the drawback that continuity of supply cannot be
controlled at the load end in the occurrence of a fault.
In a radial system when the number of feeders is connected in series as shown in the figure. It is
desired that the smallest possible part of the system should be off. This is conveniently achieved by
employing time graded protection. The over current system should be adjusted in such a way that
the longer the relay from the generating station the lesser the time of operation.
When the fault occurs on the SS4, the relay OC5 should operate first and not any other i.e. the time
require to operate the relay OC4 must be less than the time required for relay OC3 and so on. This
shows that the time setting required for these relays must be properly graded. The minimum interval
of time which can be allowed for the two adjacent circuit breaker depends on its own clearance
time, plus a small time for the safety margin.

With normal circuit breaker in use minimum, the discriminating time between adjustment breaker
should be about 0.4 seconds. The time settings for relay OC1, OC2, OC3, OC4, and OC5 will be 0.2
seconds, 1.5 seconds, 1.5 seconds, 1.0 seconds, 0.5 second and instantaneous respectively. Along
with the grading system, it is also essential that the time of operation for the severe fault should be
less. This can be done by using time limiting fuse in parallel with the trip coils.

Protection of Parallel Feeders

The parallel connection of the supply is mainly used for the continuity of the supply and for sharing
the load. When the fault occurs on the protective feeder, the protective device will select and isolate
the defective feeder while the other instantly assume the increased load.

One of the simplest methods for the protection of the relay is the time graded overload relay with
inverse time characteristic at the sending end and instantaneous reverse power or directional relays
at the receiving end as shown in the figure below.

When the heavy fault F occur on any one of the lines, then the power is fed into fault from the
sending end as well as from the receiving end of the line. The direction of power flow will be
reversed through the relay on D, which will be open.

The excess current is then restricted to B until its overload relay operates and trips the circuit
breaker, thus completely isolating the faulty feeder and supplying power through the healthy feeder.
This method is only satisfactory when the fault is heavy and reverse the power at D. Hence
differential protection is also added along with the overloaded protection at both the end of the line.

Protection of Ring Main System

The ring main is a system of interconnection between a series of the power station by a different
route. In the main ring system, the direction of power can be changed at will, particularly when the
interconnection is used.
The elementary diagram of such a system is shown in the figure below where G is the generating
station, and A, B, C, and D are substation. At the generating station, the power flow only in one
direction and hence no time lag overload relays is used. The time grade overload relay is placed at
the end of the substation, and it will trip only when overload flows away from the substation which
they protect.

Going round the ring in the direction GABCD the relay on the further side of each station are set
with decreasing time lags. At generating station 2 seconds at station A, B, C and 1.5 seconds, 1.0
second, 0.5 second and instantaneous respectively. Similarly going round the ring in the opposite
direction the relay on the outgoing sides would be set as follows.

If the fault occurs at point F, the power F is fed into the fault through two paths ABF and DCF. The
relay to operate is that between substation B and fault point F and substation C and fault point F.
Thus the fault on any section will cause the relay on that section to operate, and the healthy section
will be operating uninterruptedly.
Distance Protection Relay
A common type of feeder protection relay is the distance protection relay, also called an impedance
relay. It measures the feeder line’s impedance (Z) using voltage (V) and current (I) inputs from the
potential transformer (PT) and current transformer (CT). Impedance is calculated by dividing
voltage by current: Z = V/I.
The relay compares the measured impedance to a preset value that represents the maximum
allowable impedance for normal operation. If the measured impedance is lower, there is a fault, and
the relay sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker to isolate it. The relay can also show fault
parameters like fault current, voltage, resistance, reactance, and fault distance on its screen.
Fault distance is the distance from the relay to the fault, estimated by multiplying the measured
impedance by the line impedance per kilometer. For example, if the measured impedance is 10
ohms and the line impedance per kilometer is 0.4 ohms/km, the fault distance is 10 x 0.4 = 4 km.
Knowing this helps locate and repair the fault quickly.

Generator Protection
Generator faults can be considered as follows.
(a) Stator faults: These include the following
 Phase to earth faults.
 Phase to phase faults
 Inter turn faults
(b) Rotor faults
(c) Abnormal running conditions: The abnormal running conditions that can occur are: (i) loss of
excitation, (ii) unbalance loading, (iii) overloading, (iv) failure of prime mover, (v) over speeding,
and (vi) over-voltage.
Differential Protection
Protection against the stator phase faults is normally covered by a high-speed differential relay
covering the three phases separately. All types of phase faults (phase-phase) and phase-to-ground
faults are covered by this type of protection scheme.
Differential protection is generally applied to generators with ratings more than 1 MVA. It provides
protection to the stator windings of a generator against various types of phase faults. If a generator
is solidly grounded, then the magnitude of ground fault current is very high, which can be easily
detected by the differential relaying scheme. However, if the generator is grounded through high
impedance, then the ground fault currents may not have sufficient magnitude to operate the
differential relay, particularly when the fault occurs closer to the neutral point of the generator stator
winding. For this purpose, other types of protective schemes are used, which are discussed in
Sections 5.2.1-5.2.3.
5.2.1 Mertz-Price Differential Protection (Circulating Current Differential Protection)
Figure 5.1 shows the principle of the circulating current differential protection scheme. In this
scheme, the primaries of the CTs are connected in series on both sides of each phase winding of the
generator. The secondaries of the CTs are connected in an additive manner to pass the circulating
currents through a closed path. The differential relay constantly checks on the secondary sides of the
CTs as to whether the incoming current of a phase winding is equal to the respective outgoing
current of the same winding.
The directions of currents passing through the secondary side of the CTs are shown in Fig. 5.1. If
the currents on the primary sides, that is, IA1 and IA2 have the same magnitude, then the secondary
side currents, that is ia1 and ia2 will also have the same magnitude, considering that the CTs on both
sides have the same transformation ratio and have identical characteristics. If there is a significant
difference between the CT secondary currents (Id) on both sides of the windings, then this indicates
a fault within the protection zone of the stator winding of the generator. Hence, the differential relay
trips if the value of Id exceeds a predetermined threshold value (relay setting). On the other hand,
during external faults, the differential relay remains stable and does not initiate a trip signal.
If the CTs are identical in nature, then the functioning of the differential relay is straightforward.
However, in practice, it is impossible to achieve CTs with identical saturation characteristics.
Hence, the secondary currents of the CTs are unequal even though the primary currents are the
same. This current is widely known as spill current. This spill current passes through the relay and
may maloperate the relay if its value exceeds the setting of the relay. This is possible particularly in
case of heavy through-fault conditions. Moreover, if the length of the connecting wires (also known
as pilot wires) is unequal, then the value of the spill current increases. In order to avoid
maloperation of the differential relay in these situations, a stabilizing resistance is connected in
series with the relay. However, incorporation of the stabilizing resistance reduces the sensitivity of
the relay during an internal fault.
High Impedance Differential Protection
Hence, to avoid this problem, the value of RST can be considered as nearly about one-third of the
calculated value, in practice. Relay setting is typically set to 5-10% of the generator-rated secondary
current.
It follows from these calculations that the application of the high impedance differential protection
scheme is much more complex than that of the biased differential protection scheme. However, it is
still used because of its simplicity and stability during heavy through faults and external switching
events.
Motor Protection
Motor faults can be considered as follows,
 Over loading
 Single phasing
 Phase unbalance
 Phase reversal
 Short circuit
 Earth fault
 Stalling or Locked Rotor
 Under load
 1)Thermal Overload Protection

The primary protective element of motor protection relays is the thermal overload element,
which is accomplished through motor thermal image modelling. This model accounts for all
thermal processes in the motor while it starts and runs at normal, overload, and standstill (stop)
conditions. Thermal protection (49) is the simplest type of protection against overloading for the
induction motor. Its basic function is to operate the motor within its predefined temperature
withstand limit (thermal limit). For this purpose, usually, two philosophies are used in the relays:

1. Measurement of temperature by a direct method using resistance temperature detectors

(RTDs) or thermistors

2. Measurement of temperature by an indirect method using the data of phase currents and
deriving an equation that gives an equivalent thermal state of the motor

The relay takes the decision to disconnect the motor based on data available from one or both of
these methods as well as the settings made by the user.

2)Protection Against Unbalanced Currents

Unsymmetrical faults within the motor or on the feeder may produce unbalanced voltages and
hence, unbalanced currents (46). The typical conditions that can give rise to unbalanced currents are
as follows:
1. Single phasing due to the disconnection of fuse for large motors

2. Unbalanced fault conditions and failure of breakers

The motor will draw excess current because of single phasing. Hence, its winding will be
overheated, which leads to deterioration/damage of insulation. In case of unbalancing of currents,
negative sequence current is produced. This may overheat/damage the rotor structure. To protect the
large motor against such unbalance, negative sequence relay (46) is used. However, for small
motors, phase unbalanced relay is usually used.

Each motor is designed for specific permissible unbalance according to the industry standards. The
general equation for allowable negative sequence current is
I22×t=40 ………….(7.1)
where I2 is the negative sequence current in per unit and is the time in seconds.

Modern digital relays measure the negative sequence component of current and provide protection
against unbalanced conditions, broken conductor, and phase inversions. They use two relays,
namely, definite time relay and inverse time relay. Definite time relay is used in the first stage of
negative sequence protection, whereas inverse time relay is used for the second stage of protection.
The typical setting range of this relay is I2= 10-50% in steps of 5%. This setting is decided on the
basis of the ratio of the negative sequence impedance (Z2) to the positive sequence impedance (Z₁).

3)Protection Against Phase Reversal

The induction motor takes the negative sequence current if there is a change in the phase sequence
in the supply circuit of the motor. In this situation, the motor will run in the opposite direction. The
loads designed to run in a specific direction may be damaged. In the modern digital relay, protection
against phase reversal (47) is achieved through negative sequence current measurement, as
explained in previous point(2).
4)Phase Fault Protection
Phase fault protection (87) is required to protect the motor against short circuit in motor windings
and blocking of rotor. In this situation, the current consumed by the motor is very high. Hence, there
is a need to isolate the motor from the supply instantaneously. For short circuit in the stator
windings of large motors (beyond 1000 kW), differential protection is usually adopted. In order to
minimize the burden and also to reduce error due to long cable run, three current transformers (CTs)
are placed within the switchgear and one CT is located in the neutral connection of the motor. The
stabilizing resistance is used to avoid maloperation against CT saturation and CT errors .
For small motors, phase fault protection is achieved through overcurrent relay instead of differential
relay as the latter is expensive. However, care is to be taken at the time of deciding the setting of
this relay. The pickup of the relay is set above the maximum starting current of the motor as
otherwise the relay may maloperate. If the setting is below the maximum starting current, then an
interlock is used, which blocks the relay at the time of starting of the motor, Modern digital relays
use instantaneous relays along with a definite time delay unit. The typical setting of such relays is
400-2000% of the relay rated current.
5)Earth-fault Protection
Earth-fault protection (50N) protects the motor against faults between one or more phases and earth.
When the neutral is accessible, instantaneous overcurrent relay provides this protection with a
setting of 20% of full load current of the motor. However, when the neutral is not accessible,
residual ground relay is used. This relay considers the vector sum of the secondary current of all the
three phases. In order to increase the sensitivity of the relay, it is sometimes connected in the core
balance CT. In this case, the relay can be set instantaneously (3-10% of the rated current).
6)Stalling (Locked Rotor) Protection
Stalling protection (51) is required in a motor at the time of starting or running. Any motor can
dissipate more heat during the running condition than when it is in a standstill condition. If a motor
fails to start after the energization, then the heat produced in the rotor and stator windings is 10 to
15 times that produced during the rated conditions. The motor can withstand this type of extreme
heating condition only for a limited time period. This time limit depends on the applied voltage and
the I2 t limit. A relay with I2 t characteristic can be set for any permissible overload. With respect to
the starting or running condition of the motor, protection is applied in two different ways.
a)Stalling at the time of starting This function is activated only during the starting of the motor,
that is, during the course of the starting time delay ( t start ). It uses a speed signal from the motor and
the time delay ( t stall ). On detection of a start this function is activated, and the time delay provided
for safe stalling ( t stall ) begins. At the end of this time delay, the motor should gain the acquired
speed. If the motor does not gain the acquired speed, it is an indication of a locked rotor situation,
and the relay generates a tripping command.
b)Stalling at the time of running This function is activated immediately after the starting period
(t start). Two parameters are required to be set in the relay, that is, the stall rotor current threshold
(Istall) and the stalled rotor time (tstall). The relay detects the overcurrent caused by stalling and
generates a tripping command if the phase current exceeds the I stall value.
A typical setting of the stalling relay is given by two settings: the current setting range which is
usually 150-600% of the relay rated current and the time setting range which is usually 6-60 s. The
normal practice for current setting is 1/3-1/4 of the starting current of the motor. On the other hand,
time setting is done on the basis of the accelerating time of the motor and safe stalling time of the
motor. The time setting is higher than the accelerating time and lower than the safe stalling time of
the motor.
7)Loss of Load Protection
The sudden reduction of load from the motor is known as loss of load. The reasons for the loss of
load are breakage of a conveyor belt, prime failure on a pump, or shearing of a drive pin. It is
mandatory to trip the motor in this situation. The usual practice is to use definite time overcurrent
relay, which recognizes the difference between no-load before the application of load and no-load
after the application of load. In this relay, three parameters are required to be set, namely,
undercurrent threshold, time associated with this threshold, and inhibit start time delay. After the
starting of the motor, this function is activated at the end of the inhibit time delay (T inhibit), which is
useful for motors to start at no-load and also to increase the load gradually at the end of starting.
During the running condition of the motor, a loss of load signal occurs in case of reduction of one of
the phase currents below the threshold value for a period longer than or equal to the set time delay.
8)Undervoltage
When there is reduction in the voltage below the rated voltage in a running motor, the current drawn
by the motor increases beyond the rated current of the motor. Hence, the insulation of the motor
windings is damaged because of heating. Thus, the undervoltage (27) relay gives protection against
this phenomenon. The typical setting range of an undervoltage relay is 70-100% of the rated
voltage.

Figure shows the detailed protection scheme of a three-phase induction motor, where the thermal
relay module (49), phase unbalance relay (46), overcurrent relay unit (51), instantaneous
overcurrent relay (50), earth-fault relay unit (50N), and undervoltage relay unit (27) are
incorporated. Measurement of temperature by direct method using RTDs or thermistors (H) is also
illustrated. The residual current measurement is carried out using CBCT.