Chapter 1: introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction of detergents

1. Introduction
1.1Detergents industry:
Detergents and soap are used very commonly in our daily life. We use them for
washing clothes. Detergents and soap industry is a pretty old industry. Detergents
and soap industry include products for washing, via laundry soaps and synthetic
detergents. These are consumer items. Technology, quality, marketing &
distribution network determine the success of the units in this sector. The
industry has developed both in the small-scale sector and the organized sector;
yet 90% of production of laundry soap is in the small scale sector. Two critical raw
materials are required for the production of laundry soaps. Nominal investment is
sufficient for this industry as it involves simple methods of processing and
manufacturing of various types of soap and detergents.
The chemical composition is different for the installation of soap, but the same
mechanism by the soap, not adversely affected by hard minerals in the water.
Have emerged detergents this first appeared in Germany during the First World
War because of the substantial shortfall in the fatty materials necessary for the
soap industry at that time. And then spread in all countries.

1.2History of detergents:

It is difficult to trace back the origin of soap making industry. Even the primitive
man was conscious of keeping his body and surroundings clean. He adopted
different ways to keep his body clean, according to the changing environment. It
is learned that a group of people named phonations were making soap .by using
the fat of goat, ash etc. The custom of rubbing the body with spar while bathing is
prevalent in some of the tribal societies. The method of using mimosa and certain
leaves to remove the dirt also existed in some villages. Initially when the so called
man-made cleaning and washing agents were unknown, the naturally occurring
Chille salt peter of nitrates 6- of sodium and potassium were used for washing 1
Chapter 1: introduction

and cleaning. It is recorded in history that soap was first manufactured by the
Gauls using tallow and ash fiom beech wood. The Romans learnt this from the
Gauls when Rome under the leadership of Julius Caesar conquered the Gauls. The
Assyrians were known for the use of alkali as head wash. The Frantis are tribes of
West AfXca who used a type of soap made of wood ashes and fats during the first
century A.D. Crude methods of soap making were known to the ancient
Egyptians, Chinese and Indians. It is very F- interesting to note that in India,
people were using some seeds of plants as soap. During the second century, soap
was manufactured scientifically. Caustic soda or sodium hydroxide is
manufactured by heating lime from lime stone or seashell with sodium carbonate
made by evaporating alkaline water.

By the Eighth century, soap manufacturing progressed in Italy and Spain. It was
only after five hundred years, that the soap manufacturing technique reached
France. The first unit manufacturing soap using olive oil was founded at Marselk
in France by the fifteenth and sixteenth century. Italy also started manufacturing
soap at a commercial level, by mixing fat and potash separated fiom the ash of
trees. The progress of this method of making soap was slow. He was able to make
sodium chloride from salt after this Michael Eugne Cheverat successfully
completed the experiment of making soap mixing fat and sodium hydroxide.
Through this experiment, it was found that soap manufacturing is a chemical
process and glycerin gets separated from fat when sodium chloride and fat are
made to react. These two discoveries were responsible for the commercial
production of caustic soda and its use for the manufacture of soap. There arose
plenty of soap manufacturing units in England by eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. But the burden of tax weakened these units and as a result the tax on
soap manufacturing units was stopped. Because of this there was a great increase
in the manufacture and use of soap. Afterwards there came a series of soaps,
with distinctive smell and quality. Hindustan also contributed to this
development. Much of the development in soap making industry today, however
is due to organizing capacity of first Viscount Lever Hume. Later on with the
advancement of scientific knowledge, the soap industry was established by the
government on a firm footing. During the initial period, naturally occurring animal
fatty, oils were used in soap making. As available natural fats were limited in
supply, it was substituted subsequently by vegetable oils. As time passed
inadequate availability of vegetable oils for soap making also 7 was felt. This
promoted soap industry to search for some other substitutes of vegetable oils
for making soap and also for some substitutes for soaps. It was with the 2
Chapter 1: introduction

development of petroleum industry that the solution to this was found. The
industry made a phenomenal progress after the Second World War. Today, there
are a host of soap manufacturers from small scale sector to multinationals. Soaps
and detergents occupy a vital place in modern chemical science.

1.1 How detergents work:

The effective part in detergent is salt, this salt consists of sodium and sulphonic
acid, the active is attached to water (hydrophilic) and the other part not attached
(hydrophobic). So it is attached to dirt and by mixing the dirt compound with
water. The attracted part is sodium and the not attracted part is alkyl group.

3
Chapter 1: introduction

2. Literature review

2. Detergents:
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants having cleaning properties
in dilute solutions. Commonly, "detergent" refers to alkyl benzenesulfonates, a
family of compounds that are similar to soap but are less affected by hard water.
 High detergency in soft and hard water (they do not react with Ca and Mg
solution.)
 Requirement of small quantity
 Detergency action at low temperature
 Do not hydrolyses

3.1 Cleaning process:

Generally it defined as “is removing of the dirt by wash it by detergents or soaps”.
In order to achieve good results for washing is required three main factors in
tandem with each other, namely:

1 - Chemical agent: This is provided by the soap and detergents.

2 - Mechanical agent: This is secured by a washing machine.
3 - Heat agent: This is secured by raising the temperature of water Washing.

3.1 Cleaning process Consist of three steps:

1-throughly wetting the dirt and the surface of the article being
washed with the soap or detergents solution.
2-removing the dirt from the surface.
3- Maintaining the dirt in a stable solution or suspension (detergency)
in wash water soap or detergents increase the wetting ability of the
water so that it can more easily penetrate the fabrics and reach the
soil. The soil removal begins. Each molecule of chaining solution may
be considered along the chain. One end of the chain is hydrophilic
(water loving) the other is hydrophobic (water hitting or soil loving).
The soil loving ends of some of these molecules are attracted to a soil
particle and around it. At the same time the water loving ends pull the
molecules and soil particles away from the fabric and into the wash
water. This is the water which when combined with the chemical
4
Chapter 1: introduction

agitation of the washing machine enables soap or detergent to

remove soil suspends it and keeps it from re-depositing on clothes.

3.2 Classification of detergents:

Detergents usually divided by ionic properties in the water to four major
categories:

2.4.1 ANIONIC DETERGENTS:

The detergency of the anionic detergent is vested in the anion. The anion is
neutralized with an alkaline or basic material, to produce full detergency typical
anionic detergents are alkyl benzene sulfonates. There are three kinds of anionic
detergents: a branched sodium dodecyl benzenesulfonate, linear sodium dodecyl
benzenesulfonate, and soap. The alkyl benzene portion of these anions is
lipophilic and the sulfonate is hydrophilic. Two varieties have been popularized,
those with branched alkyl groups and those with linear alkyl groups.

2.4.2 CATIONIC DETERGENTS:

The detergency is in the cation, which can be a substantially sized molecule.
Strong acids are used, such as hydrochloric acid to produce the CI anion as the
neutralizing agent although in essence, no neutralization takes place in the
manufacturing process .Cationic detergents are similar to the anionic ones, with a
hydrophobic component, but instead of the anionic sulfonate group, the cationic
surfactants have quaternary ammonium as the polar end.
The ammonium center is positively charged.

2.4.3 ETHOXYLATES:
Ethoxylates are compounds that have long hydrocarbon chains, but terminate
with (OC𝐻2 C𝐻2 )𝑛 OH group. These groups are not charged, but they are highly
hydrophilic owing to the presence of many oxygen centers.

2.4.4 NON-IONIC OR ZWITTERIONIC DETERGENTS:

This detergent consists of no ionic constituents which are ionically inert. The vast
majority of all non-ionic detergents are condensation products or ethylene oxide
with a hydrophobic. This group of detergents is enormous, and the permutation
endless. These are characterized by their (net) uncharged, hydrophilic head
groups.
5
Chapter 1: introduction

2.1Application of detergents:
There is many types of detergents, each type of cleaning detergent its own, but
often divided detergents mainly to:
1 - General detergent laundry, or detergents for all purposes.
2 - Cleaners Uses easy.
3 - Detergents harsh surfaces.
3 - Detergent dishwasher’s mechanism.

Additives:
2.6.1 Perfume:
perfume intervention of various kinds in the composition of laundry detergent, it
gives the distinctive smell cleaner, and hide the washing water smells unpleasant,
and give the lovely smell of laundry last for a longer period .
2.6.2 Materials Restoratives:
They are cleaner, more effective by increasing its ability to clean and remove dirt
and remove the effect of calcium and magnesium that cause brackish water. The
most commonly used material substance: a three-sodium phosphate, tri sodium
phosphate. These articles are used by a large margin in the washing powder, but
their use is in decline in developed countries for causing the pollution of rivers
and canals where they help the growth of algae and aquatic plants
2.6.3 Sealant of the oxidation and corrosion of metal parts for washing
machines:
Especially aluminum is the most important article by sodium silicate.
2.6.4 Sodium carbonate:
Add only pastes and powders, detergents, which gives strong alkaline cleaning,
and you remove the hard water by precipitation of calcium and magnesium
that causes a water hardness but these sediments can be a stain on clothing or
washing machine.
2.6.5 Articles of the foam is installed including:
Alkynol high fatty acid amide, in order to stabilize the foam and prevent the
cleaner to remove the fat so the skin remains soft smooth skin after washing or
bathing containing these compounds .The use of these compounds also increase
the viscosity of liquid Detergent.
2.6.7 Anti - foam:
Which add a special liquid and powder washing mechanism and the foremost of
which is organic silicon oils.
6
Chapter 1: introduction

2.6.8 Alcohol and petroleum:

To be added to some types of liquid detergent feed stocks working to break the
various components of the detergent on the one hand, it also works to dissolve
dirt and grease remaining on the glass and metal on the other hand, and prevents
freeze the liquid at low temperatures, while shipping and storage and use

Dodecyl benzene sulfonate:

Most sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonates are a member of the linear alkyl
benzene sulfonates, meaning that the dodecyl group (C12H25) is unbranched. This
dodecyl chain is attached at the 4-position of the benzene sulfonate group. Linear
dodecyl-4-benzenesulfonate anions can exist in six isomers (ignoring optical
isomers), depending on the carbon of the dodecyl group that is attached to the
benzene ring. The isomer shown below left is 4-(5-dodecyl) benzene sulfonate (4
indicating the position of the benzene ring, 5 indicating the position on the
dodecane chain). Branched isomers, e.g. those derived from tetramerized
propylene, are also known (below right) but are not as widely used because they
biodegrade too slowly.
3.3 Production:
Billions of kilograms are produced annually. Alkyl benzene sulfonates have been
prepared by many methods. In the most common route, benzene is alkylated by
long chain mono alkenes (e.g. dodecene) using hydrogen fluoride as a catalyst.
The purified dodecyl benzenes (and related derivatives) are then sulfonated with
sulfur trioxide to give the sulfonic acid. The sulfonic acid is subsequently
neutralized with sodium hydroxide

Hydro treated kerosene is a typical feedstock for high purity linear paraffin

(N-paraffin’s), which is subsequently dehydrogenated to linear olefins:

CnH2n+2→ CnH2n + H2

Alternatively, ethylene can be oligomerized (partially polymerized) to produce

linear alkenes. The resulting linear mono-olefins react with benzene in the
presence of a catalyst to produce the LABs. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and
aluminum chloride (AlCl3) are the two major catalysts for the alkylation of 7
Chapter 1: introduction

benzene with linear mono-olefins. The HF-based process is commercially

dominant; however, the risk of releasing HF (a poisonous substance) into the
environment became a concern particularly after the Clean Air Act Amendment.

8
Chapter 1: introduction

References
1. Arun Bahl, T.B. Of Organic Chemistry (M.E.), S. Chand, 2005.
2. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 18, world health
organization, 1999.
3. Mohammad Shafat Mostafa , Understanding the Role of Packaging on
Consumer Buying Behavior in Dhaka City:A Study on Detergent Powder,
Dhanmondi, Dhaka, April 29, 2012

9
 Chapter 2: Process Description

Chapter 2
Process Description

First the raw material is prepared in the preparation unit. Some companies use
the sulphonic acid as raw material while others prepare
2.1Step of preparing:

I. The preparation unit:

In this unit the raw material is prepared; the caustic soda is prepared by mixing it
with water till it becomes liquid. The sodium silicate can prepared also which
plays a major role in preventing corrosion and the powder and it’s considered to
be an unbiased substance in the manufacturing process. The prepared raw
material is then introduced to batch reactor; the added substances are caustic
soda and sulphonic acid in known percentages.
II. Reactions:
This is called neutralizer vessel and the basic reaction is
C₁₈H₃₀SO₃ + NaOH → C₁₈H₂₉SO₃Na + H₂O
This product is in a high temperature then it inters a returner vessel it is a mixer
where the temperature is raised to the need the outgoing substance called
neutralized slurry. A water is prepared before the slurry enters the mixture while
other substances like these substances are added inter mixing like sodium
10
 Chapter 2: Process Description

silicate which prevent corrosion the mixer temperature are between (60◦C-
75◦C).The mixing product is soil to aging vessel, this vessel helps the good mixing
to be done. The product from the vessel is emptied in feed tank in a slurry shack.
From the feed tank directly to the poster pump from the pump it is pumped to filter
to purify the slurry from it is impurities and to reduce the viscosity, then it is
pumped to homogenizer (grinder) to grind it and to reduce its viscosity too, as long
as the grinding is high it gives small parts of product. From the homogenizer it is
pumped to a high pressures pump till the pressure reaches 60 bar and its humidity
is 40%. This pumps the slurry to a draying tower with 15m high and 7m in diameter
is called spray dryer. The tower consist of nozzles from top that sprays, the slurry
through these nozzles and the drying can become by the heat exchange between
the slurry and the hot air till it reaches 400◦ C.
III. Preparation of the hot air:
The hot air can prepare in a burner this equipment is working with natural gas
and it receives natural air till the temperature reaches (350°C- 400°C). And as long
as the slurry’s temperature big it needs less heat from the burned and to reduce
the natural gas quantity. The air enters from the bottom of the column and the
slurry from the top (counter current flow) the heat exchange made directly
between the gas and slurry. Then the slurry is dried in a temperature bigger than
boiling point 100°C also these is air fans from the top to let the slurry reach
equilibrium between the top and bottom air. The evaporated plus the air and gas
come out from the top of the column with a humidity 5% and temperature 70°C
then it passes through belts to the filling till it passes it gets filled directly in
specific quantities. There is a byproduct in a clear near to the detergents or soap
color but does not specify the needed tank to use it and byproduct is called lams.
There is an entering air from the product that cools the product till it reaches
29°C.

11
Chapter 2: Process Description

Figure3.1Block diagram of detergents manufacturing

12
Chapter 2: Process Description

Figure3. 2Process flow diagram of detergents manufacturing

13
Chapter 2: Process Description

R – 101 Reactor (neutralizer)

M – 101 Mixer
F – 101 Filter
P – 101 Poster pump
M – 102 Homogenizer(mixer)
P – 102 High pressure pump
D – 101 Spray dryer
Fs – 101 Furnace
SC – 101 Screen
P – 101 Recycle pump
V – 101 Perfumer (vessel)

14
Chapter 2: Process Description

References
Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical Engineering
Design, 4th Ed.

15
Chapter 3: Material Balance

Chapter 3

Material (mass) balance

3.1 Introduction:
Material balance is the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the
complete process will determine the quantities of raw material required and
product.
Balance over individual process units set the process stream flows and
composition. A good understanding of Material Balance calculation is essential in
process design
Conservation of mass:
The general conservation equation of process system is:
Input = output + accumulation + losses – generation … … … … … … … … … … (3.1)
For steady state process accumulation = 0
The reaction occurs
Generation = 0
Then the equation is reduced to:
Input = output + losses … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.2)

3.2 Material balance calculation:

We started with screen because we have the designed final product flow rate. So
we took it as a base to our calculation to calculate the waste of raw materials
containing the sodium hydroxide, water and other materials.

16
 Chapter 3: Material Balance

3.2.1 Material balances around the neutralizer(R – 101):

M₁ M₀

M₂

Where:
𝑀0 = Amount of initial acid
𝑀1 = Amount of initial base
𝑀2 = Amount of output from neutralizer
From literature the conversion of reaction X = 96%
for mixed flow reactor:
Input=out +losses +accumulation… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.3)
Accumulation=0
Then the equation becomes:
input = output + losses
Given:
Amount of initial acid (M₀) = 2,917.68 kg/hr
Amount of initial base (M₁) = 357.49 kg/hr
Total initial feed:
Assume total initial feed ≡ Mt ᶦᶯ
Mt ᶦᶯ = M0 + M₁ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.4)

Mt ᶦᶯ = 2,917.68 + 357.49 = 3,275.17 kg/hr

17
Chapter 3: Material Balance

Reaction equation:
C₁₈H₃₀SO₃ + NaOH → C₁₈H₂₉SO₃Na + 𝐻2 𝑂
A + B = C + D
Molecular weight:
326.49 40 348.49 18

Assume the losses by the reaction = 5 kg/hr

From reaction:
the percent of NaOH at losses
40
= ∗ 100% =0.109143 =10.914%
40+326.49
then the percent of linear alkyle benzene sulfunic acid in losses
= 100 − 10.914 = 89.09%
Amount of acid (LABSA)𝒊𝒏 losses:
assume the amout of acid in losses ≡ Ma ᵈ
Ma ᵈ = percentage of acid ∗ losses … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.5)
Ma ᵈ = 0.89 ∗ 5 = 4.454 kg/hr
Amount of base (NaOH) in losses:
assume the amout of acid in losses ≡ Mb ᵈ
Mb ᵈ = percentage of base ∗ losses … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … (3.6)

Mb ᵈ = 0.10914 ∗ 5 = 0.546kg/hr
Total amount of reacted feed:
Assume the total amount of reacted feed ≡ Mr ᵗ
Mr ᵗ = X ∗ (Mt ᶦᶯ − losses) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.7)

Mr ᵗ = 0.96 ∗ (3,275.167 − 5) = 3,139.36 kg/hr

Amount of reacted acid (LABSA):
Assume amount of acid reacted ≡ Mr ᵅ 18
Chapter 3: Material Balance

Mr ᵅ = acid percentage ∗ Mr ᵗ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.8)

Mr ᵅ = 0.89 ∗ 3,139.36 = 2,796.722 kg/hr

Amount of reacted base (NaOH):
Assume amount of base reacted ≡ Mr ᵇ
Mr ᵇ = base percentage ∗ Mr ᵗ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.9)

Mr ᵇ = 0.109 ∗ 3,139.36 = 342.641kg/hr

Total amount of unreacted feed:
Assume the amount of unreacted feed ≡ Mt ᵒᵘᵗ
Mt ᵒᵘᵗ = (1 − X) ∗ (Mt ᶦᶯ − losses) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.10)
Mt ᵒᵘᵗ = (1 − 0.96) ∗ (3,275.167 − 5) = 130.807kg/hr
Amount of unreacted acid
Assume the amount of unreacted acid ≡ Ma ᵒᵘᵗ
Ma ᵒᵘᵗ = acid percentage ∗ Mt ᵒᵘᵗ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3.11)
Ma ᵒᵘᵗ = 0.89085 ∗ 130.81 = 116.530 kg/hr
Amount of unreacted base:
Mb ᵒᵘᵗ = base percentage ∗ Mt ᵒᵘᵗ … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … (3.12)
Mb ᵒᵘᵗ = 0.109 ∗ 130.81 = 14.276 kg/hr
Water produced from reaction:
Assume amount of water produced from reaction ≡ Mw
From reaction equation:
326.49 → 18
2,796.722 → Mw
Mw = 154.189 kg/hr
Amount of Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfate (SDBS):
Assume amount of SDBS produced from reaction ≡ Ms 19
 Chapter 3: Material Balance

326.49 → 348.49
2,796.73 → Ms
Ms = 2,985.175 kg/hr
Total amount of product:
Assume amount of product produced from reaction ≡ Mp
Mp = Mw + Ms … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … (3.13)

Mp = 154.19 + 2,985.1 = 3,139.369kg/hr

Then we find stream (M₂) as follow:
M2 = Mp + Mt ᵒᵘᵗ … … … … … … … … … … …… … … (3.14)
M2 = 3m139.37 + 130.806 = 3,270.17 kg/hr

3.2.2 Material balance around aging vessel (M – 101):

M₂ M₃

M₁₅

M₄

Where:
𝑀2 = Amount of output from neutralizer
𝑀3 = Amount of additives
𝑀4 = Amount of output from aging vessel
𝑀15 = Amount of recycle from the screen
We know that:
M₁₅ = 0.14*M₂ = 457.824kg/hr 20
 Chapter 3: Material Balance

M₂ = 3,270.17 kg/hr
M₄ consist of:
84% additives
15% LABAS (acid)
1% sodium hydroxide (base)
M₂ + M₃ + M₁₅ = M₄ … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (3.15)
M₃ – M₄ = -3,727.99(𝟏)
C.M.B FOR additives:
(1*M₃) – (0.84*M₄) = (0 * 3734.22)
M₃ – (0.84 ∗ M₄) = 0 (𝟐)
From equation (1) and (2) we find:
M₃ = 19,571.97kg/hr
M₄ = 23,299.96kg/hr

3.2.3 Material balance around the feed filter (F -101):

M₄

M₅

M₆

Where:
𝑀4 = Amount of output from aging vessel
𝑀5 =Amount of slurry.
𝑀6 =Amount of output from the feed filter
Assume: M₅ =0.1%M₄
21
 Chapter 3: Material Balance

M₄=M₅ +M₆
M₄–M₅=M₆
M₄–0.001M₄=M₆
M₆=23276.66kg/hr
M₅=0.001*M₄
M₅=0.001*23,299.96kg/hr
M₅ =23.299Kg/hr

3.2.4 Material balance around the spray dryer (D – 101):

M₉

M₁₀ M₁₁

M₁₂

Where:
𝑀9 = 𝑀6 = Amount of output from the feed filter

𝑀10 =Hot air from the Furnace

𝑀11 =Amount of vapor water

𝑀12 = Amount of output from the spray dryer

From BFD: M₆=M₇=M₈=M₉=23,276.66kg/hr

Stream (M₉) Contains 35%water, 65% solid

Stream (M₁₂) Contains 2%water, 98% solid

For solid:
𝑀9 = 𝑀11 + 𝑀12 … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (3.16)
C.M.B:
(0*M₁₁) + 0.98* M₁₂ = 0.65* M₉
22
 Chapter 3: Material Balance

M₁₂ = 15,438.6kg/hr
Then amount of vapor water
M₁₁ = 7,838.059Kg/hr

3.2.5 Material balance around the screen (SC – 101):

M₁₃ M₁₄

M₁₆

Where:
𝑀13 = 𝑀12 = Amount of output from the spray dryer
𝑀14 = 𝑀15 = Amount of recycle
𝑀16 = Amount of output from the screen
From BFD: M₁₂ = M₁₃ = 15,438.6kg/hr
M₁₄= M₁₅ 457.8238kg/hr
M₁₃ = M₁₄ + M₁₆… … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (3.17)
M₁₃ – M₁₄ = M₁₆
M₁₆ = 15,438.6 – 457.824=14,980.78≈15,000 kg/hr

23
 Chapter 3: Material Balance

3.2.6 Material balance around the perfumer (V – 101):

M₁₆
M₁₇

M₁₈

Where:
𝑀16 =Amount of output from the screen
𝑀17 =Amount of perfumes
𝑀18 = Amount of output from the perfumer
From literature:
Amount of perfumes (M₁₇) =10 kg/hr
and also from above material balance we find
M₁₆ =15,000 kg/hr
Then:
M₁₆ + M₁₇ =M₁₈… … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (3.18)
M₁₈=15,000+10 =15,010kg/hr

24
Chapter 3: Material Balance

3.3 Overall material balance:

Figure 3.1 Overall material Balance

25
Chapter 3: Material Balance

LABSA Losses
2,917.68kg/hr 5 kg/hr

NaOH Slurry
357.49 kg/hr 23.299 kg/hr

Plant
Additives Vapor water
19,571.97kg/hr 7,838.059 kg/hr

Perfumer Detergent
10 kg/hr 15,010 kg/hr

Total amount of input = 357.49 + 2,917.68 + 19,571.97+10 =22,875.14kg/hr

Total amount of output =5 + 23.299 +7,838.059 +15,010 = 22,876.358 kg/hr

26
Chapter 3: Material Balance

References
1. Basic principles calculation in chemical engineering (David M. Himmelblau
/James B.Riggs).
2. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical Engineering
Design, 4th Ed.
3. Robert H. Perry, 1997, Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook 7th edition
Perry, McGraw Hill, London.
4. Vladimir.V.Veverka, FrantisekMadron, material and energy balance in the
process industries, Elsevier. , 1997

27
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

Chapter 4
Energy Balance

4.1INTRODUCTION:
As with mass, energy can be considered to be separately conserved in all but
nuclear processes.
Material can change form, new molecular species can be formed by chemical
reaction, but the total mass flow into a process unit must be equal to the flow out
at the steady state. The same is not true of energy. The total enthalpy of the
outlet streams will not equal that of the inlet streams if energy is generated or
consumed in the processes; such as that due to heat of reaction.

4.2CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
A general equation can be written for the conservation of energy:
Energy out = Energy in + generation – consumption –accumulation (4.1)
This is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics. An energy balance can
be written for any process step.
Chemical reaction will evolve energy (exothermic) or consume energy
(endothermic). For steady-state processes the accumulation of both mass and
energy will be zero.
4.2.1 Specific enthalpy (H):
Tabulated values of enthalpy are available for the most common materials. In the
absence of published data the following expressions can be used to estimate the
specific enthalpy.
For pure materials with no phase change:
The enthalpy is calculated the following equation:
H = m cp (T – 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.2)
Where:
H≡ Enthalpy of stream 28
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

m ≡ mass flow rate of stream

Cp ≡ specific heat of stream
T ≡ temperature of stream
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ≡ reference temperature
T … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.3)
HT = ∫ CP dT
𝑇𝑑

Where:
HT = specific enthalpy at temperature T.
C P = specific heat capacity of the material.
𝑇𝑑 = the datum temperature.
If the phase change takes place between the specific and datum temperatures;
the latent heat of the phase transition is added to sensible heat change:
TB T … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.4)
HT = ∫ CP1 dT + λ + ∫ CP2 dT
𝑇𝑑 𝑇𝐵

Where:
CP1 = specific heat capacity of the first phase, below 𝑇𝐵 .
CP2 = specific heat capacity of the second phase, above 𝑇𝐵 .
λ = latent heat.
The specific heat at constant pressure will vary with temperature:
CP = a + bT + cT 2 + dT 3 + eT 4 … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.5)

4.2.2 Enthalpy of Mixtures:

For gases, the heats of mixing are usually negligible and the heat capacities and
enthalpies can be taken as additive without introducing any significant error into
design calculations as following:
Cp (mixture) = 𝑋𝐴 ∗ C𝑝𝐴 + 𝑋𝐵 ∗ C𝑝𝐵 + 𝑋𝐶 ∗ C𝑝𝐶 +… … … … … … …
(4.6) 29
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

Where:
XA, XB, XC, etc. Are the mole fractions of the components A, B, C.
N ∗ Cp = 𝑁𝐴 ∗ C𝑝𝐴 + 𝑁𝐵 ∗ C𝑝𝐵 + 𝑁𝐶 ∗ C𝑝𝐶 + … … … … … … … … (4.7)
Where:
N= the stream total molar flow rate,
Cp = the stream heat capacity,
NA, NB, NC… = Components molar flow rates.
The specific enthalpy of the mixture at temperature t is given by:
H mixture, T = 𝑋𝐴 ∗ 𝐻𝐴,𝑇 + 𝑋𝐵 ∗ 𝐻𝐵,𝑇 + Δ𝐻𝑀,𝑇 + …… … … … … … …… … (4.8)
Where:
HA,T and HB,T= are the specific enthalpies of the components A and B and Δ𝐻𝑀,𝑇 is
the heat of mixing when 1 mole of solution is formed, at temperature T Heats of
mixing and heats of solution are determined experimentally and are available in
the handbooks for the more commonly used solutions. If no values are available,
judgments must be used to decide if the heat of mixing for the system is likely to
be significant.

4.3ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATIONS:

4.3.1 Energy balance around neutralizer(R – 101):

0
1

Where:
𝑄0 = Energy of stream 0 (acid) 30
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

𝑄1 = Energy of stream 1 (NaOH)

𝑄2 = energy of output from neutralizer
𝑄0 = ṁcp ∆T
𝑄0 = ṁ cp (T − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.9)
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25°C
𝐶𝑝0 = 2.19 Kj/kg k
ṁ we found it from material balance
ṁ = M0 = 2,917.68 kg/hr
ṁ = M1 = 357.49 kg/hr
Then
𝑄0 = 2917.68 ∗ 2.19 ∗ (25 − 25) = 0 kj/kg
𝑄1 = ṁ Cp (T − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.10)
𝑄1 = 357.49 ∗ 2.41 ∗ (25 − 25) = 0 kj/kg
GENERATION:
C₁₈H₃₀SO₃ + NaOH → C₁₈H₂₉SO₃Na + H₂O
A + B = C + D
Heat of reaction ∆Hr
∆Hr = ∑ ∆𝐻𝑓(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡) − ∑ ∆𝐻𝑓(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
∆𝐻𝑓(𝐴) = −114,157 KJ/Kmole
∆𝐻𝑓(𝑩) = −11,728.8 KJ/Kmole
∆𝐻𝑓(𝑐) = −280,378.2 KJ/Kmole
∆𝐻𝑓(𝐷) = −15,877.8 KJ/Kmole
∆𝐻𝑟 = (−280,378.2 − 15,877.8) − (−11,4157 − (−11,728.8))
∆𝐻𝑟 = −170,370 KJ/Kmole

31
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

𝑄𝑟 = ∑ −∆𝐻𝑟 ∗ mole product formed … … … … … … … … … … … …… … (4.11)

170,370 ∗ 2,917.68
𝑄𝑟 = = 1426,356.22 KJ/kg
348.5
𝑄2 = 𝑄𝑟 = 1,426,356.22 KJ/kg
Cooling water temperature inlet = 20°C
Cooling water temperature outlet = 60°C
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑀 𝑐𝑝 ∆T … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.12)
Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.k
Then
Q 1426356.22
M= = = 8530.85 kg/hr
Cp∗∆T 4.18∗(60−20)

4.3.2 Energy Balance around aging vessel (M – 101):

3
2

15

Where:
𝑄2 = energy of output from neutralizer
𝑄3 = energy for additives
𝑄4 = energy for slurry
𝑄15 = energy for recycle
𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄15 = 𝑄4 … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.13)
32
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

Find𝑸𝟑 :
Stream 3 contain of mixture of material we can summarize energy for stream 3 as
follow:
Additives M (kg/hr) Cp (kJ/kg . k) ∆T (k) Q (kJ/kg)
s-silicate 471.25 0.916 0 0
s-sulfate 9432.51 0.903 0 0
Soda ash 1414.88 1.04 0 0
SCMS 471.625 4.18 0 0
Fatty acid 943.251 2.17 0 0
STPP 1886.51 4.06 0 0
Other 943.251 2.01 0 0
Table4. 1 Table 1 Additives Specification
Then 𝑄3 = 0 kJ/kg
Find 𝐂𝐩 mixture:

(4.14)
Calculations:
Component Percentage(X)% 𝐂𝐩 (kj/kg.k) X ∗ 𝐂𝐩
Acid 0.489 2.19 0.011
NaOH 0.06 2.41 0.001
SDBS 12.52 1 0.125
Water 0.647 4.18 0.027
s-silicate 20.54 0.916 0.188
s-sulfate 41.09 0.903 0.371
Soda ash 6.163 1.04 0.064
SCMS 2.054 4.18 0.086
Fatty acid 4.109 2.17 0.089
STPP 8.218 4.06 0.334
Other 4.109 2.01 0.083
𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 1.379
Table4. 2 Calculation of Cp for Mixture
33
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

Find𝑸𝟏𝟓
𝑄15 = ṁ cp (T − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.15)
T = 25 °C , 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25°C
M₁₅ = 464.04 kg/hr
𝑄15 = 464.04 ∗ 1.379 (25 − 25) = 0 kj/kg
Then:
𝑄4 = 1426357.89 KJ/kg
4.3.3 Energy balance around filter (F -101):
4

Where:
𝑄4 =energy of output from aging vessel
𝑄5 = energy of filtered materials
𝑄6 =energy of output from the feed filter
𝑄4 =𝑄5 + 𝑄6 … … … … … … … … …… … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.16)
𝑇5 = 40°C, 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25°C
𝑀5 = 23.34 Kg/hr
Then:
𝑄5 = ṁ cp (T − Trf) … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.17)
23.34 ∗ 1.379 ∗ (40 − 25) = 482.79 kj/kg
And 𝑄6 = 1425875.12 kJ/kg
34
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

4.3.4 Energy balance around poster pump (P-101):

7
6

𝑝1 =𝑝6 =2 bar
𝑝2 =𝑝7 4 bar
𝑀6 = 23,315.51 kg/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 750 kg/𝑚3
𝑀6
Volumetric flow rate (v˳) = … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … (4.18)
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

23,315.51
= 31.09 m³/hr
750
Assume pump efficiency = 70%
Then:
v˳∗∆p
Power = … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … … …… … … … …… … (4.19)
ƞ

31.09 ∗ (4 − 2) ∗ 101,325
= 2,499.94 kJ/s
3,600 ∗ 0.7

35
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

4.3.5 Energy balance around high pressure pump (P-102):

𝑝1 =𝑝8 =4 bar, 𝑝2 =𝑝9 = 17 bar

M8 = 23,315.51 kg/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 750 kg/m3
𝑀8
Volumetric flow rate (v˳) = … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … (4.20)
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

23,315.51
= 31.09 m³/hr
750
1 1
V= = = 0.00133 m³/kg
⍴ 750

Assume pump efficiency = 70%

Then:
v˳ ∗ ∆p 31.09 ∗ (17 − 4) ∗ 101325
Power = = = 16,249.62 Kj/s
ƞ 3,600 ∗ 0.7
Work = V ∗ ∆p… … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.21)
0.00133 ∗ (17 − 4) ∗ 101,325 = 1,756.3 KJ/Kg

36
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

4.3.6 Energy balance around spray dryer (D-101):

9

10 11

12

Where:
𝑄9 = energy of spray dryer feed
𝑄10 = energy of inlet air (spray air)
𝑄11 =energy of outlet (vapor + air)
𝑄12 = energy of product from spray dryer
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑄9 :
𝑄9 = ṁ cp (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.22)
ṁ = 𝑀9 = 23,315.51 kg/hr (from material balance)
cp = 1.37 kj/kg. k
𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 45°C , 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25°C
𝑄9 = 23,315.51 ∗ 1.37 ∗ (45 − 25) = 638,844.97 kJ/kg
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑄12 :
𝑄12 = ṁcp (𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.23)
ṁ = 𝑀12 = 15,464.37 Kg/hr(from material balance)
cp = 1.37 kj/kg. k
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 60 °C, 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25°C
𝑄12 = 15,464.37 ∗ 1.37 ∗ (60 − 25) = 741,516.54 kj/kg
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑄10 ∶ 37
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

𝑄10 = ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ ∆T … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.24)

𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.005 kj/kg. k
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛 = 375 °𝐶
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25 °𝐶
∆T = (375 − 25) = 350°C
𝑄10 = ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 1.005 ∗ 350 = 351.75 ∗ ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 KJ/hr
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑄11 :
𝑄11 = [ṁ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ λ + ṁ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ ∆T] + [ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ ∆T] (4.25)
Latent heat 𝜆= 2,258 KJ/kg
Evaporated water=ṁ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 7,933 kg/h
𝐶𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.15Kj/kg.k
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 115°𝐶 , 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 25 °𝐶
𝑄11 = [7,933 ∗ 2258 + 7,933 ∗ 4.15 ∗ (115 − 25)]
+ [ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 1.005 ∗ (115 − 25)]
𝑄11 = 20,875,689.5 + 90.45 ∗ ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟
BY BALANCE
𝑄9 +𝑄10 = 𝑄11 +𝑄12 … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.26)
638,844.97 + 351.75 ∗ ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 20,875,689.5 + 90.45 ∗ ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 741,516.54
Then:
ṁ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 80,284.58 kg/hr
Substitute this to find 𝑄10 & 𝑄11
𝑄10 = 351.75 ∗ 80,284.58 = 28,240,101.4 kj/kg
𝑄11 = 2,089,629 + 90.45 ∗ 80,284.58 =28,137,429.9 kJ/kg

38
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

4.3.7 Energy balance around screen (SC-101):

13 14

16

Where:
𝑄13 =𝑄12 = energy of product from spray dryer
𝑄14 =𝑄15 = energy for recycle
𝑄16 = energy of output from the screen (Energy of product)
𝑄13 = 𝑄14 + 𝑄16 … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.27)
𝑄14 = 𝑄15 (Energy of recycle) = 0 kj/kg
𝑄13 = 𝑄12 = 741,516.54 kj/kg
Then:
𝑄16 (Energy of product) =741,516.54 kj/kg

4.3.8 Energy balance around recycle pump (P-101):

15
14

𝑃1 =𝑃14 =1 bar, 𝑃2 = 𝑃15 =2 bar

𝑀14 = 𝑀6 = 464.04 kg/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 750 kg/𝑚3
𝑀14
Volumetric flow rate (v˳) = … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … (4.28)
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
39
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

464.04
= 0.618 m³/hr
750
Assume pump efficiency = 70%
Then:
v˳ ∗ ∆p 0.618 ∗ (2 − 1) ∗ 101,325
Power = = = 24.88 kj/s
ƞ 3,600 ∗ 0.7

4.3.9 Energy balance around perfumer (V-101):

16

17

18

Where:
𝑄16 = energy of output from the screen (Energy of product)
𝑄17 = Energy of perfumes
𝑄18 = energy of output from the perfumer
𝑄16 +𝑄17 = 𝑄18 … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …… … (4.29)
Assume:
∆T = 0°C
So: 𝑄17 = Energy of perfumes = 0 kJ/kg
𝑄16 =Energy of product =741516.54 kj/kg
Then:
𝑄18 = 741516.54 kj/kg

40
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

4.4Summarize of Energy balance:

We find amount of utilities which will pay in our project, these are:
Electricity to operating pumps:
Pump type Power needed KJ/s
Poster pump 2,499.94

High pressure pump 16,249.6152

Recycle pump 24.88
Table4.3 Summarize of pumps energy balance
Amount of cooling water needed to cool reactor =8,530.85 kg/hr
Amount of dry air for spray dryer = 80,284.58 kg/hr

41
Chapter 4: Energy Balance

References
1. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical Engineering
Design, 4th Ed.
2. Robert H. Perry, 1997, Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook 7th edition Perry,
McGraw Hill, London.
3. J. D. Seader / Ernest J. Henley, Separation Process Principals, Second Edition,
2006.
4. Basic principles calculation in chemical engineering (David M. Himmelblau
/James B.Riggs).
5. Vladimir.V.Veverka, FrantisekMadron, material and energy balance in the
process industries, Elsevier. , 1997

42
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

Chapter 5
Equipment Design

5.1Design of neutralizer:
5.1.1 Calculations:
From reaction:
C₁₈H₃₀SO₃ + NaOH → C₁₈H₂₉SO₃Na + H₂O
Let: C₁₈H₃₀SO₃ ≡ A ; NaOH ≡ B
C₁₈H₂₉SO₃Na ≡ C ; H₂O ≡ D
A + B = C + D
For acid:
F A₀ ∗ XA
−rA = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟓. 𝟏)
−σA
Where:
−rA ≡ reaction rate for acid in mol/m³ .hr
FA0 ≡ Initial feed rate of acid in mol/hr
XA ≡ conversion of reaction = 99%
σA ≡ stoichiometric coefficient for acid from reaction equation
M₀
F A₀ = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … … …(5.2)
Mwa

Where:
M0 ≡ initial flow rate of acid = 2917.68kg/hr
Mwa ≡ molecular weight of acid = 326.49 ∗ 10−3 kg/mol
2917.68
F A₀ = = 8936.51 mol/hr
326.49 ∗ 10−3
8936.51∗0.99
−rA = = 8847.14 mol/m³hr
−(−1)

43
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

F A₀ − F A
Va = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.3)
−rA

Where:
Va ≡ volume occupied by acid in "m³"
Mₐᵒᵘᵗ
FA = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …… …(5.4)
Mwa

Where:
FA ≡ out feed rate of acid in "mol/hr"
Mₐᵒᵘᵗ ≡ out acid flow rate = 116.53 kg/hr
116.53
FA = = 356.91 mol/hr
326.49 ∗ 10−3
8936.51 − 356.91
Va = = 0.97 m³
8847.14
( v0 )acid = 𝑀0 /ρₐ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟓. 𝟓)
Where:
v0 acid ≡ volumetric flow rate ofacid in "m³/hr"

ρₐ ≡ density of acid = 745.42 kg/m³

2917.68
( v0 )acid = = 3.91 m³/hr
745.42
For base:
FB₀ ∗ XB
−rB = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.6)
−σB
Where:
−rB ≡ reaction rate for acid in "mol/m3 hr”
FB₀ ≡ Initial feed rate of base in "mol/hr"
XB ≡ conversion of reaction = 99%
−σB ≡ stoichiometric coefficient for NaOH from reaction equation
M₁
FB₀ =
Mwb
Where:
44
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

M1 ≡ initial flow rate of base = 357.49 kg/hr

Mwb ≡ molecular weight of NaOH = 40 ∗ 10−3 kg/mol
357.49
FB₀ = = 8937.25 mol/hr
40 ∗ 10−3
8937.25 ∗ 0.99
−rB = = 8847.88 mol/m³ hr
−(−1)
F B₀ − F B
Vb =
−𝐫B
Where:
Vb ≡ volume occpied by base in "m³"
Mb ᵒᵘᵗ
FB =
Mw
Where:
FB ≡ out feed rate of base in "mol/hr"
Mb ᵒᵘᵗ ≡ out base flow rate = 14.28 kg/hr
14.28
FB = = 357 mol/hr
40 ∗ 10−3
8937.25 − 357
Vb = = 0.97 m³
8847.88
( v0 )base = M₁/ρb
Where:
(v0 )base ≡ volumetric flow rate of basein m³/hr
M1 ≡ initial mass flow rate of base = 357.49kg/hr
ρb ≡ density of (NaOH) = 715.43 kg/m³
357.49
( v0 )base = = 0.499 kg/mᶟ
715.43
5.1.1.1 Volume of reactor: ( Vr )
Assume that only 80% of reactor is filed by reactants, Then the real volume
of reactor
Va + Vb
Vr = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.7)
0.8

45
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

0.97 + 0.97
Vr = = 2.424 m³
0.8

5.1.1.2 Total volumetric flow rate:

(v0 )ᵗᵒᵗ = (v0 )acid + (v0 )base = 3.91 + 0.499 = 4.414 m³/hr
Vr
τ = (v … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.8)
0 )ᵗᵒᵗ

Where:
τ ≡ The residence time of the reactor in "hr"
2.43
τ= = 0.549 hr
4.41
5.1.1.3 Height and diameter:
The reactor is cylindrical.
Assume that: H=1.9Dᵢ
Where:
H ≡ height of reactor in "m"
Dᵢ ≡ diameter of reactor in "m"
πDᵢ² πDᵢ²
Vr = [ ]∗H=[ ] ∗ 1.9Dᵢ … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.9)
4 4

2.43 = 1.17809 * Dᵢ³

Dᵢ = 1.176m
H = 1.9 * 1.176 = 2.234m
5.1.1.4 Thickness:
Pᵢ∗Dᵢ
ε= + C … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.10)
(2j∗F)−Pᵢ

Where:
ε ≡ thickness of reactor (mm)
Pᵢ ≡ design pressure(N/mm²)
Dᵢ ≡ initial reactor diameter
j ≡ joint factor = 0.7
F ≡ design stress(N/mm²)
46
C ≡ corrosion allowance = 4 mm
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

Assumption:|
Design pressure 12% above operating pressure
Pᵢ ≡ 1.12 ∗ operating pressure = 1.12 ∗ 101325 ∗ 10−6 = 0.11348 N/mm²
F = 165 N/mm²
C = 4 mm
Then the thickness of reactor is
0.11348 ∗ 1.27∗103
ε= + 4 =4.464mm
(2∗0.7∗165)−0.11348

5.1.1.5 Design of jacket:

(v0 )w = Mᵒw /ρw

Where:
Mᵒw ≡ water mass flow rate = 8530.85 kg/hr
ρw ≡ water density = 1000 kg/m3
(v0 )w ≡ volumetric flow rate of cooling water in”m3 /hr”
8530.85
(v0 )w = = 8.53085 m³/hr
1000
Vw ≡ (v0 )w ∗ τ = 8.53085 ∗ 0.55 =4.68575 m³

Vt = Vw + Vr … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.11)

Where:
Vt ≡ total volume of in m³
Vt = 4.68575 + 2.43 =7.110138 m³
πDᵼ2
Vt = [ ] ∗ 0.8H … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … …(5.12)
4

Where:
Dt ≡ total diameter
π∗0.8∗2.234
7.110138 = [ ] ∗ Dt 2
4
Dt =2.251227 m
D − Dᵢ − 2ε
Space = t … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … (5.13)
2
2.251227 ∗ 103 − 1.176 ∗ 103 – 2 ∗ 4.464
=
2
47
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

533.259mm=0.533259 m

5.1.1.6 Mechanical Design of reactor:

Impeller Sizing and Speed Calculation:
Blade type: bitched blade.
Impeller diameter:
Di
Da = … … … … … … … …… … … …… … … … … …(5.14)
3

Where:
Da ≡ impeller diameter in "m"
1.176
Da = =0.392m
3

Impeller height:
Ej = Da … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.15)

Where:
Ej ≡ Impeller height above vessel floor
Ej = 0.392m

Length of impeller blade:

Da
L= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟓. 𝟏𝟕)
4
Where:
L ≡ length of impeller blade
0.392
L= =0.098 m
4

Width of impeller blade:

Da
W= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟓. 𝟏𝟖)
5
Where:
W ≡ width of impeller blade
0.392
W= =0.078m
5

48
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

Width of baffle:
D
J = i … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …(5.19)
10
Where:
J ≡ width of baffle
1.176
J= =0.118m
10

Shape Factors:
Assumption:
Number of impellers = 3
Number of impeller blades = 6
Distance between two consecutive impellers = Da = 0.392m
Impeller efficiency = 0.85
By calculating shape factors:-
Da 0.392
S1 = = = 0.333
Di 1.27
Ej 0.392
S2 = = = 0.333
Di 1.27
L 0.098
S3 = = = 0.25
Da 0.392
W 0.078
S4 = = = 0.2
Da 0.392
J 0.118
S5 = = = 0.1
Di 1.27
H 2.234
S6 = = = 1.9
Di 1.27
Speed of impeller:
Assumption:
Tip velocity→ (3 to 6) m/s
vt
N = … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.20)
π×Da
Where:
N ≡ speed of impeller
vt ≡ tip velocity = 5m/s
5
N= =4.063 rps
π×0.392 49
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

POWER of impeller:
Power = Np ∗ ρ ∗ N³ ∗ Da ⁵ … … … … …… … … … … … …(5.21)
Where:
Np ≡ power number = 6
ρ ≡ density of mixture = 820.28 kg/m³
Power = 6 ∗ 820.28 ∗ 3.76³ ∗ 0.42335 =3,052.422W

power of impeller
Actual power = … … … … … … … … … …(5.22)
efficiency

By taking Impeller efficiency = 0.85

3052.422
Actual power = =3591.085 W
0.85

Shaft Design:
Material of construction is Stainless Steel.
actual power×75
Tc = … … … … … … … … … … … … …(5.23)
2×π×N

Where:
Tc ≡ Continuous average rated torque on the agitator shaft
4183.106 ∗75
Tc = =10,555.82 kg. m
2∗π∗3.76
Tm = 1.5 × Tc … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.24)
Where:
Tm ≡ main average rated torque on the agitator shaft
Tm = 1.5 ∗ 10555.82 =15833.73kg . m

Polar modulus of the shaft:

Tm
Zp = … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …(5.25)
fs
Where:
Zp ≡ polar modulus of the shaft
fs ≡ shear stress for stainless steel = 630 kg/cm²

50
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

15833.73∗100
Zp = =2,513.29 cm³ =0.002513 m³
630
Shaft diameter:
3 Zp ∗16
Dshaft = √ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … (5.26)
π
Where:
Dshaft ≡ shaft diameter
2513.29 ∗ 16
3
Dshaft = √
π
Dshaft =23.396cm =0.234 m

51
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.1.2 Summary of design:

Material of construction stainless steel

Conversion 99%
Reactor volume (Vr ) 2.424m3
Total volume of jacket (Vt ) 7.110138 m3
Initial diameter (Dᵢ) 1.176m
Total diameter (Dt ) 2.251227 m
Total Volumetric flow rate of reactor (v0 )ᵗᵒᵗ 4.413 m³/hr
Residence time (τ) 0.55 hr
Height of reactor (H) 2.234m

Thickness of reactor (ε) 4.464mm

Space 76.19511 mm
Volumetric flow rate of cooling water (v0 )w 8.53085 m³/hr
Impeller power consumption 3591.085 W
Table 5.1 Summary of neutralizer design

Figure 5.1 Neutralizer design

52
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.2Design of aging vessel (mixer):

5.2.1 Calculation:
5.2.1.1 Mixer Volume:
M4
v˳ᵗ = … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … ……. …(5.27)
ρs

Where:
v˳ᵗ ≡ Volumetric flow rate of slurry in "m³/hr"
M4 ≡ Mass flow rate out from mixer = 23,338.85 kg/hr
ρs ≡ Density of slurry (detergent) = 750 kg/m³
23338.8
v˳ᵗ = = 31.12 m³/hr
750
Vm
τ= … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.28)
v˳ᵗ
Then:
Vm = v˳ᵗ ∗ τ… … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.29)
Where:
Vm ≡ Volume of mixer in" m³”
τ ≡ residance time of mixer in " hr"
Note:
mixing time must be big to give homogenized slurry. So we assume that the
residence time for mixing = 1 hr according to experience and plant
τ = 1 hr
Vm = 31.12 ∗ 1 = 31.12 m³
5.2.1.2 Mixer diameter:
πDᵢ² πDᵢ²
Vm = [ ]∗H=[ ] ∗ 1.9Dᵢ … … … … … … … … …(5.30)
4 4

The vessel is cylindrical so:

Assume:
H=1.9Dᵢ … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.31)
Where:
H ≡ height of mixer in “m”
53
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

Dᵢ ≡ diameter of mixer in “m”

πDᵢ2
31.12 = [ ] ∗ 1.9Dᵢ
4
31.12 = 1.17809 ∗ Dᵢ3
Dᵢ = 2.7525 m
Then the height becomes:
H = 1.9 ∗ 2.7525 = 5.2297 m

5.2.1.3 Shell thickness:

Pᵢ∗Dᵢ
ε= + C … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …(5.32)
(2j∗F)−Pᵢ
Where:
ε ≡ thickness of mixer "mm"
Pᵢ ≡ design pressure"N/mm²"
Dᵢ ≡ mixer diameter
j ≡ joint factor = 0.7
F ≡ design stress for stainless steel = 165 N/mm2
C ≡ corrosion allowance = 4 mm
1.2 ∗ 101325
Pᵢ ≡ 1.12 ∗ operating pressure = = 0.11348 N/mm²
10⁶
0.11348 ∗ 2.7525 ∗ 103
ε= + 4 = 5.3528 mm
(2 ∗ 0.7 ∗ 165) − 0.11348
5.2.1.4 Agitator diameter:
Di
Da = … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … …… … … … … …(5.33)
3

D 2.7525
Da = = = 0.9175 m
3 3

5.2.1.5 Agitator Speed:

vt
N = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟓. 𝟑𝟒)
π × Da
Where:
N ≡ speed of agitator in “r.p.s”
vt ≡ tip velocity = 5 m/s
5
N= = 1.7346 r. p. s 54
π × 0.9175
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.2.1.6 Agitator power consumption:

The power of the shaft required to drive an agitator can estimated by:
P = Np × ρs × N³ × Da ⁵ … … … … … … … … … … …… … … …(5.35)
Where:
P ≡ power of the shaft required In“W”
N ≡ speed of agitator In “r.p.s “
Np ≡ power number = 6
ρ ≡ density of slury = 750 kg/m³
Da ≡ agitator diameter
Then agitator power becomes:
Power = 6 × 750 × (1.7346)³ × (0.9175)⁵
Power = 15270.0656 W

55
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.2.2 Summary of aging vessel design:

Material of construction stainless steel
Diameter of mixer 2.753 m
Height of mixer 5.229 m
Thickness of mixer 5.353 mm
Agitator power consumption 15270.0656 W
Table 5.2 Summary of aging vessel design

Figure 5.2 Aging vessel Design

56
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.3 Design of Spray Dryer:

5.3.1 Introduction:
Spray drying is an essential unit operation for the manufacture of many
products with specific powder properties. It is characterized by atomization
of a solution or suspension into droplets, followed by subsequent drying of
these droplets by evaporation of water or other solvents. Spray drying is
used for the manufacture of many consumer and industrial products such
as instant food products, laundry detergents, and pharmaceuticals. It is
well suited to continuous production of dry solids in powder, granulate or
agglomerate particle form from liquid feed-stocks.

5.3.2 Atomizer:
Atomizers are classified according to the three basic forms of energy commonly
employed pressure energy, centrifugal kinetic energy, and gaseous energy.
Where greater control is required over disintegration or spatial dispersion,
combinations of atomizer types may be employed, and, for example, swirl-spray
nozzles or spinning discs may be incorporated in a blast atomizer, their primary
functions being to produce thin liquid sheets which are then eventually atomized
by low, medium or high velocity gas streams.

5.3.3 Calculations:
Design of spray dryer with data:
Centrifuged detergents is to be dried from 35% wt% to 2% wt%
Feed rate= M9 =23315.51 kg/hr
Inlet heated air temperature =375 °𝐶
Outlet air temperature=115°𝐶
Inlet temperature of solid=45°C
Outlet temperature of solid=60 °C
Sprayed product=M₁₂ = 15464.37 Kg/hr
57
Specific heat of solid=1.37 kj/kg. k
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

Efficiency of spray dryer:

𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜀= × 100% … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … (5.36)
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟,𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏

Where:
𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ≡The ambient air temperature = 35°C
375−115
𝜀= × 100% = 76.47%
375−35

5.3.3.1 Evaporator rare:

Capacity of dryer= M18 =15010 kg/hr (dry detergents)
0.35
𝑋1 = initial moisture content (from inlet streamM9 ) = = 0.538 (kg moisture/kg
0.65
solid)
0.02
𝑋2 = Final moisture content (from outlet stream M₁₂ ) = =0.020 (kg
0.98
moisture/kg solid)
Evaporation rate of water=(𝑋1 − 𝑋2 ) × M18 … … … … … … … … … … … … …(5.37)
Evaporation rate of water= (0.538-0.020) ×15010= 7775.981 kg/hr
Champers efficiency= 76.470%
7775.981
THEN evaporation rate of water= = 10168.59kg/hr
0.76470

Atmospheric air assumed to be available with relative humidity 40%

58
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

Figure 5.3 Humidity Chart

Then from humidity chart:
The humidity of inlet air=0.012kg water/kg dry air
Humidity of outlet air=0.121kg water/kg dry air
Moisture removed= (0.121-0.012) = 0.109kg water/kg dry air
THEN amount of air required:
Amount of air:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.38)
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
10168.59
=93289.82kg/hr
0.109
59
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.3.3.2 Operating velocity :

𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌𝑡 )×𝑔
𝑣𝑠 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … (5.39)
18×𝜇

Where:
𝑣𝑠 =settling velocity
𝐷𝑝 = drop diameter 100 micron (assumed)
𝜌𝑝 = density of droplet in 750kg/𝑚3
𝜌𝑡 = density of air at average temperature in kg/𝑚3
g=acceleration due to
375+100
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =237.5 ℃ =510k
2
29 ×273 29 ×273
𝜌𝑡 = = = 0.692 kg/𝑚3
22.4×𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 22.4×510

𝜇 At average temperature =2.7058× 10−5 kg/m.s

THEN:
𝐷𝑝2 (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑡 ) × 𝑔
𝑣𝑠 =
18 × 𝜇
(100×10−6 )2 (750− 0.692)×9.8×3600
𝑣𝑠 = =5427.76 m/hr
18×2.7058×10−5

5.3.3.3 Diameter of spray chamber:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Cross-section area= … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.40)
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Total volumetric flow rate of air= (𝑉𝐻 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 × 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 … … … … … … … … (5.41)

Where:
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 93289.82 Kg/hr from previous calculation
(𝑉𝐻 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 = average humid volume of inlet and outlet air.

60
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.3.3.4 humid volume:

22.4 𝑇 1 𝐻1
𝑉𝐻 = [ + ] … … … … … …… … … … ... … … … … … … … (5.42)
273 𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Where:
𝑉𝐻 =Humid volume of inlet air
22.4∗648 1 0.012
𝑉𝐻 = [ + ] =1.869𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
273 29 18
22.4∗388 1 0.121
Outlet of air 𝑉𝐻 = [ + ] =1.311𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
273 29 18
1.869+1.311
(𝑉𝐻 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =1.590 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
2

Then
Total volumetric flow rate (vr ) =1.590× 93289.82 =148330.814𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 148330.814
Cross-section area= = =27.328𝑚2
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 5427.76

𝜋𝐷𝑐 2
𝐴𝑐 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.43)
4

THEN 𝐷𝑐 =5.899m =6m

5.3.3.5 Residence time :

𝑡𝑑 = 50 × (𝐿⁄𝑆)2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.44)
𝐿⁄ =Ratio of water to solid in feed= 0.35⁄
𝑆 0.65 = 0.538
THEN:
𝑡𝑑 = 50 × (0.538)2 = 14.4970 sec

5.3.3.6 volume:
V = vr × τ… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..(5.45)
vr = 148330.814𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
τ =14.4970 sec
61
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

THEN:
148330.814×14.4970
𝑉= =597.32 𝑚3
3600

5.3.3.7 Height:
 The height of the top:
Assume the height of filters
L= 3m
 The height of the middle
𝜋𝐷2
V= 𝐿 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.46)
4
𝜋62
597.32= 𝐿
4

L= 21.126m
 The height of the bottom (triangle)
Base= 6m
Angle= 45°
Height= (tan( 45) *3) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.47)
H = 3m
Total height = 21.126+3+3= 27.126m

62
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

5.3.4 Summary of Spray Dryer Design:

Material of construction Stainless steel
Efficiency 76.47%
Operating velocity 5427.76 m/hr
Cross section area 27.328𝑚2
Volume 597.32 𝑚3
Height 27.126m
Table 5.3 Summary of Spray Dryer Design

Figure 4.4 Spray drayer Design

63
Chapter 5: Equipment Design

References
1. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical Engineering
Design, 4th Ed.
2. Robert H. Perry, 1997, Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook 7th edition
Perry, McGraw Hill, London.
3. Coulson & Richardson's, Chemical Engineering Volume 2, Chemical
Engineering Design, 5th Ed., 2002.
4. Stanley M.Walas, Chemical Process Equipment- Design and Selection,
Butterworth- Heinemann, 1990.
5. Octave Levenspiel, Chemical Reaction Engineering, 3rd Ed, John Wiley &
Sons, 1999.
6. Coulson & Richardson's, ''Chemical Engineering, Volume 1'', Sixth edition,
J.ML Coulson, J. F. Richardson, 1999.

64
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Chapter 6

Ancillaries design

6.1Introduction:
This chapter deals with the items of equipment normally met with in the
detergent process, these equipment called ancillaries or auxiliaries.Indeed, many
of the items that will be described and discussed here are also common to many
other process industries. Knowledge of these equipment items are essential for
good design, operation, and troubleshooting when necessary. The equipment
described here falls into the following categories, and will be presented in the
following parts:
-Homogenizer
-Tanks
-Pumps

6.2Design of homogenizer (M-102):

6.2.1 Volumetric flow rate:
𝑀6
𝑉𝜊𝑡 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. (6.1)
𝜌𝑠
Where:
𝑉𝜊𝑡 ≡ Volumetric flow rate of slurry in "𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟"
𝑀6 ≡ Mass flow rate of inter slurry of homogenizer = 23276.66𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝜌𝑠 ≡ Density of slurry (detergent) = 750 kg/𝑚3
𝑉𝜊𝑡 = 23276.66/750 =31.035 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
𝑉
𝜏 = 𝑚𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (6.2)
𝑉𝜊
Then:
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝜊𝑡 * 𝜏 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. … … ... . (6.3)
Where:
𝑉𝑚 ≡ Volume of homogenizer in"𝑚3 ”
𝜏 ≡ Residence time of homogenizer in “hr”
65
𝜏 =0.5hr ,𝑉𝑚 =31.035*0.5 =15.518𝑚3
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

6.2.2 Homogenizer diameter:

𝜋𝐷𝑖2 𝜋𝐷𝑖2
𝑉𝑚 = [ ]* H = [ ] * 1.9𝐷𝑖 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. (6.4)
4 4
The homogenizer is cylindrical so:
Assume:
H = 1.9 𝐷𝑖 … … … ... … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6.5)

H ≡ height of homogenizer in “m”

𝐷𝑖 ≡ Diameter of homogenizer in “m”
𝜋𝐷2
15.5175 = [ 𝑖 ] * 1.9𝐷𝑖
4
𝐷𝑖 = 2.183 m
Then the height becomes:
H = 1.9*2.1826=4.147m

…. Volume 𝑚3 Diameter m Height m

Homogenizer 15.158 2.183 4.147
Table6. 1 Summarize of homogenizer specification
6.3Pumps:
6.3.1 Pumps Selection
The word pump is usually reserved for transferring liquids. Like compressors,
pumps are divided into two main categories according to their principle of
operation, positive-displacement or dynamic. In positive displacement pumps,
pressure is developed by trapping a quantity of liquid in a chamber and then
compressing it to the discharge pressure. In a dynamic pump, the fluid first acquires
kinetic energy which is then converted to pressure. The most common types of the
positive displacement pumps are reciprocating and rotary pumps. The most
common types of dynamic pumps are centrifugal and axial pumps.
The single-stage, horizontal, overhung, centrifugal pump is by far the most
commonly used type in the chemical process industry. Other types are used
where a high head or other special process considerations are specified.

66
 Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Pump selection is made on the flow rate and head required, together with other
process considerations, such as corrosion or the presence of solids in the fluid.

Table 6.2 pump characteristics

6.3.2 Calculation:

Assumptions:

 Steady operating conditions exist in all pumps.

 Kinetic and potential energy are negligible.
 The process is to be isentropic.
The work can be calculated using the following equation

2
w = ∫1 V dp = V(P2 − P1 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. (6.6)

Where:
W = work done, J/Kg.
v = the specific volume, 𝑚3 /Kg.
67
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

P = pressure, Pa.
The power is given by:

∆p ∗ volumetric flow rate

Power = … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6.7)
efficiency
Where:

Power out
Efficiency = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ….… … … … … … . … … (6.8)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛

Head (h):
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 gh
∆p = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … . . (6.9)
efficiency

∆p × efficiency
ℎ=
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 g

6.3.3 Poster pump (P-101)

7
6

𝑝1 =𝑝6 =2 bar
𝑝2 =𝑝7 =4 bar
𝑀6 = 23315.51 kg/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 750 kg/𝑚3
68
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

𝑀6 23315.51
Volumetric flow rate (v˳) = = = 31.09 m³/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 750
Assume pump efficiency = 70%

Then:
v˳ ∗ ∆p 31.09 ∗ (4 − 2) ∗ 101325
Power = = = 2499.94 kJ/s
ƞ 3600 ∗ 0.7
1 1
V= = = 0.00133 m³/kg
⍴ 750

work = V ∗ ∆p = 0.00133 ∗ (4 − 2)101325 = 269.55 KJ/Kg

2∗105 ∗0.70
Head= = 19.028 𝑚
750∗9.81

6.3.4 High pressure pump (P-102):

𝑝1 =𝑝8 =4 bar, 𝑝2 =𝑝9 = 17 bar

M8 = 23315.51 kg/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 750 kg/ m³
𝑀8 23315.51
Volumetric flow rate (v˳) = = = 31.09 m³/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 750
1 1
V= = = 0.00133 m³/kg
⍴ 750

Assume pump efficiency = 70% 69

Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Then:
v˳ ∗ ∆p 31.09 ∗ (17 − 4) ∗ 101325
Power = = = 16249.62 Kj/s
ƞ 3600 ∗ 0.7
work = V ∗ ∆p = 0.00133 ∗ (17 − 4) ∗ 101325 = 1751.9 KJ/Kg
13∗105 ∗0.70
Head= =123.683m
750∗9.81

6.3.5 Recycle pump (P-101):

15
14

𝑃1 =𝑃14 =1 bar, 𝑃2 = 𝑃15 =2 bar

𝑀14 = 𝑀6 = 464.04 kg/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 750 kg/𝑚3
𝑀14 464.04
Volumetric flow rate (v˳) = = = 0.618 m³/hr
⍴𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 750
Assume pump efficiency = 70%
Then:
v˳ ∗ ∆p 0.618 ∗ (2 − 1) ∗ 101325
Power = = = 24.88 kj/s
ƞ 3600 ∗ 0.7
1 1
V= = = 0.00133 m3 /kg
⍴ 750

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑉∆𝑝 = 0.00133(2 − 1)101325 = 134.76 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔

1∗105 ∗0.70
Head= = 9.514𝑚 70
750∗9.81
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Pump Volumetric 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 Head

flowrate kJ/s KJ/Kg 𝑚
m³/hr
Poster pump 31.09 2499.94 𝟐𝟔𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 𝟏𝟗. 𝟎𝟐𝟖
High pressure pump 𝟑𝟏. 𝟎𝟗 𝟏𝟔𝟐𝟒𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟏. 𝟗 123.683
Recycle pump 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟖 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝟗. 𝟓𝟏𝟒
Table 6.3Summarize of Pumps specification
6.4Storage Facilities
LABSA and NaOH feed and products are stored in storage tanks of various sizes
and types.
Vertical cylindrical tanks, with flat bases and conical roofs, are universally used for
the bulk storage of liquids at atmospheric pressure. Tank sizes vary from a few
hundred gallons (tens of cubic meters) to several thousand gallons (several
hundred cubic meters).
6.4.1 Sizing the Storage Tanks
The storage tanks can be sizing using the following equation
𝜋𝐷2
𝑉𝑁 = (𝐻1 + 𝐻2 + ℎ𝑡 ) + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 … … … … … … … … … … … … (6.10)
4
Where:
VN = nominal capacity of the tank, in “𝑚3 ”
D = diameter of the tank, in “m”
H1 = tank dead height, in”m”
H2 = vapor space height or maximum safe working level, in “m”
V1 = net working capacity of the tank, in “𝑚3 ”
V2 = liquid volume pumped out of the tank in three minutes. In “𝑚3 "
H1 and H2 can be calculated from the following equations

H1 = 2.5 d1 +5 inch… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝟔. 𝟏𝟏)

Where:
d1 is the inlet nozzle, the minimum inlet nozzle = 12 inch
H1 = 35 inch = 0.889 m
H2= 1.5 d2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝟔. 𝟏𝟐) 71
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Where:
d2 is the outlet nozzle, the minimum inlet nozzle = 12 inch.
H2 = 18 inch = 0.457 m
0.04𝑉1
ℎ𝑡 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟔. 𝟏𝟑)
𝜋𝐷2
Where: ℎ𝑡 In “m”.

6.4.2 Sizing procedure

1. Assume first larger value of networking capacity (𝑉1 ), from table 6.2 considering
V≥𝑉1 .
2. Read diameter related to V from table 6.2.
3. Calculate the nominal capacity𝑉𝑁 .
4. Compare 𝑉𝑁 with V, if 𝑉𝑁 ≤ V, then select the related diameter and height of V
from the table. If 𝑉𝑁 > V then pick next greater value for V from the table and
repeat the steps.

72
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Table6.4 Nominal Capacities of Standard Vertical Cylindrical Tanks, m^3

6.4.3 LABSA Tank

This tank is used to store LABSA feed.

Mass flow rate = 2917.68 kg/hr

Volumetric flow rate =3.9 𝑚3 /hr

Storage period= 7day =168hr

𝑉1 = net working capacity of the tank =655.2𝑚3 = 144078.48 gal 73

Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Beyond 10,000 gal, use vertical tanks on concrete foundations.

From the table 6.2: V =785𝑚3 , D = 10 m, Height = 10 m

From equation ℎ𝑡 = 0.0834 m

𝑉2 = 0.195𝑚3

From equation 𝑉𝑁 = 767.66< V

Then:

Volume of the tank= 785 𝑚3

The diameter of the tank = 10 m

The height of the tank = 10 m

6.4.4 Sodium hydroxide Storage Tank

This tank is used to store liquid Sodium hydroxide.

Mass flow rate =357.49 kg/hr

Volumetric flow rate = 0.5248 𝑚3 /hr

Storage period= 7 day

𝑉1 = net working capacity of the tank =88.166 𝑚3 = 19387.79 gal

Beyond 10,000 gal, use vertical tanks on concrete foundations.

From the table 6.2: V = 141𝑚3 , D =6 m, Height = 5 m

From equation, ℎ𝑡 = 0.0311 m

𝑉2 =0.02624𝑚3

So: 𝑉𝑁 = 127 𝑚3 < V

74
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

Then:

Volume of the tank= 141 𝑚3

The diameter of the tank = 6 m

The height of the tank = 5 m

Tank Volume 𝑚3 Diameter m Height m

LABSA Tank 785 10 10
Sodium hydroxide Storage Tank 141 6 5

Table 6.5 Summarize of Tanks specification

6.5Summarize of Ancillaries design
Equipment Volum Diameter Height Volumetric 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 Head
e 𝑚3 m m flowrate kJ/s 𝐾𝐽 𝑚
m³/hr /𝐾𝑔
LABSA Tank 785 10 10
Sodium 141 6 5
hydroxide
Tank
Homogenizer 15.158 2.183 4.147

Poster pump 31.09 2499.94 269.55 19.028

High pressure 31.09 16249.62 1751.9 123.683
pump
Recycle 0.618 24.88 134.76 9.514
pump
Table6. 6 Summarize of Anciliareis Design

75
Chapter 6: Ancillaries design

References
1. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical
Engineering Design, 4th Ed.
2. Robert H. Perry, 1997, Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook 7th edition
Perry, McGraw Hill, London.
3. R Harry Silla, Chemical process engineering Design and Economics,
Stevens Institute of Technology, 2003.
4. A. Hydari Gorji and H. Kalat Jari,'' Improve Selection and Sizing of
Storage Tanks'', SAZEH Consultants, Teheran, Iran, 2006.
5. Coulson & Richardson's, ''Chemical Engineering, Volume 1'', Sixth
edition, J.ML Coulson, J. F. Richardson, 1999.
6. Gavin Towler & Ray Sinnott, "Chemical Engineering Design Principles,
Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design", Elsevier, 2008.

76
Chapter 7: Process Control

Chapter 7

Process Control

7.1Introduction
Designing control system implies identification of control objectives, selection of
appropriate managements and manipulations, as well as the determination of
loops and proper control laws.
All processes are subject to disturbances that tend to change operating
conditions, compositions, and physical properties of the streams. In order to
minimize the ill effects that could result from such disturbances, chemical plants
are implemented with substantial amounts of instrumentation and automatic
control equipment. In critical cases and in especially large plants, moreover, the
instrumentation is computer monitored for convenience, safety, and
optimization.
Control may be defined as a set of organized actions directed towards achieving
or maintaining a specific goal. The application of control theory and models
enhances our understanding of various systems and it is of considerable help to
analyst. To maintain efficiency, control of process is necessary at every stage.
This chapter focuses on the essential features and presents a general
methodology for the control system design.

7.1.1 Importance and Objective of Control:

The primary objectives of the designer for control are:
1. Safe plant operation:
a) To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.
b) To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and
automatic shutdown systems.

77
Chapter 7: Process Control

c) To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.

2. Production rate: To achieve the design product output.
3. Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards.
4. Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.
These are no separate objectives and all must be considered together. The order
in which they are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective
over another, other than that of putting safety first. Product quality, production
rate and the cost of production will be dependent on sales requirements.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a
combination of automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.

7.1.2 Individual process variables:

The variables that need to be controlled in chemical processing are temperature,
pressure, liquid level, flow rate, flow ratio, composition, and certain physical
properties whose magnitudes may be influenced by some of the other variables,
for instance, viscosity, vapor pressure, etc.
Examples of control of individual variables are:
1) Pressure.
2) Flow rate and flow ratio.
3) Level.
4) Temperature.
5) Density.
6) Composition.

7.1.3 Functions of a control system:

It can be seen that the control systems include the following functions:
1) Measurement: This is essentially an estimate or appraisal of the process being
controlled by the system.
2) Comparison: This is an examination of the likeness of the measured values and
the desired values.

78
Chapter 7: Process Control

3) Computation: This is a calculated judgment that indicates how much the

measured value and the desired values differ and what action and how much
should be taken.
4) Correction: This is ultimately the materialization of the order for the
adjustment.

7.1.4 Hardware elements of a control system:

In every control system we can distinguish the following control elements: [4]
1) The chemical process: It represents the equipment together with the physical
or chemical operation that occurs there.
2) The measuring instrument or sensor: It is used to measure disturbances, the
controlled output variables or secondary output variables. It is the main source of
information about what is going on in the process.
3) Transducers: Many measurements cannot be used for control until they are
converted to physical quantities. Transducers are used for that purpose.
4) Transmission line: These are used to carry the measurement signal from the
measuring device to the controller.
5) The controller: Receives the information from the measuring devices and
decides what action should be taken.
6) The final control element: It is the hardware element that implements the
decision taken by the controller. The control valve is the most frequently
encountered control element but not the only one, other typical final control
elements are:
a. Relay switches.
b. Variable speed pumps.
c. Variable speed compressors.
7) Recording element: Used to provide physical demonstration of how a chemical
process behaves.

7.1.5 Classification of Control Procedures:

The control of a defined system can be classified to:

79
Chapter 7: Process Control

1) Manual or automatic control: Manual control system is the one that uses a
person as a controller, now a day with the large industries scales it's quit risky to
use it.
2) Feedback or feed forward control.
Process or position control: The features of feedback and feed forward are
discussed next.

 Feedback Control:
A feedback control system is a control system which tends to maintain a
prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing functions
of these variables and using the difference as a means of control. In feedback
controller when an offset is generated in the controlled variable, the controller
acts to eliminate or reduce this offset, usually an oscillation is produced in the
value of the controlled variable whose amplitude, period, damping and
permanent offset depend on the nature of the system and the mode of action of
the controller.
The manner in which the controller produces the control signal is called the
control action. The usual controllers provide one, two, or three of these modes of
corrective action.
1. Proportional action controller (P): It is the most basic and the simplest action in
which the corrective action is proportional to the error signal.
2. Integral action controller (I): In which the corrective action at time (t) is
proportional to the integral of the error up to that time.
3. Derivative action controller (D): In which the corrective action is proportional to
the rate at which the error is being generated.
The proportional action is rapid but has a permanent offset that increases the
action speed up. The addition of integral action eliminates the offset but has
more sluggish response. The further addition of derivative action speeds up the
correction. The action of three-mode PID controller can be made rapid and
without offset.
 Feed Forward Control:
Feed forward control forms an open loop system in which the output variable is
neither measured nor incorporated into the control scheme. It is based on
Load change compensation principle. 80
Chapter 7: Process Control

 Advantages:
Feed forward control immediately takes corrective action when an input variable
(load variable) changes and therefore it results in a fast control action.

 Disadvantages:
1. It is an open-loop, where the output variable (the controlled variable) is neither
measured nor incorporated into the control scheme.
2. It only responds to the input variable (the load variable) which is being
measured. It requires either having only limited sources of disturbances or using a
very complex system.
3. An accurate mathematical model for the process is needed. Such mathematical
relations would indicate the effects of load disturbances on the controlled
variable and the required manipulation action in each case.
Variable Controller
Gas pressure P
Liquid level P or PI

Temperature PID
Compositions P, PI, PID
Table7. 4: The kinds of controllers suitable for the common variables
In practice, the load-change compensation principle and the feed forward
technique are rarely used separately. They are however, increasingly being used
in conjunction with the alternative closed- loop feedback system of control. It is
used as a compensation for the primary load disturbances affecting the system.
Usually in the chemical processes control; flow control, pressure control, liquid
level control, composition control and temperature control, represents a
feedback control systems. According to above the basic control loop will be used
in the control of ethylene oxide production process is a feedback loop.

81
Chapter 7: Process Control

Figure7. 5: Feedback Control Loop

7.1.6 Symbols
On working flow sheets the detectors, transmitters, and controllers are identified
individually by appropriate letters and serial numbers in circles. For clarity, the
flowsheet can include only the most essential information. In an actual design
case, details of detectors and transmitters as well as all other elements of a
control system are summarized on instrument specification forms.[1] The
simplified coding used in this chapter is summarized it table (7.2).
Symbol Description
Pressure Indicator and Controller
Temperature Indicator and Controller
Level Indicator and Controller
Analysis controller
Analysis transmitter
Differential pressure controller
Differential pressure transmitter
Flow rate controller
Flow rate transmitter

82
Chapter 7: Process Control

Liquid level controller

Liquid level transmitter

Pressure controller

Pressure transmitter

temperature controller
temperature transmitter
Control valve
Orifice
Table7. 5: symbols of control system

7.1.7 Elements of control loop:

The basic function of automatic control measuring computation a corrosion so
there are four elements for any loop.
a. The process: It represents the equipment together with the physical or
chemical operation that occurs there.
b. The measuring elements it is used to measure disturbances, the controlled
output variables or secondary output variables. It is the main source of
information about what is going on in the process.
c. The controlling elements receives the information from the measuring devices
and decides what action should be taken.
d. The regulating elements Variable in process measured, controlled integrate for
optimum processing conditions. Engineers to reduce labor and improve feasibility
of plant operation control mechanical and electrical system. The economic
advantage of the process control in saving energy and process efficiency.

 Type of values:
The value used for chemical process plant can be divided into two broad classes
depending on their primary function
1/ shut off values whose purpose is to close off flow. Values uses are gate plug
add ball value. 83
Chapter 7: Process Control

2/ control values both manual and automatic are used to regulate flow. Globe
values are normally used through diaphragm values can be used, butterfly are
often used for control values is important, good flow control must be achieved,
while keeping the pressure as low as possible. The value must be also sized to
avoid the flashing of hot liquids. Non return values are used to prevent back flow
of fluid a process line.

 Temperature controlled:
Even properly collaborated temperature sensor when located a fluid stream
usually will give an indication that differs from fluid temperature. To be measured
because of the complex heat transfer effects. The type of sensing element use
measuring the temperature are the thermometer, thermocouple filled system,
resistance element and radiation. Temperature must be controlled in the reactor,
evaporator, dryer, crystallizer and rotary kilo by use of suitable sensing element
like explosion gas which is suitable for these moderate. The temperature
controller is a temperature indicator adds the desired temperature. Is aliened by
regulating the flow of their steamer rate or cooling water and also flow rate of
fuel roasting.

 Pressure control:
Two primary types of element may accomplish measurement of pressure:
1/ familiar liquid control pressure
2/ the elastic pressure elements where the diaphragm bellow and border tubes
are the most famous sensing elements.
The pressure controls depends on the nature of the process and adds whether it
is liquid or gas. In the case of the pressure must be controlled in the autoclave
where we use a diaphragm as sensing element.

 Level of control:
Criteria use fuel for evaluating liquid level system includes:
1/accuracy
2/use in pressurized vessels
3/use with corrosive fluid or vapors
4/output independent of fluid density
5/output independent of ambient temperature
84
Chapter 7: Process Control

6/the liquid levels devices measures position of high of a liquid surface or

hydrostatic pressure developed the liquid.
The simplest types of measure the level are the float should be controlled in the
leaching tanks and the first reader and reduction reader by the use of suitable
sensing element like float level controller. The value will change the flow rate on
the feed or the output.

 Flow control:
As discussed before in types of value the movement of the fluid stream which
flows through the primary elements of which is to be controlled used to actuate a
secondary device the rate of flow is inferred from known physical lanes or
empirical relations.

 PH control:
PH control is necessary for reactor in order to control the alkalinity or acidity of
the solution inside the reactor.

85
Chapter 7: Process Control

7.2Process Control:
7.2.1 Neutralizer (Reactor) control:

 Flow rate control

1-
Process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element LABSA inlet flow rate
Load variable Inlet flow rate
2-
Process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element NaOH inlet flow rate
Load variable Inlet flow rate

86
Chapter 7: Process Control

 Temperature control
Process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Temperature
Measuring element Thermocouple
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element Inlet flow rate
Load variable Feed temperature

 Level Control
Process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Liquid level
Measuring element Float
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element Liquid out let valve position
Set point 2m

87
Chapter 7: Process Control

7.2.2 Aging vessel control:

7.2.2.1 Flow rate control

1-
Process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element Additives inlet flow rate
Load variable Additives flow rate
2-
Process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element Flow rate (out let from reactor)
Load variable flow rate

88
Chapter 7: Process Control

3-
process Reactor
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element recycle inlet flow rate
Load variable flow rate

89
Chapter 7: Process Control

7.2.3 Spray dryer control:

7.2.3.1 Flow rate control

1-
Process Spray dryer
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element inlet flow rate
Load variable flow rate
2-
Process Spray dryer
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Flow rate
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element Steam inlet flow rate
Load variable flow rate

90
Chapter 7: Process Control

7.2.3.2 Temperature control

process Spray dryer
Controller Automatic (PID)
Controlled variable Temperature
Measuring element Thermocouple
Regulating element Valve
Manipulated element Inlet flow rate
Load variable Steam temperature

7.2.4Process control:

91
Chapter 7: Process Control

References
1. Stanley M. Walas, Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. George Stephanopoulos’s Chemical Process Control: An introduction to
theory and practice, prentice hall, 1984.
3. Dr. Mohamed Elamin Abou-Goukh, Process Dynamics and control.
4. Alexandre C. Dimian and Costin Sorin Bildea, Chemical Process Design:
Computer-Aided Case Studies, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim, 2008.

92
Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

Chapter 8

Safety and Environment

8.1Introduction
Any organization has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and
welfare of its employees and the general public. Safety is also good business; the
good management practices needed to ensure safe operation will also ensure
efficient operation. The term "loss prevention" is an insurance term, the loss
being the financial loss caused by an accident. This loss will not only be the cost of
replacing damaged plant and third party claims, but also the loss of earnings from
lost production and lost sales opportunity. Safety and loss prevention in process
design can be considered under the following broad headings:
1) Identification and assessment of the hazards.
2) Control of the hazards: For example, by containment of flammable and toxic
materials.
3) Control of the process. Prevention of hazardous deviations in process variables
(pressure, temperature, flow) by provision of automatic control systems,
interlocks, alarms, trips; together with good operating practices and
management.
4) Limitation of the loss. The damage and injury caused if an incident occurs:
pressure relief, plant layout, provision of fire-fighting equipment.

8.2Environmental Considerations:
Vigilance is required in both the design and operation of process plant to ensure
that legal standards are met and that no harm is done to the environment.
Considerations must be given to:
1) All emissions to land, air, water.
2) Waste management.
3) Smells.
4) Noise.
5) The visual impact. 93
Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

6) Any other nuisances.

7) The environmental friendliness of the products.

8.2.1 Pollution Regulations:

to summarize what has been presented, the following should be known about
each element and compound before pollution standards are set:
1. at what concentration is it likely to be harmful to man or other living things?
2. What plants or animals are likely to concentrate the material, and by how
much?
3. How will other compounds or elements interact with it, and will the results be
harmful to man or other living things?
4. Will it be retained, or merely pass through man?
8.2.2 Detergent manufacturing emissions and control:
The exhaust air from detergent spray drying tower contains fine detergent
particles which controlled by fan.

8.3Process safety
Process safety differs from the traditional approach to accident prevention
In several ways:
• There is greater concern with accidents that arise out of the technology.
• There is greater emphasis on foreseeing hazards and taking action before
accidents occur.
• There is greater emphasis on a systematic rather than a trial-and error
approach, particularly on systematic methods of identifying hazards and of
estimating the probability that they will occur and their consequences.
• There is concern with accidents that cause damage to plant and loss of profit
but do not injure anyone, as well as those that do cause injury.
• Traditional practices and standards are looked at more critically.
The term loss prevention can be applied in any industry but is widely used in the
process industries where it usually means the same as process safety.
Chemical plants, and other industrial facilities, may contain large quantities of
hazardous materials. The materials may be hazardous due to toxicity,
reactivity, flammability, or explosivity. A chemical plant may also contain 94
Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

large amounts of energy—the energy either is required to process the materials

or is contained in the materials themselves. An accident occurs when control of
this material or energy is lost. An accident is defined as an unplanned event
leading to undesired consequences. The consequences might include injury to
people, damage to the environment, or loss of inventory and production, or
damage to equipment.
A hazard is defined as a chemical or physical condition that has the potential for
causing damage to people, property, or the environment.
Hazards exist in a chemical plant due to the nature of the materials processed or
due to the physical conditions under which the materials are processed, i.e., high
pressure or temperature.
Risk is defined as a measure of human injury, environmental damage, or
economic loss in terms of both the incident likelihood (probability) and the
magnitude of the loss or injury.

8.3.1 Process safety management (PSM):

Process safety management embraces nearly the entire safety enterprise of a
chemical process organization. It requires employee training, written operating
procedures, specific quality in the engineering design of components and
systems, very specific procedures for some activities, investigation and reporting
of accidents that do occur, and an internal audit of the safety enterprise of the
company. Following is a description of each of the 13 components.

1. Employee Participation: The employer must actively involve the employees in

the development and implementation of the safety program. Employees are more
likely to understand the hazards and to follow the established safety procedures
when they are involve dearly and continuously in the envelopment of the safety
program. This item was added to the earlier API and AIChE standards.
2. Process Safety Information: The employer must research the materials,
process, and operation to determine the potential hazards and keep in an
immediately accessible form all safety information. This includes all MSDSs, as
well as information on the process itself, such as up to-date process flow
diagrams and P&IDs.
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Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

3. Process Hazards Analysis: Before a process is started up and periodically

thereafter (typically every three to five years or whenever significant
modifications are made), a detailed study must be made of the process to
determine potential hazards and to correct them. There are several approved
procedures, and an organization can opt to use an alternative procedure if it can
be shown to be as effective. In fact, most of the chemical processing industry uses
the HAZOP technique, this technique is a modified brainstorming process in which
potential hazards are identified, their consequences are determined, and an
action to deal with the hazard is identified.
4. Operating Procedures: Written operating procedures must be available to
operators, and any deviations in the plant operation from these procedures must
be noted. These procedures must include start-up, shutdown, and emergency
response to process upset.
5. Training: The employer must train all employees in the hazards present and the
procedures for mitigating them.
6. Contractors: The employer is responsible for the safe conduct of any
contractors. Although each contractor is responsible for the safe conduct of the
contractor’s employees, the owner or operator of the plant who enters into a
contract with the contractor remains liable for the safe operation of the
contractor. This is an OSHA addition to the earlier API and AIChE standards.
7. Pre-start-up Safety Review: The regulation specifically requires that there be a
review of the safety aspects of the process before any processing occurs on the
site. The review must be documented, and any deviations of the plant was built
from the design specifications must be addressed.
8. Mechanical Integrity: Vessels and other equipment must meet existing codes
and be inspected during manufacture and after installation. Appropriate
procedures for maintenance must be developed and followed.
9. Hot Work Permit: This is a very specific procedure by which a wide range of
people in the plant are notified before hot work, such as welding, can occur.
Many chemical plants use flammable materials, and everyone in the area
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Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

needs to be informed so that no flammable vapors are released during the

operation.
10. Management of Change: During accident investigations in the chemical
process industries, it has often been found that severe incidents (involving deaths
and massive destruction) occurred because equipment, processes, or procedures
were changed from the original design without careful study of the
consequences. Thus, the OSHA regulation requires companies to have in place a
system by which any modification is reviewed by all of the appropriate people.
For example, any change in the reactor design must be reviewed not only by the
design engineer but also by the process engineer who can evaluate how the
overall process is affected. The maintenance leader must also make sure that the
modification does not adversely affect the maintenance schedule or the ability of
workers to get to or to maintain the equipment.
11. Incident Investigation: When there is a hazardous process upset, it must be
investigated and a written report must be developed indicating the details of the
incident, the probable cause, and the steps taken to avoid future incidents.
12. Emergency Planning and Response: There must be a written plan, and
employees must be trained to respond to possible emergency situations.
13. Compliance Safety Audit: Periodically, all of the elements of the safety system
(including items 1–12 above) must be audited to make sure that the approved
procedures are being followed and that they are effective. One item that is
included in the industry codes but not in the PSM regulation is the entry of
workers into confined spaces. This situation in which the environment of the
space or the difficulty of egress from the space could create a hazard is
encountered frequently in the chemical process industries. OSHA regulation
29CFR1910.146 covers the required permitting procedures to ensure that workers
are protected in confined spaces.
8.3.2 Potential Hazardous Material in the Plant:
1. Dodecyl benzene sodium sulfonate
2. Sodium carbonate anhydrous
3. Sodium tripolyphosphate
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Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

4. Water
5. Sodium sulfate anhydrous
6. Sodium hydroxide
7. Sodium silicate
8. LABSA
9. SCMS
All materials safety data sheet will be in project Appendices.

8.4Hazard and Operability Study:

HAZOP stands for (hazard and operability studies). This is asset of formal hazard
identification and elimination procedures designed to identify hazard to people,
process plants and the environment. The techniques aim to stimulate in a
systematic way the imagination of designers and people who operate plants or
equipment so they can identify potential hazard. In effect, HAZOP studies make
the assumption that hazard or operating problem can arise when there is a
deviation from the design or operating intention. Corrective actions can then be
made before a real accident occurs.
The primary goal in performing a HAZOP study is to identify, not analyze or
quantify the hazard process. The end product of a study is a list of concerns and
recommendation for prevention of the problem, not an analysis of the
occurrence, frequency, overall effects, and the definite solution. If HAZOP is
started too late in a project, it can lose effectiveness because:
1. There may be a tendency not to challenge an already existing design.
2. Changes come too late, possibly requiring redesign of the process.
3. There may be loss of operability and design decision data used to generate the
design. HAZOP is a formal procedure that offers a great potential to improve the
safety, reliability and operability of process plants by recognizing and eliminating
potential problems at the design stage. It is not limited to the design stage,
however. It can be applied anywhere that a design intention. When using 98
Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

the operability study technique to vet a process design, the action to be taken to
deal with a potential hazard will often be modification to the control system and
instrumentation, the inclusion of additional alarms, trips or interlock. If major
hazard is identified, major design changes may be necessary, alternatives
processes, material and equipment. In order to have a safe process successfully
producing to specification to the required product, a sound control system is
necessary but not sufficient.
8.4.1 The objectives of HAZOP study are:
1. To identify areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard potential.
2. To identify and study features of the design that influences the probability of a
hazardous incident occurring.
3. To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
4. To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard
potential.
5. To identify design information not currently available to the team.
6. To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team’s detailed
comments.

8.4.2 The advantages of HAZOP study to the design application:

- Early identification of problems areas when conceptual design stage. – Identifies
need for emergency procedures to mitigate.
- Provide essential information for safety case, such as on the hazards identified
and effectiveness of safety systems.
- Through examination of hazard and operability problems when applied at
detailed stage.
- Meets legislative requirements.
- Identifies need for commissioning, operating and maintenance procedures for
safe and reliable operations.
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Guide word Meaning Comments

NO or NOT The complete negation of No part of the intentions is
these intentions. achieved but nothing else
happens.
MORE Quantitative increases. These refer to quantities and
properties such as flow rates and
temperatures, as well as activities
like “HEAT” and “REACT”.
LESS A quantitative decrease Same as MORE comments.
PART OF A qualitative decrease Only some of the intentions are
achieved; some are not.
Table8.1 a List of Guide Words and Their Meanings
8.4.3 HAZOP Analysis around the reactor:
Guide deviation Causes Consequence Action
word
Less Less flow of -leakage in -low product Continuous checking
feed pipeline and maintenance for
the pipeline and valve.
-blockage in
inlet reactor
Less -more flow of Reactor is Check cooling water
temperature cooling water cool valve
more More flow -failure of Overcapacity Continuous check and
of feed feed valve in the maintenance for the
reactor letdown valve
More -less flow of -high -check cooling water
temperature cooling water temperature valve
in reactor in reactor
-blockage in -clean cooling water
may be
cooling water pipe
explosion
pipe

100 Table8.2 HAZOP of reactor

Chapter 8: Safety and Environment

References
1. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical Engineering
Design, 4th Ed.
2. Chemicals and laboratory equipment, cumene material safety data sheet,
science lab.com, 2007.
3. Armando B. Corripio, Environmental Considerations in Plant Design, 2000.
4. Amoore J E and Hautala E. "Odor as an aid to chemical safety: Odor
thresholds compared with threshold limit values and volatiles for 214
industrial chemicals in air and water dilution". J Appl Toxicology, 1983.

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Chapter 9

Cost estimation

9.1. Introduction:
Economical evaluation is a major component of chemical plant design that
decides whether the design is economically feasible. An acceptable plant design
must present a process that is capable of operating under conditions which will
yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income minus all expenses, it is
essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of costs
involved in manufacturing processes.
The total investment needed for a project is the sum of the fixed and working
capital. Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for startup. It is the cost
paid to the contractors. Working capital is the additional investment needed, over
and above the fixed capital, to start the plant up and operate it to the point when
income is earned. Most of the working capital is recovered at the end of the
project.

Factors Affecting Investment and Production Costs

To accomplish costs determination the engineer must have a complete
understanding of the many factors that can affect costs, as example of these
factors:
i. Sources of equipment.
ii. Price Fluctuations.
iii. Company Policies.
iv. Operating Time and Rate of Production.
v. Governmental Policies.
Thus the engineer must keep up-to-date all factors that can affect investment and
production costs.

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

The specifications of plant

In this chapter, the costing of equipment which has been designed will be
estimated and the feasibility of this process will be evaluated by profitability
analysis to make sure the project is economically attractive.
There are some general assumptions to this chapter
 The plant life span is twenty years.
 All costs in U.S. Dollar when it equals 29.2 SDG on December 2018.
 The price of raw materials and product is fixed for the whole period of
operation.
 The price of the electricity = 1.6 SDG/KWh
 Annual working time is 7200 hr.
9.2. Cost Estimation
There are a number of different ways of estimating the cost of constructing a
chemical plant. Some require very little information and some require a complete
listing of every item. All assume a normal schedule and normal conditions. A
normal schedule implies that the contractor and engineers will be allowed to
operate in the most efficient way. Any attempt to complete the plant sooner will
result in increased investment costs.
The following five categories represent the accuracy range and designation
normally used for design purposes:
1. Order-of-magnitude estimate (ratio estimate) based on similar previous cost
data; probable accuracy of estimate over ± 30 percent.
2. Study estimate (factored estimate) based on knowledge of major items of
equipment; probable accuracy of estimate up to ± 30 percent.
3. Preliminary estimate (budget authorization estimate; scope estimate) based on
sufficient data to permit the estimate to be budgeted; probable accuracy of
estimate within ±20 percent.
4. Definitive estimate (project control estimate) based on almost complete data
but before completion of drawings and specifications; probable accuracy of
estimate within ± 10 percent.
5. Detailed estimate (contractor’s estimate) based on complete engineering
drawings, specifications, and site surveys; probable accuracy of estimate
within ±5 percent. 103
Chapter 10: Site consideration

 Classification of Plant Cost

1- Total Capital Investment:
 Fixed Capital investment. (Manufacturing and non-manufacturing).

 Working Capital.
2- Operating Costs (total production cost):
 Direct expenses
i. Variable.
ii. Fixed charges.
 Indirect Expenses.
Various methods can be employed for estimating capital investment. The
choice of any one method depends upon the amount of detailed
information available and the accuracy desired. Seven methods are
available with each method requiring progressively less detailed
information and less preparation time. The methods are as follows:
 Method A Detailed-Item Estimate.
 Method B Unit-Cost Estimate.
 Method C Percentage of Delivered-Equipment Cost.
 Method D “Lang” Factors for Approximation of Capital Investment.
 Method E Power Factor Applied To Plant-Capacity Ratio.
 Method F Investment Cost per Unit of Capacity.
 Method G Turnover Ratios.
Consequently, the degree of accuracy decreases with each succeeding method. A
maximum accuracy within approximately + 5 percent of the actual capital
investment can be obtained with method A; hence method A will be used.

 Method A (Detailed-Item Estimate):

A detailed-item estimate requires careful determination of each individual item.
Equipment and material needs are determined from completed drawings and
specifications and are priced either from current cost data or preferably from 104
Chapter 10: Site consideration

firm
delivered quotations.

Table 9.1 Typical Factor for Estimation of Project Fixed Capital Cost
Total Capital Investment
Fixed Capital Investment Estimation
Fixed Capital Components
Direct costs:
1. Purchased equipment’s cost:
The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several pre-design methods for
estimating capital investment. Sources of equipment prices, methods of adjusting
equipment prices for capacity, and methods of estimating auxiliary process
equipment are therefore essential to the estimator in making reliable cost
estimates.
The various types of equipment can often be divided conveniently into:
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Chapter 10: Site consideration

i.Processing equipment,
ii.Raw-materials handling and storage equipment, and
iii.Finished-products handling and storage equipment. The cost of
auxiliary equipment and materials, such as insulation and ducts,
should also be included.
The most accurate methods for determining process equipment costs are:
1- Obtaining firm bids from fabricators or suppliers.
2- Second best in reliability are cost values from the file of past purchase orders.
When used for pricing new equipment, purchase-order prices must be corrected
to the current cost index.

Equipment Purchased Cost by Scaling:

An approximate estimate of the capital cost of a project can be obtained from the
knowledge of the cost of earlier projects using the same manufacturing process.
The capital cost of a project is related to capacity by the equation:

Where
C1 = capital cost of the project with capacity S1,
C2= capital cost of the project with capacity S2.
The value of the index n is traditionally taken as 0.6; the well-known six-tenths
rule. This value can be used to get a rough estimate of the capital cost if there are
not sufficient data available to calculate the index for the particular process, each
equipment cost can be obtained from cost curves or cost tables in literature.

Cost Escalation (Inflation)

All cost-estimating methods use historical data, and are themselves forecasts of
future costs. Some method has to be used to update old cost data for use in
estimating at the design stage, and to forecast the future construction cost of the
plant.
The method usually used to update historical cost data makes use of published
cost indices. These relate present costs to past costs, and are based on data for
labor, material and energy costs published in government statistical
digests. 106
 Chapter 10: Site consideration

Cost Indices:
Cost indexes can be used to give a general cost estimate, but no index can take
into account all factors, such as special technological advancements or local
conditions.

9.2.1. Calculation:
Equipment Purchased Cost:
Note:
 All Cost from cap cost for 2018.
 Increase in total Purchased cost equal to 20% from costs in cap cost table
Equipment Purchased cost $
CSTR (reactor) 70,000
Aging vessel (mixture) 170,000
Filter 38,100
Poster Pump 10,120
Homogenizer 100,000
High Pressure Pump 16,300
Spray Dryer 688,000
Tanks 30,000
Screen 50,000
Recycle Pump 9,300
Perfumer 20,000
Total Purchased cost 1,201,820
Table9.2 equipment Purchased cost
Then Total Purchased cost= 1.2*1,201,820=$1,442,184

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 Estimation Of Direct cost:

Direct component Factor Cost$

Purchased equipment 100% 1,442,184
Installation 39% 562,451.76
Instrumentation 13% 187,483.92
Piping 31% 447,077.04
Electrical 10% 144,218.4
Building 29% 418,233.36
Land 6% 86,531.04
Surface facilities 55% 793,201.2
Yard improvement 10% 144,218.4
Total Direct cost 4,227,599.12
Table9. 3 Estimation of Direct cost:
 Estimation Of Indirect Cost:

Percent Cost
Engineering& supervision 32% 461,498.88
Construction expenses 34% 490,342.56
Contractors fee 18% 259,593.12
Contingency 36% 519,186.24
Total 1,730,620.8
Table9.4Estimation Of indirect cost
Fixed Cost = Direct cost + Indirect cost
Fixed Cost=4,227,599.12+1,730,620.8=$5,958,219.92
Working Capital 74% from total Purchased Cost (for solid liquid chemical plant).
THEN: Working Capital=$1,067,216.16
Total Capital investment = Fixed cost + Working Capital.
Total Capital investment=5,958,219.92+1,067,216.16=$7,025,436.08

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Calculations of Depreciation:
 Service life for any equipment = 20 years
 Salvage Value for any equipment= 10% from its cost.
 We use straight line method.

Component Cost$ Salvage Depreciation Life Depreciation rate

CSTR 70,000 7,000 63,000 20 3,150

(reactor)
Aging vessel 170,000 17,000 153,000 20 7,650
(mixture)
Filter 38,100 3,810 34,290 20 1,714.5
Poster Pump 10,120 1,012 9,108 20 455.4
Homogenizer 100,000 10,000 90,000 20 4,500
High Pressure 16,300 1,630 14,670 20 733.5
Pump
Spray Dryer 688,000 68,800 619,200 20 30,960
Tanks 30,000 3,000 27,000 20 1,350
Screen 50,000 5,000 45,000 20 2,250
Recycle Pump 9,300 930 8,370 20 418.5

Perfumer 20,000 2,000 18,000 20 900

Building 418,233.3 41,823.33 376,410.03 40 9,410.251
Surface 793,201.2 79,320.12 713,881.08 20 35,694.05
facilities
Yard 144,218.4 14,421.84 129,976.56 25 5,199.062
improvement
Total 255,747.29 2,301,905.67 104,385.3
Table 9.5 Calculations of Depreciation
Then total Depreciation=104,385.3
Depreciation
Composite useful life= 109
Depreciation rate
Chapter 10: Site consideration

2,301,905.67
Composite useful life= =22.05202 year
104385.3

 Estimate of total Production Cost:

 Total Production cost:

The cost of producing a chemical product will include the items listed
below. They are divided into two groups.
1. Fixed operating costs: costs that do not vary with production rate. These
are the bills that have to be paid whatever the quantity produced.
2. Variable operating costs: costs that are dependent on the amount of
product produced.
Fixed costs
1. Maintenance (labour and materials).
2. Operating labour.
3. Laboratory costs.
4. Supervision.
5. Plant overheads.
6. Capital charges.
7. Rates (and any other local taxes).
8. Insurance.
9. License fees and royalty payments.

Variable costs
1. Raw materials.
2. Miscellaneous operating materials.
3. Utilities (Services).
4. Shipping and packaging.
In addition to these costs the site will have to carry its share of the
Company's general operating expenses. These will include:
1. General overheads.
2. Research and development costs.
3. Sales expense.
4. Reserves.

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Fixed cost Estimation:

Component Factor Cost$
Maintenance 5% FCI 297,910.996
Operating labour 15%FCI 893,732.988
Laboratory costs 20% operating labour 178,746.5976
Supervision 20% operating labour 178,746.5976
Plant overhead 50% operating labour 446,866.494
Capital Charges 10%FCI 595,821.992
Local taxes 2%FCI 119,164.3984
Insurance 1%FCI 59,582.1992
Royalty 1%FCI 59,582.1992
Total 2,830,154.46
Table9. 6 Estimation Of fixed cost:
Variable Cost:

1. Raw materials
In the chemical industry, these are the major (essential) materials
required to manufacture the product. The quantities can be obtained
from the flow-sheet and multiplied by the operating hours per year
to get the annual requirements.
The Amount of the raw materials which must be supplied per unit of
product can be determined form process material balances. In
Chemical plant, raw Material costs usually in the range of 10-50% of
the total product cost.
Feed flow rate= 22,889.8kg/hr (164,806.56 Ton/year)
Cost $/ton=147$/ton
Cost of raw material=164,806.56 *147=24,226,564.32$/year

2. Utilities:
From Cap cost the summation of utilities cost=11,800,000$/year

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Total variable cost:

Component Factor Cost$
Raw material - 24,226,564.32
Miscellanies 10% of maintenance 29,781.0996
Utilities - 11,800,000
Total 36,056,345.42
Table9 .7 Variable cost

General Operating Expenses:

1) Administrative6 cost (about 15% of costs for operating labour, supervision,
and maintenance, or 2-6% of total product cost); includes costs for executive
salaries, clerical wages, legal fees, office suppliers and communication.
2) Destitution and selling costs (2-20% of total product cost) includes costs for
sales offices, salesmen, shipping and advertising
3) Research and development costs (2-5% of every sales dollar or about 5% of
total production cost

Estimations:
First: Fixed charge:
Factor Cost$
Depreciation - 104385.3
Local taxes 0.01 FCI 59,582.1992
Insurance 0.01 FCI 59,582.1992
Total - 223,549.70
Table9.8Fixed charge cost:

Fixed Charge= 10% from total product costs.

223,549.70
Product cost= =$2,235,497
0.1

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Second: General Expense:

Factor Cost$
Administrative costs 0.05 PC 44,709,940
Distribution and selling 0.03 PC 74,516,566
Research and development 0.05 PC 44,709,940
Financing 0.1 PC 22,354,970
Distribution 0.2 PC 11,177,485
Total 197,468,900.3
Table9 9 General Expense cost:
Total production cost= Fixed cost + variable cost + General Expense
Then T.P.C =2,830,154.46+36,056,345.42+197,468,900.3=$236,355,400.18

Net Profit calculation:

Amount Of product detergents = 15ton/hr
The price of selling= 400$/ton
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 $
Then annual income = 15 ∗ 24ℎ𝑟 ∗ 300 ∗ ∗ 400 =
ℎ𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑜𝑛
43,200,000$/year

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Year Annual sold price Depreciation taxes Annual profit

1 43200000 5,987,350.22 59,873.5022 2,451,876
2 43200000 5,895,076.11 59,873.5022 2,451,876
3 43200000 5,802,802.01 59,873.5022 2,451,876
4 43200000 5,710,527.9 59,873.5022 2,451,876
5 43200000 5,618,253.8 59,873.5022 2,451,876
6 43200000 5,525,979.69 59,873.5022 2,451,876
7 43200000 5,433,705.59 59,873.5022 2,451,876
8 43200000 5,341,431.48 59,873.5022 2,451,876
9 43200000 5,249,157.38 59,873.5022 2,451,876
10 43200000 5,156,883.27 59,873.5022 2,451,876
11 43200000 5,064,609.17 59,873.5022 2,451,876
12 43200000 4,972,335.06 59,873.5022 2,451,876
13 43200000 4,880,060.96 59,873.5022 2,451,876
14 43200000 4,787,786.85 59,873.5022 2,463,872
15 43200000 4,695,512.75 59,873.5022 2,451,876
16 43200000 4,603,238.64 59,873.5022 2,451,876
17 43200000 4,510,964.54 59,873.5022 2,451,876
18 43200000 4,418,690.43 59,873.5022 2,451,876
19 43200000 4,326,416.33 59,873.5022 2,451,876
20 43200000 4,234,142.22 59,873.5022 2,451,876
21 43200000 4,141,868.12 59,873.5022 2,451,876
Table 9 10 Annual income

Economic Evaluation of project:

As the purpose of investing money in chemical plant is to earn money, some means
of comparing the economic performance of projects is needed. They are:
Net Present Value of project (NPV):
The annual net profit change from year to another. The NPV must be calculated
Net Profit per year n
for each year: Present value = ∑useful
n=1
life
(1+i)n

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Year Annual profit Present value

1 2,451,876 2,189,175
2 2,452,799 1,955,356
3 2,453,722 1,746,511
4 2,454,645 1,559,971
5 2,455,567 1,393,355
6 2,456,490 1,244,534
7 2,457,413 1,111,609
8 2,458,336 992,880.7
9 2,459,258 886,833.1
10 2,460,181 792,112.4
11 2,461,104 707,508.6
12 2,462,027 631,941
13 2,462,949 564,444.3
14 2,463,872 504,157
15 2,464,795 450,308.8
16 2,465,718 402,212
17 2,466,640 359,252.2
18 2,467,563 320,880.9
19 2,468,486 286,608
20 2,469,409 255,995.6
21 2,470,331 228,652.9
Total 18,584,299
Table9. 11Present value calculation:
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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Present value=$18,584,299
NPV= present value- total capital investment
NPV=18,584,299-7,025,436.08=$11,558,862.72

Since the project have positive NPV, project is acceptable.

Pay Back Period:
Pay Back Period is the time required after the start of the project to pay off the
initial investment from income, its simple method for estimating the payback time.
Total capitla investment
PBP=
Average annual cash flow
7,025,436.08
PBP= = 2.8year
2,451,876

Internal rate of returns (IRR):

It is discounting rate that makes NPV=0.
An Working Capital
NPV=∑11 − TCI +
(1+i)n (1+i)21

Solving above equations that gives IRR=34.16%

The Project is acceptable since 34.16%>12%
Profitability Index (PI):
It is an indicator for the profit gained from each dollar has been spent:
An
∑n
1(1+i)n
PI=
TCI

Where:
An ≡ Net profit per year n.
i=12%
TCI≡ Total Capital invetment
18,584,299
PI= =2.645
7,025,436.08

The Project is acceptable since PI>1.

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9.2.2. Summary of Calculation:

Total Purchased cost $1,442,184
Total Capital investment $7,025,436.08
Composite useful life 22 year
utilities cost 11,800,000$/year
Total production cost $236,355,400.18
Then annual income 43,200,000$/year
Net present value $11,558,862.72
Pay Back Period (PBP) 2.8year
Internal rate of returns (IRR) 34.16%
Profitability Index (PI) 2.645
Table9. 12Summarize of Cost Estimation

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References
1. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6, Chemical
Engineering Design, 4th Ed.
2. Max S.Peters& Klaus D.Timmerhaus, Plant design and economics for
chemical engineers, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, University of Colorado,
1991.

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Chapter 10: Site consideration

Chapter 10

Site Consideration

10.1. Introduction:
The geographic location of the final plant must be taken into account when
process designed when a process designed is developed. A suitable site must be
found for a new project, and the site and equipment layout planned. Provision
must be made for the ancillary buildings and services needed for plant operation;
and for the environmentally acceptable disposal of effluent. These considerations
are discussed briefly in the following sections.

10.2. Plant location and site selection:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project
and the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when
selecting a suitable site. The principal factors to consider are:
 Raw material supply.
 Location, with respect to the marketing area.
 Transport facilities.
 Availability of labor.
 Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.
 Availability of suitable land.
 Environmental impact and effluent.
 Local community consideration.
 Climate.
 Political and strategic considerations.

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10.2.1. Raw material:

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site
location. Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of
the major raw material; where this is also close to the marketing area.
10.2.2. Marketing area:
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities, such as cement, mineral acids,
and fertilizers, where the cost of the product per metric ton is relatively low and
the cost of transport is a significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should
located close to the primary market. This consideration is much less important for
low-volume production and high-priced products, such as pharmaceuticals.

10.2.3. Transport:
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an
overriding consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected
that is close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal
or river), or a sea port. Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable
for local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail transport will be cheaper for
the long-distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air transport is convenient and
efficient for the movement of personnel and essential equipment and supplies,
and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be considered.

10.2.4. Availability of labor:

Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but
there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labor available locally; and labor
suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for
plant maintenance. Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have
to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability of the local labor
for recruitment and training.

10.2.5. Utilities:
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and
general process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of
suitable quality. Process water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or
purchased from a local authority. At some sites, the cooling water required 120
Chapter 10: Site Consideration

can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations cooling
towers will be needed. Electrical power will be needed at all sites. A competitively
priced fuel must be available on site for steam and power generation. Utilities
may include:
 Electricity.
 Steam for process heating.
 Water for general use.
 Dematerialized.
 Compressed air.
 Inert gas supplies.
 Refrigeration.
 Effluent disposal.

10.2.6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal:

All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be
given to the difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and
harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate
authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the
standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should be
made for each new project, or major modification or addition to an existing
process.

10.2.7. Local community consideration:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community.
Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does
not impose a significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local
community must be able to provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel:
schools, banks, housing, and recreational and cultural facilities. The local
community must also be consulted about plant water consumption and discharge
and the effect of the plant on local traffic.

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10.2.8. Availability of suitable land:

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future
expansion. The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load-
bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the
need for piling or other special foundations.

10.2.9. Climate:
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low
temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special
heating for equipment and pipe runs. Stronger structures will be needed at
locations subject to high winds (cyclone/hurricane areas) or earthquakes.

10.2.10. Political and strategic consideration:

Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of
high unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding
consideration in site selection.

10.3. Site layout:

The physical layout of the plant should be designed to print coordination between
the operation of process equipment and the use of storage and material handling
equipment. The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the
most economical flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous
processes must be located at a safe distance from other buildings. Consideration
must also be given to the future expansion of the site. The ancillary buildings and
services required on a site, in addition to the main processing units (buildings),
will include:
 Storages for raw materials and products: tank farms and warehouses.
 Maintenance workshops.
 Stores, for maintenance.
 Laboratories for process control.
 Fire stations and other emergency services.
 Utilities. 122
Chapter 10: Site Consideration

 Effluent disposal administration.

 Canteens and other amenity building, such as medical centers.
 Car park.

 When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will
normally be sited first and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials
through the various processing steps, from raw material to final product
storage. Process units are normally spaced at least 30 m apart greater
spacing may be needed for hazardous processes.
 The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided.
They should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in
travelling between buildings. Administration offices and laboratories, in
which a relatively large number of people will be working, should be
located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms will
normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially
hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance.
 The siting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant
roads, pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building
for construction, and for operation and maintenance.
 Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to
and from the process units.
 Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume
of condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent
properties.
 The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and
unloading facilities and the process units they serve. Storage tanks
containing hazardous materials should be sited at least 70 m (200 ft) from
the site boundary.

10.4. Plant layout:

The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend
on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid
out. The principal factors to be considered are:
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Chapter 10: Site Consideration


Economic considerations:
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the
shortest run of connecting pipe between equipment, and the least amount f
structural steel work. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement
for operation and maintenance.
 Process requirement:
An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to
elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to
a pump or the operating head for a thermosiphon reboiler.

 Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located
convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be
located at convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and
headroom must be provided to allow easy access to equipment.
 Maintenance:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent
replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the outside of buildings.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and
large pumps, should be placed under cover.
 Safety:
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and
confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must
be provided from each level in process buildings.

 Plant expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and
service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.

 Modular construction:
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel,
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piping and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site,
by road or sea
The advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control.
2. Reduced construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labor on site.
4. Less need for skilled personnel on overseas sites.

Some of the disadvantages are:

1. Higher design costs.
2. More structural steel work.
3. More flanged connections.
4. Possible problems with assembly, on site.

 Other services:
A plant must be prepared for the convenience of it is employees and general
administrative staff. Rooms are made for recreational activities such as rest room,
cafeteria, and change room for workers. Providing a medical facility is important
for safety of employees and to take care of any sudden emergencies that might
be happened. Other important parts needed for plant efficient operation are
administrative offices, laborites, workshops and stores.

 General consideration:
Open, structural steelwork, buildings are normally used for process equipment;
closed buildings are only used for process operations that require protection from
the weather.
The arrangement of the major items of equipment will usually follow the
sequence given on the process flow-sheet: with the columns and vessels arranged
in rows and the ancillary equipment, such as heat exchangers and pumps,
positioned along the outside.

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Chapter 10: Site Consideration

10.5. Plant layout:

Figure 10.1 plant layout

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Chapter 10: Site Consideration

References
1. GavinTowler & Ray Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design Principles,
Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design, Elsevier, 2008.
Contents
Chapter 1....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction of detergents ........................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Detergents industry: ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 History of detergents: ............................................................................................................... 1
.............................................................................................................................................................. 3
2. Literature review ................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Detergents: ....................................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Cleaning process: ...................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Cleaning process Consist of three steps ................................................................................... 4
3.2 Classification of detergents:...................................................................................................... 5
Additives: .................................................................................................................................................. 6
Dodecyl benzene sulfonate:.................................................................................................................. 7
3.3 Production:................................................................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2 Process Description ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Step of preparing: ................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Material (mass) balance.............................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Material balance calculation: ...................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Material balances around the neutralizer(R – 101): ........................................................... 17
3.2.2 Material balance around aging vessel (M – 101): ............................................................... 20
3.2.3 Material balance around the feed filter (F -101): ............................................................... 21
3.2.4 Material balance around the spray dryer (D – 101): .......................................................... 22
3.2.5 Material balance around the screen (SC – 101):................................................................. 23
3.2.6 Material balance around the perfumer (V – 101):.............................................................. 24
3.3 Overall material balance: ................................................................................................................ 25
Chapter 4 Energy Balance ........................................................................................................................... 28
4.1 INTRODUCTION: .......................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: ...................................................................................................... 28
4.3 ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATIONS: ............................................................................................. 30
4.3.1 Energy balance around neutralizer(R – 101): ..................................................................... 30

2
 4.3.2 Energy Balance around aging vessel (M – 101): ................................................................. 32
4.3.3 Energy balance around filter (F -101): ................................................................................ 34
4.3.4 Energy balance around poster pump (P-101): .................................................................... 35
4.3.5 Energy balance around high pressure pump (P-102): ........................................................ 36
4.3.6 Energy balance around spray dryer (D-101): ...................................................................... 37
4.3.7 Energy balance around screen (SC-101): ............................................................................ 39
4.3.8 Energy balance around recycle pump (P-101): ................................................................... 39
4.3.9 Energy balance around perfumer (V-101): ......................................................................... 40
4.4 Summarize of Energy balance: .................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 5 Equipment Design ...................................................................................................................... 43
5.1 Design of neutralizer: .................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.1 Calculations: ........................................................................................................................ 43
5.1.2 Summary of design: ............................................................................................................ 52
5.2 Design of aging vessel (mixer):.................................................................................................... 53
5.2.1 Calculation: ......................................................................................................................... 53
5.2.2 Summary of aging vessel design: ........................................................................................ 56
5.3 Design of Spray Dryer: ................................................................................................................ 57
5.3.1 Introduction: ....................................................................................................................... 57
5.3.2 Atomizer:............................................................................................................................. 57
5.3.3 Calculations: ........................................................................................................................ 57
5.3.4 Summary of Spray Dryer Design: ........................................................................................ 63
........................................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 6.........................................................................................................................................................
Ancillaries design ........................................................................................................................................ 65
6.1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................... 65
6.2 Design of homogenizer (M-102): ................................................................................................ 65
6.3 Pumps: ........................................................................................................................................ 66
6.3.1 Pumps Selection .................................................................................................................. 66
6.3.2 Calculation: ......................................................................................................................... 67
6.3.3 Poster pump (P-101) ........................................................................................................... 68
6.3.4 High pressure pump (P-102): .............................................................................................. 69
6.3.5 Recycle pump (P-101): ........................................................................................................ 70
6.4 Storage Facilities ......................................................................................................................... 71

3
 6.4.1 Sizing the Storage Tanks ..................................................................................................... 71
6.4.2 Sizing procedure.................................................................................................................. 72
6.4.3 LABSA Tank.......................................................................................................................... 73
6.4.4 Sodium hydroxide Storage Tank ......................................................................................... 74
6.5 Summarize of Ancillaries design ................................................................................................. 75
........................................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 7..................................................................................................................................................... 77
Process Control ........................................................................................................................................... 77
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 77
7.2 Process Control: .......................................................................................................................... 86
7.2.1 Neutralizer (Reactor) control: ............................................................................................. 86
7.2.2 Aging vessel control: ........................................................................................................... 12
7.2.3 Spray dryer control: ............................................................................................................ 90
7.2.4Process control: .......................................................................................................................... 91
Chapter 8..................................................................................................................................................... 93
Safety and Environment.............................................................................................................................. 93
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 93
8.2 Environmental Considerations:................................................................................................... 93
8.3 Process safety ............................................................................................................................. 94
8.4 Hazard and Operability Study: .................................................................................................... 98
Chapter 9................................................................................................................................................... 102
Cost estimation ......................................................................................................................................... 102
9.1. Introduction: ............................................................................................................................. 102
9.2. Cost Estimation ......................................................................................................................... 103
9.2.1. Calculation: ....................................................................................................................... 107
9.2.2. Summary of Calculation: ................................................................................................... 117
Chapter 10................................................................................................................................................. 119
Site Consideration ..................................................................................................................................... 119
10.1. Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 119
10.2. Plant location and site selection: .......................................................................................... 119
10.2.1. Raw material: ........................................................................................................................ 120
10.2.2. Marketing area:..................................................................................................................... 120
10.2.3. Transport:.............................................................................................................................. 120

4
 10.2.4. Availability of labor: .............................................................................................................. 120
10.2.5. Utilities: ................................................................................................................................. 120
10.2.6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal: ....................................................................... 121
10.2.7. Local community consideration: ........................................................................................... 121
10.2.8. Availability of suitable land: .................................................................................................. 122
10.2.9. Climate: ................................................................................................................................. 122
10.2.10. Political and strategic consideration: ................................................................................ 122
10.3. Site layout: ............................................................................................................................ 122
10.4. Plant layout: .......................................................................................................................... 123
10.5. Plant layout: .......................................................................................................................... 126

5
Table of Figures and Tables
Figure3.1Block diagram of detergents manufacturing ........................................ 3
Figure3. 2Process flow diagram of detergents manufacturing ............................ 1
Figure 3.1 Overall material Balance .................................................................. 10
Table4. 1 Table 1 Additives Specification ............................................................ 6
Table4. 2 Calculation of Cp for Mixture............................................................... 6
Table4.3 Summarize of pumps energy balance ................................................. 14
Table 5.1 Summary of neutralizer design .......................................................... 10
Figure 5.1 Neutralizer design ............................................................................ 10
Table 5.2 Summary of aging vessel design ........................................................ 14
......................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 5.2 Aging vessel Design .......................................................................... 14
Figure 5.3 Humidity Chart ................................................................................. 17
Table 5.3 Summary of Spray Dryer Design ........................................................ 21
Figure 5.4 Spray drayer Design ......................................................................... 21
Table6. 1 Summarize of homogenizer specification ............................................ 2
Table 6.2 pump characteristics ........................................................................... 3
Table 6.3Summarize of Pumps specification ....................................................... 7
Table6.4 Nominal Capacities of Standard Vertical Cylindrical Tanks, m^3 .......... 9
Table 6.5 Summarize of Tanks specification...................................................... 11
Table6. 6 Summarize of Anciliareis Design ........................................................ 11
Table7. 1: The kinds of controllers suitable for the common variables ............... 5
Figure7. 6: Feedback Control Loop...................................................................... 6
Table7. 2: symbols of control system .................................................................. 7
Table8.1 a List of Guide Words and Their Meanings ........................................... 8

6
 Table8.2 HAZOP of reactor ................................................................................. 8
Table 9.1 Typical Factor for Estimation of Project Fixed Capital Cost .................. 4
Table9.2 equipment Purchased cost ................................................................... 6
Table9. 3 Estimation of Direct cost: .................................................................... 7
Table9.4Estimation Of indirect cost .................................................................... 7
Table 9.5 Calculations of Depreciation ................................................................ 8
Table9. 6 Estimation Of fixed cost:.................................................................... 10
Table9 .7 Variable cost ...................................................................................... 11
Table9.8Fixed charge cost:................................................................................ 11
Table9 9 General Expense cost: ........................................................................ 12
Table 9 10 Annual income................................................................................. 13
Table9. 11Present value calculation:................................................................. 14
Table9. 12Summarize of Cost Estimation .......................................................... 16