Chapter Four

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

Magnetic Field:

The space around a current carrying conductor, in which its magnetic effect can be experienced ,is
called magnetic field.

The magnetic field is denoted by B.It is a is a vector quantity.

Magnetic field obeys the principle of superposition: The effective magnetic field B at a point due
to magnetic field of several sources is the vector addition of M.F of each individual sources at that
point.

𝐵 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵3 + 𝐵4 … … . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 …are the magnetic fields at a point due to individual

sources of M.F.

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD .(Q. Write the
expression for the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. )

Consider a positive charge q moving in a uniform magnetic field B with a velocity v .Let the angle
between v and B be 𝜃 .Due to interaction between the M.F produced due to moving charge ( current)
and magnetic field applied ,then the charge q experiences a force.

• The magnitude of the Force experienced by the charge is directly proportional to the
magnitude of charge. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞
• Force F experienced by the charge is directly proportional to the component of velocity
acting perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field
𝐹 ∝ 𝑣 sin 𝜃
• The magnitude of force is F experienced by the charge is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the magnetic field produced.
𝐹 ∝𝐵

𝐹 ∝ 𝑞𝐵𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐾 = 1

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 where v B sin 𝜃 = v x B. The force on a charged particle moving inside a
magnetic field is called magnetic Lorentz force.

𝑭 = 𝒒(𝒗×𝑩)

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Q. Write the relation for the force 𝐹⃗ acting on a charged carrier q moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗ through
magnetic field 𝐵⃗⃗ in vector notation .Using this relation , deduce the conditions under which this
force will be maximum and minimum.

𝑭 = 𝒒(𝒗×𝑩)

CASE 1

If 𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎 (charge is moving along straight line path ,parallel or
anti parallel )

𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎

𝑭𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 = 𝟎

It means that a charged particle moving along or opposite to the direction of magnetic field ,does not
experience any force.

CASE 2

If 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟏
𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗 ..maximum force.

ie if a charge is moving along a line perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field (circular path ),it
experiences a maximum force.

Hence this force will provide required centripetal force and the charged particle will describe a
circular path in the magnetic field of radius r ,

𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝐵𝑞𝑣
𝑟

The direction of maximum force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.

If we stretch the first finger ,the central finger and the thumb of left hand mutually perpendicular to
each other such that the first finger points to the direction of magnetic field ,the central finger points
to the direction of electric current ( motion of the charge ) then the thumb represents the direction of
force experienced by the charged particle.

CASE 3

If charge is not moving , v = 0

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎
𝑭=𝟎

If a charged particle is at rest in a magnetic field ,it experiences no force.

Case 4 (page no 138 NCERT )

When v is making an angle with B other than 𝟎𝟎 , 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎

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The charged particle will describe a helical motion whose axis is parallel to the direction of M.F. ie
the charged particle in magnetic field will cover linear path as well as circular path.

Magnetic field induction

If v =1 ,q =1, 𝜃 = 900 sin 𝜃 = 1

F=B

The Magnetic field induction at a point in the M.F is equal to the force experienced by a unit charge
moving with a unit velocity perpendicular to the direction of M.F at that point.

UNIT OF MAGNETIC FIELD B (vim ) (Define I Tesla )

Q. Use the expression for force to define the S.I unit of magnetic field.

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣 sin 𝜃 𝜃 = 900

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩
𝑭
𝑩=
𝒒𝒗
𝑵 𝑵𝒔
= = 𝑪 𝒎 = 𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂 𝑻
𝑪 𝒎⁄𝒔

SI unit of magnetic field B is 𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂 𝑻 𝑜r Weber / (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒)2 𝑊𝑏⁄

𝑚2

(vim ) Define I Tesla :

Strength of M.F is said to be one Tesla if a charge of 1C moving with a velocity of of 1 𝑚⁄𝑠 along a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field experiences a force of 1N.

The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb)

Smaller unit of B is gauss

1gauss (1 G) = 10−4 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

Lorentz Force

The force experienced by a charged particle moving in space where both magnetic and electric
field exist is called Lorentz Force .

Force due to E.F -- When a charged particle carrying a charge +q is placed in E.F of strength ,it
experiences a force 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞𝐸 whose direction is the same as that of E

Force due to M.F … When a charged particle carrying a charge +q is moving in a magnetic field B
,with a velocity v ,it experiences a force 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝐵 )

Total force experienced by the charged particle,

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LORENTZ FORCE 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝐵 )
𝐹 =𝑞[𝐸+ (𝑣 × 𝐵 )] 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.

Special cases

Case 1 ;

When v, E and B all three are collinear .In this situation ,the charged particle is moving parallel or
anti parallel to the fields ,the magnetic force on the charged particle is zero. The electric force on the
𝑞𝐸
charged particle will produce acceleration .𝑎 = along the direction of E.F
𝑚

There will be change in speed ,velocity ,momentum & K.E but no change in the direction of motion .

Case 2;

When v, E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other .in this situation

LORENTZ FORCE 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 0

𝑞𝐸
Then the acceleration .𝑎 = = 0 .It means that the particle will pass through the fields without any
𝑚
change in its velocity. Here 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝐸
𝑠𝑜 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞 (𝑣𝐵 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
𝐵

This concept is used in velocity –selector to get a charged beam having a definite velocity.

MOTION OF CHARGE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

(Q. A particle of charge q and mass m is moving with velocity v. it is subjected to a uniform
magnetic field B directed perpendicular to its velocity.Show that it describes a circular path.Write the
expression for its radius.)

(a) When v is perpendicular to B

Consider motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. First consider the case of v
perpendicular to B.. The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular to each other.

Then the force on the charge 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵

⃗⃗) … . (1)

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If velocity has a component along B, this component remains unchanged as the motion along the
magnetic field will not be affected by the magnetic field. So the path of the charged particle in a
perpendicular magnetic field becomes circular.The motion in a plane perpendicular to B is as before a
circular one, thereby producing a helical motion

The magnetic force (qvB) provides the necessary centripetal force to move along the circular path. if
r is the radius of the circular path of a particle,

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = … . . (2)
𝑟

. Equating the expressions for force,

𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟
𝒎𝒗
Radius 𝒓= 𝒒𝑩
𝑞𝐵𝑟
And velocity 𝑣 = 𝑚

The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius and bigger the circle described.

The angular frequency of the charged particle: If ω is the angular frequency, then

v= rω
𝑚𝑣
𝑣 = ω( )
𝑞𝐵
𝐁𝐪
𝛚=
𝐦

The period of circular motion of the charged particle:

Let ω = 2π𝜗 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜗 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The time taken for one revolution is T= 2π/ ω ≡ 1/𝜗
2π
.𝑇= qB
m
𝟐𝛑𝐦
𝑻=
𝑩𝒒

Kinetic energy of charged particle :

𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝑞𝐵𝑟
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑣 =
𝑚
𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒒𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 , 𝑲. 𝑬 =
𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝟐𝒎

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Note : If there is a component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by 𝑣|| ),it will
make the particle move along the field and the path of the particle would be a helical one.

The distance moved by the charged particle along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch
(p) of the helical path.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑣|| 𝑇 𝑖𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

2𝜋
𝑝 = 𝑣|| ( )
𝜔
By using the relation
qB
ω=
m

2𝜋
𝑝 = 𝑣|| ( )
𝑞𝐵⁄
𝑚

𝑣|| 2𝜋𝑚
𝑝=
𝑞𝐵
The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of the helix.

MOTION IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

When a charge q is moving with velocity v in presence of electric and magnetic field ,then
𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝐹 = 𝑞 [ 𝐸 + (𝑣 × 𝐵 )]

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Let 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑗̂ . 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑘̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑖̂

𝑭𝑬 = q E = q 𝐸 𝑗̂

𝑭𝑩 = q( v x B ) = q ( 𝑣 𝑖̂ × 𝐵𝑘̂ ) = − 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑗̂
𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝐹 = 𝐪 𝐸 𝑗̂ + (− 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑗̂ )
̂
𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝐹 = = 𝐪 (𝐸 − 𝑣 𝐵 )𝑗

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD . (Q. Derive an expression for the force experienced by a current carrying
straight conductor placed in magnetic field .Under what condition is this force is maximum.

Consider a rod of uniform cross-sectional area A and length ‘l’ which is placed in a magnetic field B
.The conductor contains ‘n’ number of electrons then the total no of charge carriers in it is n A l .Let I
be the current flowing through the conductor .𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity of the electron .If ‘e’ is the
charge of each electron ,then total charge on all the free electrons on the conductor.

𝑞 = 𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑒
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃

𝐹 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑙 𝐵 sin 𝜃 … . (1) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑

Eq (1) becomes 𝑭 = 𝑰 𝒍𝑩 sin 𝜃

𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐼 𝑙 & 𝐵

𝑭 = 𝑰 (𝒍 × 𝑩 )

CASE 1
If 𝜃 = 90° 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝐼 𝑙𝐵 𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

If conductor is placed perpendicular to the direction of M.F ,it experiences a maximum force.

The direction of force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.

CASE 2
If 𝜃 = 0° or 𝜃 = 180° 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 𝑂 𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

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 If a current carrying conductor is placed parallel to the direction of M.F ,it experiences no
force.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT ELEMENT

BIOT-SAVART LAW (Q. State and explain BIOT-SAVART LAW . Use it to derive an
expression for the magnetic field produced at a point near a long current carrying wire.)

It is also called Laplace’s law. BIOT-SAVART LAW deals with the magnetic field at a point due to a
small current element.

Consider a small element AB of length 𝑑𝑙 of the conductor XY carrying a current I .Let r be be the
position vector of the point P ,form the current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ( current element is the product of current
and length of very small segment 𝑑𝑙 ) and 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟

According to Biot Savart’s law

The magnitude of the magnetic field 𝒅𝑩 at a point P due to current elements is directly
proportional to

1) The current I
2) Length element 𝒅𝒍
3) the angle 𝜽 between 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒓 ,

b) and inversily proportional to the square of the distance between them

𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 ∝
𝒓𝟐
𝑲𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑲 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒓𝟐
𝜇0
In SI units 𝐾 = where 𝜇0 is absolute permeability of free space.
4𝜋

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑤𝑏⁄𝐴𝑚

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 𝐴−1 𝑚
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

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 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
--In cgs system K = 1 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑟2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝝁𝟎 𝑰(𝒅𝒍×𝒓
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑

Case 1

𝜃=0

ie point p is on the axis , then 𝑑𝐵 = 0

Case 2

𝜃 = 90°

𝑖𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑙 ,

𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

Case 3 𝜃 = 180°

𝑖𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑝 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑑𝐵 = 0

BIOT- SAVART LAW INTERMS OF CURRENT DENSITY( j )

𝐼
𝑗=
𝐴
𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑗= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
𝐴𝑑𝑙

𝐼𝑑𝑙 = 𝑗𝑑𝑉

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟⃗
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3

𝜇0 𝑗 × 𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3

BIOT- SAVART LAW INTERMS OF CHARGE AND VELOCITY

𝑞 𝑑𝑙
𝐼𝑑𝑙 = . 𝑑𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑣 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐼𝑑𝑙 = 𝑞𝑣

𝜇0 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3

Similarities and Dissimilarities between Biot –Savart’s law and the Coulomb’s law

SIMILARITIES

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 • Both the electric and magnetic field depends inversely on square of distance between the
source and field point .Both of them are long range forces.
• Both obey superposition principle.
• The magnetic fields linear in the source Idl just as electric field is linear in its source, the
electric charge q.
•
DIFFERENCES
Biot –Savart’s law Coulomb’s law
Magnetic field B is produced by a vector Electric field E is produced by a scalar
source ie a current element (Idl) source ie a electric charge q
Biot –Savart’s law is angle dependent . Coulomb’s law is independed of angle θ
The magnetic field is perpendicular to the The electrostatic field is along the
plane containing the displacement vector r displacement vector joining the source and
and the current element Idl. the field point.

MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP (Q. USE

Biot –Savart law to derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a circular coil
carrying current at a point along its axis .)

Consider a circular coil of radius ‘a’ with centre ‘O’ .The plane of the coil be perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. Let ‘P’ is a point on the axis of the circular coil at a distance ‘x’ from
its centre O. OP = x

Consider two small elements of the coil each of length dl at ‘A and ‘B’
which are situated at diametrically opposite edges.
From figure
PA = PB = r
𝑟 = √𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2
According to Biot –Savart’s law

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2

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 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = 900
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
dB due to dl at A 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝐵′ 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑎 + 𝑥 2
2

𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵′

Resolving 𝑑𝐵 and 𝑑𝐵′ into two rectangular components .𝑑𝐵 cos ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝐵′ cos ∅ are equal and
opposite so they cancel each other . 𝑑𝐵 sin ∅ & 𝑑𝐵′ sin ∅ acting along the same direction.

Total magnetic field at P due to current through the whole circular coil

𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 sin ∅
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin ∅
𝐵= ∫
4𝜋 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2

𝜇0 𝐼 sin ∅
𝐵= ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2
𝑎
From figure sin ∅ =
√𝑎 2+𝑥 2

∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑎 ( 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒)

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎
𝐵= × 2𝜋𝑎
4𝜋 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2 √𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2
𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝟐 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟒𝝅 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐

𝝁𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝑰
𝑩= 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝑿
𝟐 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
Special case.1
If there are N turns in the coil
𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰𝒂𝟐
𝑩=
𝟐 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
Case 2
When P is at the centre of the circular coil
Then x = 0
𝜇0 𝑎 2 𝐼
𝐵=
2 𝑎3

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= (𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝)
2𝑎
𝜇0 𝑁 𝐼
𝐵= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
2𝑎
Variation of B with distance

11
 -----Distance ------
The direction of magnetic field is given by right hand thumb rule.

Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with the thumb pointing towards the
direction of current,then the other fingers encircling the coil gives the direction of magnetic field.

(inside the loop all the lines are in the same direction)

CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

Current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. Consider a circular current loop,

o Magnetic field at a distance x on the axis passing through the centre of the of the circular
current(I) carrying loop and normal to the plane of loop is given by:

𝜇0 𝑎2 𝐼
𝐵= 2 (𝑎 + 𝑥 2)3⁄2
2

o If the point is very far from the current loop (x ˃˃ a), then the magnetic field will be:

0 𝜇 𝐼𝑎 2
𝐵 = 2𝑥 3

Multiplying numerators and denominators by 2π:

𝜇0 𝐼 2𝜋𝑎 2
𝐵= where 𝜋𝑎 2 = A (area)
4𝜋𝑥 3
𝜇0 2𝐼𝐴
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑥 3
𝜇0 2𝑚
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑥 3 where m is magnetic dipole moment and m = I A
𝜇0 2𝑚
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑥 3
o Comparing the above equation to the electric field E due to electric dipole of moment p at an
axial point:

𝟐𝑷
𝑬= 𝟒𝛑Ɛ𝐨 𝐱 𝟑
o We can observe that

12
1. magnetic dipole moment m and electric dipole moment p are comparable
2. permeability of free space μo and inverse of permittivity of free space 1/Ɛo are comparable
o Using the above comparison, we can also use the value of electric field E due to electric dipole of
moment p at an equatorial point to evaluate the magnetic field at the equatorial point
𝒑
𝑬= 𝟒 𝝅Ɛ𝐨𝒙𝟑

𝜇0 𝑚
∴𝐵=
4𝜋𝑥 3
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field B around a closed path in
vacuum is equal to 𝜇0 times the total current I passing through the closed path.

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑙

Applications of Ampere’s circuital law

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE LONG STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT

(3 mark)

Let I be the current flowing through a straight wire .A magnetic field is produced which has the same
magnitude at all points ie the M.F has cylindrical symmetry around the wire .Let P be a point at a
distance ‘r ‘ from the staight wire .Let dl be a small element of the circular path and B be the M.F at
P . The magnetic field at P will be tangential to the circumference of the circular loop.B and dl acting
along the same direction .

The line integral of M.F over the closed circular path is,
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 … (1)

By Amperes circuital law ∮𝑙 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

By using equation (1) ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
Where ∮ 𝑑𝑙 =2𝜋𝑟 B2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓
• The field at every point on a circle of radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is same in
magnitude.

13
 • The magnetic field possesses a cylindrical symmetry.
• . The field is directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance
from the (infinitely long) current source.

• The field direction at any point on this circle is tangential to it. Thus, the lines of constant
magnitude of magnetic field form concentric circles.

The right-hand rule :To determine the direction of the magnetic field due to a long wire.

According to the right-hand rule ,Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended
thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of
the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A SOLENOID CARRYING CURRENT

A solenoid is a tightly wound helical loop from an insulated wire carrying a current I and the length of
the solenoid is much greater than its diameter.

Consider a long solenoid having n turns per unit length and carrying current I. A magnetic field is set
up inside the long solenoid, which is uniform and parallel to the length of the solenoid .
𝑁
If there are N turns in length L of wire , then 𝑛 = 𝐿

Consider a rectangle PQRS ( Amperian loop )

Let PQ = L

̂ = ∮𝑄 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵. ̂ 𝑅
̂ + ∮𝑆 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
+ ∮𝑄 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 ̂ + ∮𝑃 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
̂ …….(1)
𝑃 𝑅 𝑆
For path RS ,B= 0 (since field is zero outside a solenoid)
𝑺
∮ 𝑩 𝒅𝒍 ̂=0
𝑹

For path QR and SP , B and dl are mutually perpendicular. so cos 90=0)

𝑹 𝑷
∮ 𝑩 𝒅𝒍̂ = ∮ 𝑩 𝒅𝒍 ̂ =0
𝑸 𝑺
For path PQ ,B and dl are along the same direction
̂ = ∮𝑸 𝑩 𝒅𝒍
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩. ̂ = 𝑩 𝑳 … . . (𝟐)
𝑷
By Ampere’s circuital law

̂ = 𝜇0 × 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆

̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵.

14
 ̂ = 𝜇0 × 𝑛𝑜 . 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 × 𝐼
̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵.
̂ = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐿 𝐼 … . . (3)
̂ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐵.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3) 𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐿 𝐼
∴ The M.F at a point inside the solenoid,
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼
𝑁
If there are N turns in length L of wire , then 𝑛 = 𝐿
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑵
𝑩=
𝑳

N – Total no of turns
L – Total length
Case 1
Outside the solenoid B = 0
Case 2
𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼
Near the end of the solenoid , B =
2
If the solenoid is wound on a core of a material having relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 then
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛 𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑛𝐼

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN TOROID(Q. Using Ampere’s circuital law

,derive an expression for the magnetic field along the axis of a toroidal solenoid.)

The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely
wound. It is a solenoid which has been bent into a circular shape to close on itself.

Let n be the number of turns per unit length and I the current flowing through the toroid .Magnetic
field at all points inside the toroid equidistant from the centre O is same.

Magnetic field inside the turns of toroid is given by B = μo nl

Magnetic field inside a toroid is constant and is always tangential to the circular closed path. Magnetic
field at any point inside the empty space surrounded by the toroid and outside the toroid, is zero,
because net current enclosed by these space is zero.

Consider a point P at a distance r from the centre O .

15
 According to Ampere’s circuital law
̂ = μo × total current passing through the circle of radius r
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩.

̂ = μo × (n2π r )𝑰
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩.
̂ = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑩. 2π r
̂ 𝒅𝒍
∮ 𝑩.

𝑩. 2π r = μo × (n2π r )𝑰

𝑩 = μo n 𝑰
μo N I 𝑁
𝐵= 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛=
𝐿 𝐿
Case 1
At a point inside
B=0
Case2 At a point outside B = 0
FORCES BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINEAR CONDUCTORS CARRYING
CURRENT(Q. Derive an expression for the force per unit length between two long
straight parallel current carrying conductors. Hence define S.I unit of current
(ampere).)

It is experimentally established fact that two current carrying conductors attract each other when the
current is in same direction and repel each other when the current are in opposite direction.

Consider C and D two infinite long straight conductors carrying currents I 1 and 𝐼2 in the same
direction . They are parallel to each other at a distance d apart.

Consider a wire C will produce a field B1 at all near by points .The magnitude of B1 due to current
I1 at a distance r i.e. on wire D is
𝜇0 2𝐼1
B1 =
4𝜋 𝑟

According to the right hand rule the direction of B1 is perpendicular to the plane of paper ,directed
inwards.

16
 • Consider the unit length of wire D which lies in the M.F B1 and the force experienced by it
will be
𝐹2 = B1 𝐼2 𝑙 where l is unit length

𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹2 =
4𝜋 𝑟

• According to Flemings left hand rule force on conductor D acts perpendicular to D directed
towards C
• Similarly conductor C experiences a force ,
𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹1 =
4𝜋 𝑟

𝐹1 is perpendicular to C and directed towards D .Hence C and D attract each other

• .If currents in conductor C and D are in opposite directions , the forces act outwards and
hence they repel each other with the same force.

Definition of AMPERE

𝜇0 2𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹 =
4𝜋 𝑟

If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 1𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 1𝑚

𝜇0 2 𝜇0
𝐹 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7
4𝜋 4𝜋

𝐹 = 2 × 10−7 𝑁 /𝑚

One ampere is that steady current which when flowing through each of the two parallel uniform
long linear conductors placed in free space at a distance of 1 metre from each other will attract
or repel each other with a force of 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵 per metre of their length

TORQUE ON A RECTANGULAR CURRENT CARRYING COIL IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

17
Consider a rectangular coil PORS suspended in a uniform M.F (B).

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑙

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏

I be the current in the direction PQRS and 𝜃 be the angle which plane of the coil makes with the
direction of M.F .

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 , 𝐹4 , be the forces acting on the four current carrying arms PQ,QR,RS,SP of the coil.

The forces 𝐹2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹4 are equal in magnitude and acting in opposite direction along the same straight
line ,they cancel each other.

According to Flemings left hand rule 𝐹1 acts outwards (The force in the arm PQ)

𝐹1 = 𝐼 (𝑙 × 𝐵)

𝐹1 = 𝐼 𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃

Here 𝑃𝑄 ⊥ 𝐵, 𝜃 = 90°
𝐹1 = 𝐵𝐼 𝑙

The force in the arm RS , 𝐹3 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠

𝐹3 = 𝐼 𝑙 𝐵 sin 90°

𝐹3 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙

The forces 𝐹1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹3 are equal ,parallel and acting in opposite directions having different lines of
action, form a couple . Due to this the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction.

Torque 𝜏 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑃𝑆 cos 𝜃 = 𝑏 cos 𝜃

𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼 𝑙 × 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 × 𝑙 = 𝐴

18
 𝜏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝐴 cos 𝜃

Where 𝐼 𝐴 = 𝑚 , 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚

𝝉 = 𝒎 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 … … . (𝟏)

If the normal is drawn on the plane of the coil ,such that the angle made is 𝛼 with the magnetic field ,

Then 𝜃 + 𝛼 = 90°

𝜃 = 90° − 𝛼

cos 𝜃 = cos(90° − 𝛼) = sin 𝛼

𝝉 = 𝒎 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 … … . (𝟐)

𝝉 = 𝒎 × 𝑩 … … . (𝟑)

CASE 1

If the coil is set with its plane parallel to the direction of M.F ,then

𝜃 = 0° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos0° = 1

𝝉 = 𝒎 𝑩 cos0°

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 𝑩

For n turns where m = IA

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨 𝑩

Case 2

If the coil is set with its plane perpendicular to the direction of M.F ,then

𝜃 = 90° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos90° = 0

𝝉= 𝟎 𝒊𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎

THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A REVOLVING ELECTRON

An atom consists of positively charged heavy nucleus around which negatively

charged electrons are revolving in circular orbit.

19
The electron of charge (-e) performs uniform circular motion around a stationary nucleus with period
of revolution T. If r be the radius of the orbit of revolution of the electron and v is the orbital velocity
then
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

2𝜋 𝑟
𝑇= … … . (1)
𝑣
𝑒
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = … … (2) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐼𝑂𝐷
𝑇
𝑒
∴ 𝐼=
2𝜋 𝑟
𝑣
𝑒𝑣
𝐼= … … (3)
2𝜋 𝑟
Magnitude of orbital magnetic moment 𝜇𝑙 associated with circular current is
𝜇𝑙 = 𝐼𝐴
𝑒𝑣
𝜇𝑙 = 𝐴
2𝜋 𝑟

Where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑒𝑣
𝜇𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟 2
2𝜋 𝑟
𝑒𝑣𝑟
𝜇𝑙 = …….(4) (when electron moves in circular path)
2

The direction of this magnetic moment is into the plane of paper. Negatively charged electron is
moving in anticlockwise direction, leading to a clockwise current.
Multiplying and dividing the right hand side of equation (4) by the mass of
electron, me then

𝑒 me 𝑣𝑟
𝜇𝑙 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 me 𝑣 𝑟 = 𝐿 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
2me
𝑒 L
𝜇𝑙 =
2me
𝑒 L
𝜇𝑙 = −
2me

The negative sign indicates that the orbital angular momentum of electron is opposite in the direction
to the orbital magnetic moment.

The ratio of magnetic dipole moment with angular momentum of

revolving electron is called the gyromagnetic ratio.
𝜇𝑙 𝑒
gyromagnetic ratio. = − 2m
𝑳 e

gyromagnetic ratio ,Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg for an electron,

𝒏𝒉
Bohr hypothesised that the angular momentum , 𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅

20
where n is a natural number, n = 1, 2, 3, .... and h is a constant ,Planck’s constant with a value h
= 6.626 × 10–34 J s.

𝑒 𝒏𝒉
𝜇𝑙 =
2me 𝟐𝝅
𝑛𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑙 =
4𝝅 me
𝑒ℎ
Take the value n = 1, 𝜇𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 4𝝅 me

𝜇𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =9.27 × 10–24 Am2

This value is called the Bohr magneton.

μl minimum is the minimum magnetic moment an electron can achieve , when it moves in an orbit.

The electron is an elementary particle and it does not have an axis to spin around like a top or
our earth. Nevertheless it does possess the intrinsic magnetic moment. Its dipole moment is the
orbital magnetic moment.

THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

It is a device which is used detect the small amount of electric current. It is most sensitive device and
used in many electrical instruments. It is the major basic component of Ammeter and Voltmeter.
Principle:
Moving coil galvanometer is based on the fact that when a current carrying rectangular coil is placed
in a magnetic field it experience torque.
Construction
In galvanometer, it consists of rectangular coil having large number of insulated copper coil which is
wounded in the non magnetic metallic frame of soft iron as centre core. The coil is suspended by a
phosphor-bronze strip between the poles pieces of a strong permanent magnet. This is to make the
magnetic field radial ,so that the coil remains parallel inside the magnetic field. When a current flows
through the coil ,a torque acts on it.
Theory:
Let n be the no of turns of the coil and B be the strength of the magnetic field in which the coil is
suspended .When a current I flows through the rectangular coil, the coil gets deflected, the suspension
wire is twisted and rotating torque is developed on it.

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 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝝉 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎° 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎° = 1
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝝉 = 𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
The magnetic torque nIAB tends to rotate the coil. The phosphor bronze strip gets twisted. As a result
, a couple comes into play which will try to restore the coil to its original position .If ∅ is the twist
produced in phosphor bronze strip due to rotation of coil and K is the restoring torque per unit twist,
𝝉
K=∅

Restoring torque 𝝉 = 𝑲 ∅ Where K is torsional constant.

counter torque k φ that balances the magnetic torque nIAB; resulting in a steady angular deflection φ
In equilibrium
k φ = nI AB
𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
∅=
𝑲
𝑲 ∅
𝑰=
𝒏𝑨𝑩
𝑲
𝑰 = 𝑮 ∅ 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑮 =
𝒏𝑨𝑩
G is known as galvanometer constant
I∝ ∅
So the deflection of galvanometer is directly proportional to the current on the rectangular coil. Hence
we use linear scale in galvanometer.

(VIM) Properties of material of wire used as suspension in moving coil galvanometer (Phosphor
Bronze strip)
• Non magnetic substance
• Good conductor of electricity
• High tensile strength
• Low torosional constant (K)
• Low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Soft iron core helps to ,
• makes the field radial

• increases the strength of magnetic field

Current sensitivity of a galvanometer.

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced when unit current
passes through the galvanometer. A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it produces large deflection
for a small current.

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k φ = nI AB
𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
∅=
𝑲
𝒏𝑰𝑨𝑩
∅ 𝑲
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒔 = =
𝑰 𝑰
𝒏𝑨𝑩
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒔 =
𝑲
Unit -- rad / A
𝟏
= 𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒕
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑲
𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒕 =
𝒏𝑨𝑩

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by

1. increasing the number of turns

2. increasing the magnetic induction

3. increasing the area of the coil

4. decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire. This explains why phosphor-
bronze wire is used as the suspension wire which has small couple per unit twist.

Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer

The voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit voltage.
∅
𝑽𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉
, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐾
𝐼𝑅
𝑛𝐴𝐵 1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = ( )
𝐾 𝑅
𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝒕𝒚.
𝑅
𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒗
Unit of 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚— 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕

Increasing the current sensitivity does not increase the voltage sensitivity. When the number of turns
(n) is doubled, current sensitivity is also doubled . But increasing the number of turns correspondingly
increases the resistance (R). Hence voltage sensitivity remains unchanged.

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Conditions for sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer
𝒏𝑨𝑩
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒔 =
𝑲
A galvanometer will be highly sensitive ,if
• n is large, B is large, A is large and K is small
• A galvanometer will be highly sensitive ,if it shows large deflection even when a small
current is passed through it
• The value of n cannot be increased beyond a certain limit because it increases the resistance
of the galvanometer. It tends to decrease the sensitivity.
• The value of B can be increased by using a strong horse shoe magnet.
• The value of A cannot be increased beyond a certain limit because in that case the coil will
not be in a uniform M.F. It makes galvanometer bulky and un manageable.
• The value of K can be decreased . The value of K depends upon the nature of material used.
Q,,The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an ammeter to measure the value of the current in a
given circuit.
This is for two reasons: (i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection for
very weak current or a current of the order of µ A. (ii) For measuring currents, the galvanometer has
to be connected in series, and as it has a large resistance, this will change the value of the current in

the circuit.
SHUNT RESISTANCE
Shunt is a low resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer or ammeter. It protects the
galvanometer or ammeter from the strong currents.

Conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter

A galvanometer is converted into an

ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel with it. As a result, when large current flows in a
circuit, only a small fraction of the current passes through the galvanometer and the remaining

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larger portion of the current passes through the low resistance. The low resistance connected in
parallel with the galvanometer is called shunt resistance. The scale is marked in ampere.

Galvanometer resistance = G

Shunt resistance = S

Current in the circuit = I

∴ Current through the shunt resistance = I = (I–Ig)

Since the galvanometer and shunt resistance are parallel, potential is common.

(I–Ig) S = Ig G

𝐼𝑔 𝐺
𝑆=
(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )

The shunt resistance is very small because Ig is only a fraction of I.

The effective resistance of the ammeter R p , when G in parallel with S

1 1 1 𝑆+𝐺 GS
= + = = Rp =
Rp 𝐺 𝑆 𝐺𝑆 G+S

R p is very low and this explains why an ammeter should be connected in series. When
connected in series, the ammeter does not appreciably change the resistance and current in the circuit.
Hence an ideal ammeter is one which has zero resistance.

(Q) A galvanometer cannot be used to measure potential difference across a conductor in the
circuit.Give reason

A galvanometer cannot be used to measure potential difference across a conductor in the circuit
,because ,when a galvanometer is connected in parallel to the conductor, a large current flows through
the galvanometer because galvanometer has low resistance. As a result , current flowing through the
conductor and potential difference across conductor decreases

Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter( A device of infinite resistance)

A galvanometer is converted into voltmeter in such a way that it can measure the potential
difference across the conductor without causing any change in the potential difference across it.

Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference between the two ends of a current
carrying conductor.

A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with it.
The scale is calibrated in volt. The value of the resistance.

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Let V is the potential difference, and Ig is the current through the galvanometer.

Total resistance = G + R

By Ohm’s law V =IR

V
I=R

V
Ig =
G+R

V
G+R =
Ig

V
R= − G
Ig

This value of resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer ,it works as a voltmeter

The effective resistance = G+R

The resistance of voltmeter is very large as compared to that of galvanometer

Cyclotron

Q. Explain the construction, principle and working of a cyclotron with the help of a neat
diagram. Write the expression for cyclotron frequency..Also find the total K.E attained by the
particle.

Or. Explain the principle, construction and working of a cyclotron with the help of a neat
diagram. Derive an expression for time period of revolution and cyclotron frequency. Show that
it is independent of the speed of the charged particles and radius of the circular path.

Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate positively charged particles or positive ions to high energies,
so that they can carry out the nuclear reactions.. Cyclotron is used to accelerate protons, deutrons and
α - particles. It was devised by Lawrence.

26
Principle : Cyclotron works on the principle that a charged particle moving normal to a magnetic
field experiences magnetic Lorentz force due to which the particle moves in a circular path.It uses the
fact that the revolution of the charged particle in a M.F is independent of its energy.

Construction

The cyclotron consists of two flat semi-circular metal boxes

called ‘dees’ and are arranged with a small gap between them. A source of ions is located near the
mid-point of the gap between the dees .The dees are connected to the terminals of a radio frequency
oscillator, so that a high frequency alternating potential exists between the dees. Thus dees act as
electrodes. The dees are enclosed in an insulated metal box containing gas at low pressure. The entire
arrangement is sealed in vacuum tube. The whole apparatus is placed between the poles of a strong
electromagnet which provides a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the dees.
To produce proton, hydrogen gas is used and for alpha particle , helium gas is used.

Working:

When a positive ion of charge q and mass m is emitted from the source, it is accelerated towards the
Dee having a negative potential at that instant of time. Due to the normal magnetic field, the ion
experiences magnetic lorentz force and moves in a circular path. By the time the ion arrives at the gap
between the Dees, the polarity of the Dees gets reversed. Hence the particle is once again accelerated
and moves into the other Dee with a greater velocity along a circle of greater radius. Thus the particle
moves in a spiral path of increasing radius and when it comes near the edge, it is taken out with the
help of a deflector plate (D.P). The particle with high energy is now allowed to hit the target T.

When the particle moves along a circle of radius r with a velocity v, the magnetic Lorentz force
provides the necessary centripetal force.

mv 2
Bqv =
r
𝑚𝑣
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 , 𝑟 = …..(1)
𝐵𝑞

𝑑
Time period , 𝑇 =
𝑣

For circular path 𝑑 = 2𝜋 𝑟

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 2𝜋 𝑟
𝑇= …..(2)
𝑣

Substituting equation (1) in (2),

2𝜋 𝑚𝑣
𝐵𝑞𝑣

2𝜋 𝑚
𝑇= … . (3)
𝐵𝑞

It is clear from equation (3)that the operation of the cyclotron is based on the fact that the time taken
for one revolution of an ion is independent of

(i) the radius (r) of the path and (ii) the velocity (v) of the particle.

The frequency of rotation of the particle,

1
𝜗=
𝑇

𝐵𝑞
𝜗=
2𝜋 𝑚

This frequency is called the cyclotron frequency or magnetic resonance frequency. The
cyclotron frequency is independent of speed of particle.
𝑣
Cyclotron angular frequency 𝜔 = 𝑟

𝑚𝑣 𝐵𝑞𝑟
From eq (1) 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞
, 𝑣= 𝑚

𝐵𝑞𝑟
𝑩𝒒
𝜔= 𝑚 , 𝝎=
𝑟 𝒎

The maximum energy of positive ion

Let 𝑣0 and 𝑟0 are the maximum velocity and maximum radius of the circular path
followed by the positive ion cyclotron

𝑚𝑣0 2
= 𝐵𝑞𝑣0
𝑟0

𝐵𝑞𝑟0
𝑣0 =
𝑚

1 1 𝐵𝑞𝑟0 2
Maximum kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚 ( )
2 2 𝑚

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 𝐵2 𝑞2 𝑟0 2
Maximum kinetic energy = 2𝑚

Uses of cyclotron

• For several decades, these were the best sources of high-energy beams
for nuclear physics experiments. However, these are still in use for this type of
research.
• Used to bombard nuclei with energetic particles and steady the resulting
nuclear reactions
• Used to implant ions into solids and modify their properties or synthesise new
materials .
• Treat Cancer: Cyclotrons can be used in particle therapy to treat cancer, using
the ion beams from cyclotrons can be used to penetrate the body and kill tumors
by radiation damage.
LIMITATIONS OF CYCLOTRON

• It is suitable for accelerating heavy particles like proton ,deutron, 𝛼 particle . Electron
cannot be accelerated because the mass of the electron is small and hence K.E and
velocity will be very high.So the electrons go quickly out of the step with the
oscillating E.F.
• The uncharged particles cannot be accelerated by cyclotron.
• When a positive ion is accelerated by the cyclotron it moves with greater and greater
speed. But the ion cannot move with a speed beyond a certain limit in a cyclotron.

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