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 River Publishers Series in Mathematical, Statistical and
Elementary Vector Calculus Computational Modelling for Engineering

and its Applications with

MATLAB Programming Elementary Vector Calculus

Elementary Vector Calculus and its Applications with

Nita H. Shah and its Applications with
Jitendra Panchal
MATLAB Programming

MATLAB Programming
Sir Isaac Newton, one of the greatest scientists and mathematicians
of all time, introduced the notion of a vector to define the existence of
gravitational forces, the motion of the planets around the sun, and the
motion of the moon around the earth. Vector calculus is a fundamental
scientific tool that allows us to investigate the origins and evolution of
space and time, as well as the origins of gravity, electromagnetism, and
nuclear forces. Vector calculus is an essential language of mathemati-
cal physics, and plays a vital role in differential geometry and studies
related to partial differential equations widely used in physics, engi-
neering, fluid flow, electromagnetic fields, and other disciplines. ­Vector
calculus represents physical quantities in two or three-­dimensional
space, as well as the variations in these quantities.
The machinery of differential geometry, of which vector calculus
is a subset, is used to understand most of the analytic results in a more
general form. Many topics in the physical sciences can be mathemati-
cally studied using vector calculus techniques.
This book is designed under the assumption that the readers have
no prior knowledge of vector calculus. It begins with an introduction to
vectors and scalars, and also covers scalar and vector products, vector
differentiation and integrals, Gauss’s theorem, Stokes’s theorem, and
Green’s theorem. The MATLAB programming is given in the last chapter.
This book includes many illustrations, solved examples, practice
examples, and multiple-choice questions.

Jitendra Pancha
Nita H. Shah
Nita H. Shah
River Publishers River Jitendra Panchal
Elementary Vector Calculus
and its Applications with
MATLAB Programming
RIVER PUBLISHERS SERIES IN MATHEMATICAL,
STATISTICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING
FOR ENGINEERING
Series Editors:

MANGEY RAM
Graphic Era University, India
TADASHI DOHI
Hiroshima University, Japan
ALIAKBAR MONTAZER HAGHIGHI
Prairie View Texas A&M University, USA
Applied mathematical techniques along with statistical and computational data analysis has
become vital skills across the physical sciences. The purpose of this book series is to present
novel applications of numerical and computational modelling and data analysis across the
applied sciences. We encourage applied mathematicians, statisticians, data scientists and
computing engineers working in a comprehensive range of research fields to showcase dif-
ferent techniques and skills, such as differential equations, finite element method, algorithms,
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theory, etc
Books published in the series include professional research monographs, edited vol-
umes, conference proceedings, handbooks and textbooks, which provide new insights for
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Topics included in this series are as follows:-
• Discrete mathematics and computation
• Fault diagnosis and fault tolerance
• Finite element method (FEM) modeling/simulation
• Fuzzy and possibility theory
• Fuzzy logic and neuro-fuzzy systems for relevant engineering applications
• Game Theory
• Mathematical concepts and applications
• Modelling in engineering applications
• Numerical simulations
• Optimization and algorithms
• Queueing systems
• Resilience
• Stochastic modelling and statistical inference
• Stochastic Processes
• Structural Mechanics
• Theoretical and applied mechanics
For a list of other books in this series, visit www.riverpublishers.com
Elementary Vector Calculus
and its Applications with
MATLAB Programming

Nita H. Shah
Gujarat University, India

Jitendra Panchal
Parul University, India
Published, sold and distributed by:
River Publishers
Alsbjergvej 10
9260 Gistrup
Denmark

www.riverpublishers.com

ISBN: 978-87-7022-387-4 (Hardback)

978-87-7022-386-7 (Ebook)


c 2022 River Publishers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of
the publishers.
 Contents

Preface ix

List of Figures xi

1 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars 1

1.1 Introduction and Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Position Vector and Vector Components . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Modulus or Absolute Value of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Zero Vector and Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Unit Vectors in the Direction of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Representation of a Vector in terms of Unit Vectors . . . . . 5
1.8 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Product of a Vector with a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.10 Direction of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.11 Collinear and Coplanar Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11.1 Collinear Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11.2 Coplanar Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12.1 Law of Parallelogram of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.12.2 Law of Triangle of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12.3 Properties of Addition of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12.4 Properties of Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12.5 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of the Vectors
Associated with its Initial Point and Terminal Point . 10
1.12.6 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of Position
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.14 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

v
vi Contents

2 Scalar and Vector Products 29

2.1 Scalar Product, or Dot Product, or Inner Product . . . . . . . 29
2.2 The Measure of Angle Between two Vectors and
Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1 Properties of a Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Vector Product or Cross Product or Outer Product of Two
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Geometric Interpretation of a Vector Product . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.1 Properties of a Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5 Application of Scalar and Vector Products . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5.1 Work Done by a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.2 Moment of a Force About a Point . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3 Vector Differential Calculus 55

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Vector and Scalar Functions and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.1 Scalar Function and Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.2 Vector Function and Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.3 Level Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Curve and Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.1 Parametric Representation of Curves . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.2 Curves with Tangent Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.2.1 Tangent Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.2.2 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.3 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.3.1 Unit Tangent Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Curvature and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.1 Formulas for Curvature and Torsion . . . . . . . . . 67
3.5 Vector Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.6 Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative . . . . 73
3.6.1 Gradient of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.6.1.1 Properties of Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.6.2 Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.6.2.1 Properties of Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.6.3 Equations of Tangent and Normal to the Level
Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6.4 Equation of the Tangent Planes and Normal Lines
to the Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
 Contents vii

3.7 Divergence and Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.7.1 Divergence of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.7.1.1 Physical Interpretation of Divergence . . . 86
3.7.2 Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.7.2.1 Physical Interpretation of Curl . . . . . . . 89
3.7.3 Formulae for grad, div, curl Involving Operator ∇ . 96
3.7.3.1 Formulae for grad, div, curl Involving
Operator ∇ Once . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.7.3.2 Formulae for grad, div, curl Involving
Operator ∇ Twice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.8 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4 Vector Integral Calculus 111

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2 Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.1 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2.2 Work Done by a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3 Path Independence of Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.3.1 Theorem: Independent of Path . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.4 Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.1 Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.2 Evaluation of Surface Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.2.1 Component form of Surface Integral . . . 124
4.5 Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.5.1 Component Form of Volume Integral . . . . . . . . 129
4.6 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5 Green’s Theorem, Stokes’ Theorem, and Gauss’ Theorem 135

5.1 Green’s Theorem (in the Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.1.1 Area of the Plane Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2 Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 Gauss’ Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

6 MATLAB Programming 167

6.1 Basic of MATLAB Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.1.1 Basic of MATLAB Programming . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.1.1.1 Introductory MATLAB programmes . . . 168
6.1.1.2 Representation of a Vector in MATLAB . 183
viii Contents

6.1.1.3 Representation of a Matrix in MATLAB . 186

6.2 Some Miscellaneous Examples using MATLAB
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Index 207

About the Authors 213

 Preface

Vector calculus is an essential language of mathematical physics. Vector

calculus plays a vital role in differential geometry, and the study related to
partial differential equations is widely used in physics, engineering, fluid
flow, electromagnetic fields, and other disciplines. Vector calculus represents
physical quantities in two or three-dimensional space, as well as the variations
in these quantities.
The machinery of differential geometry, of which vector calculus is a
subset, is used to understand most of the analytic results in a more general
form. Many topics in the physical sciences can be mathematically studied
using vector calculus techniques.
Description of the book:
This book is meant for readers who have a basic understanding of vector
calculus. This book is designed to provide accurate information to readers.
The language in the book is kept simple so that all readers can easily
understand each concept.
This book begins with the introduction of vectors and scalars in chapter 1.
Chapter 1 contains essential basic definitions and concepts, vector in terms of
unit vectors, geometric representation of vector sum, and direction cosines.
The scalar and vector products, measurement of angle and projections, geo-
metric interpretation of a vector product, and their applications are given in
chapter 2. In chapter 3, vector and scalar functions and fields, curves, arc
length, formulae for curvature and torsion, and its derivation, curl, diver-
gence, and gradient with important properties and physical interpretation, and
important results are given in vector differential calculus. Chapter 4 vector
integral calculus includes line integrals, circulation, path independence, sur-
face integrals, volume integrals, and its applications like flux and work done
by a force are given. In chapter 5, derivation of Green’s theorem, Stokes’s
theorem, and Gauss’ divergence theorem are given with various solve exam-
ples. MATLAB programming is given in the last chapter 6 includes basic
information about MATLAB. Initially, basic examples are given with proper

ix
x Preface

explanation wherever possible that helps readers to understand basic input

and output, arithmetic operations, functions, plotting commands available
in MATLAB. Variety of solved programs with MATLAB codes along with
compiles and debug outputs. So, the reader can run the program using given
codes and observe results.

For MATLAB product information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Represents the geometrical representation

of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Figure 1.2 Represents a position vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1.3 Represents equal and negative vectors . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.4 Represents unit vectors in xy-plane . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1.5 Represents unit vectors in the direction of x-axis,
y-axis, and z-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 1.6 Represents a vector OP in terms of unit vectors . . 6
Figure 1.7 Represents the product of a vector with a scalar . . 7
Figure 1.8 Represents the law of parallelogram of vectors . . . 9
Figure 1.9 Represents the law of the triangle of vectors . . . . 9
Figure 1.10 Represents any vector in terms of various vectors
associated with its endpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.11 Represents any vector in terms of the position
vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.12 Represents direction cosines of a vector . . . . . . 12
Figure 1.13 Represents a parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 1.14 Represents a regular hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 1.15 Represents a triangle ΔABC . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1.16 A space shuttle of 1000 tons weight hangs from two
skyscrapers using steel cables . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 2.1 Represents a scalar or dot product . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 2.2 Represents a vector or cross product . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 2.3 Represents the geometric interpretation of a vector
or cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 2.4 Represents work done by a force F on a particle . . 46
Figure 2.5 Represents the moment of a force about a point . . 47
Figure 3.1 Represents a curve with a tangent vector . . . . . . 59
Figure 3.2 Represents the plane of curvature of the curve . . . 60
Figure 3.3 Represents the arc rate of rotation of binormal . . . 65
Figure 3.4 Represents B̂, T̂ , and N̂ orthogonal unit vectors . 66

xi
xii List of Figures

Figure 3.5 Represents the derivative of the vector v (t) . . . . 71

Figure 3.6 Represents the directional derivative . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 3.7 Represents the parallelopiped . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4.1 Representation of a vector function defined at every
point of a curve C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 4.2 Representation of a closed curve C . . . . . . . . . 114
Figure 4.3 Representation of parabola x = y 2 . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 4.4 Representation of the rectangle in xy-plane
bounded by lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 4.5 Representation of curved surface S and a plane
region R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 4.6 Representation of the projection of the plane in the
first octant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 4.7 Representation of the positive octant of the sphere . 126
Figure 4.8 Representation of the sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 4.9 Representation of the cylinder in positive octant . . 129
Figure 5.1 Represents the region R bounded by the curve C . 135
Figure 5.2 Represents the region R bounded two parabolas . . 138
Figure 5.3 Represents the plane triangle enclosed by given
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 5.4 Represents the rectangle in the xy-plane bounded
by lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 5.5 Represents the triangle in the xy-plane bounded by
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 5.6 Represents the region bounded by the parabola and
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 5.7 Represents an open surface bounded by a closed
curve C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 5.8 Represents the rectangle bounded by the lines . . . 149
Figure 5.9 Represents the surface of a rectangular lamina
bounded by the lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Figure 5.10 Represents the boundary of the triangle . . . . . . 153
Figure 5.11 Represents the region bounded by a closed
surface S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 5.12 Represents the cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 5.13 Represents the cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 5.14 Represents the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
 1
Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

1.1 Introduction and Importance

The word “Vector” was first given by W. R. Hamilton. In the nineteenth cen-
tury, Hamilton and Grassmann have formed vector analysis independently.
Today, all physical quantities are classified into two different quantities. The
physical quantities can be measured directly or indirectly. Some physical
quantities are independent of each other or dependent. A quantity that has
its value or a magnitude but no direction then it is called scalar quantity or
scalar. For example, time, temperature, density, mass, length, power, distance,
area, volume, speed, work, energy, electric charge, frequency, gravitational
potential, etc., in this list of examples all quantities are having magnitudes but
are independent of the direction. Whereas a quantity that has magnitude, as
well as direction, is known as vector quantity or vector. Velocity, acceleration,
magnetic field, force, momentum, lift, drag, thrust, displacement, fluid flow,
the intensity of an electrical field, centrifugal force, etc., are examples of
vector quantities. Vectors are generally denoted by capital bold letters or
→
−
letters with an arrow-like A , A, or a.

1.2 Representation of Vectors

A geometrical representation of a vector is given in Figure 1.1.
Let O be any arbitrary point in the space and let M be any point in
the space. A directed line segment joining
−−→both the points is known as the
−−→  
vector OM . The length of the vector OM  is the magnitude of the vector

Figure 1.1 Represents the geometrical representation of a vector

1
2 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
−−→ −−−→
OM and is denoted by |OM | or|OM |. The point O is called the initial point
−−−→
and the point M is called the terminal point of the vector |OM |.

1.3 Position Vector and Vector Components

Consider the cartesian coordinate system shown in Figure 1.2. Let P be any
−−→
point in the three-dimensional system and let O be the origin then OP is
−−→
the position vector of the point P . If the vector OP is denoted by − →
a then
→
−
the point is denoted by P ( a). All three axis are perpendicular to each other.
The position vector can be obtained by taking perpendiculars on each axis. In
the cartesian coordinate system, AN (= OB) represents x-coordinate of P ,
BN (= OA) represents y-coordinate of P , and P N represents Z-coordinate
of P . Thus, the point P is denoted by P (x, y, z). Where x, y, and z are also
known as components in the direction of the X-axis, Y -axis, and Z-axis
respectively.
Equal Vectors: Two vectors with the same direction and magnitude are called
equal vectors irrespective of the position of their initial points. In Figure 1.3,
→
− →
−
a and b are equal vectors.
Negative Vectors: Two vectors with the same magnitude but opposite in
direction are called negative vectors. In Figure 1.3, −
→
c is a negative vector
→
− →
−
for both a and b .

Figure 1.2 Represents a position vector

 1.4 Modulus or Absolute Value of a Vector 3

Figure 1.3 Represents equal and negative vectors

1.4 Modulus or Absolute Value of a Vector

−−→
In Figure 1.2, OP is the position vector of the point P (x, y, z). The modulus
−−→ −−→
or absolute value of a vector OP is the length of the vector OP .
i.e., OP 2 = BM 2 + M A2 + P M 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
−−→ 
 
∴ OP  = OP = x2 + y 2 + z 2

Illustration 1.1: Find the modulus of the vector (−3, 4, −5).

Solution: Let −→
a = (−3, 4, −5) be a given vector. It is a three-dimensional
vector. Here, x = −3, y = 4, and z = −5 then the modulus of the vector −→a
is given by
 
|→
−
a|= x + y + z = (−3)2 + (4)2 + (−5)2
2 2 2

√ √
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
√
=5 2
√
Thus, the modulus of a vector −
→
a is 5 2.
Illustration 1.2: Find the modulus of the vector (6, 8).
Solution: Let −→
a = (6, 8) be a given vector. It is a two-dimensional vector.
Here, x = 6 and y = 8 then the modulus of the vector − →a is given by
 
|−
→
a | = x2 + y 2 = (6)2 + (8)2
√ √
= 36 + 64 = 100
= 10
Thus, the modulus of a vector −
→
a is 10.
4 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

1.5 Zero Vector and Unit Vector

Zero Vector: A vector with modulus zero is called a√zero vector. It is denoted
by 0 or θ. Here, θ = 0 = (0, 0, 0). So, |θ| = |0| = 02 + 02 + 02 = 0. Note
−→ −−→
that |θ| = 0. AA, BB etc. are zero vectors.
Unit Vector: A vector with modulus unity (i.e., 1) is called a unit vector.
Illustration 1.3: (−1, 0, 0) is a unit vector as its modulus is

(−1)2 + 02 + 02 = 1.
  
Illustration 1.4: √13 , 0, − 23 is a unit vector as its modulus is
 2

 1 2
2 1 2 1+2 3
√ + 02 + − = +0+ = = = 1.
3 3 3 3 3 3

1.6 Unit Vectors in the Direction of Axes

Figure 1.4 represents a two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system (i.e., xy-
plane), in which (1, 0) and (0, 1) are called unit vectors in the direction of
x and y axis respectively. The unit vector in the direction of x-coordinate
is denoted by i = (1, 0) and in the direction of y-coordinate is denoted by
j = (0, 1).

Figure 1.4 Represents unit vectors in xy-plane

 1.7 Representation of a Vector in terms of Unit Vectors 5

Figure 1.5 Represents unit vectors in the direction of x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis

Figure 1.5 represents a three-dimensional cartesian coordinate system

(i.e., xyz-axes), in which (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1) are called unit
vectors in the direction of x, y, and z axes respectively. The unit vector in
the direction of x-coordinate is denoted by i = (1, 0, 0), in the direction of
y-coordinate is denoted by j = (1, 0, 0), and in the direction of z-coordinate
is denoted by k = (1, 0, 0). Note that the modulus of each unit vector in the
direction of each axis is unity.

1.7 Representation of a Vector in terms of Unit Vectors

Let P (x, y, z) be a vector and i, j, and k be the unit vectors in the direction
−−→ −−→ −→
of OX, OY and OZ respectively in the given Figure 1.6.
Consider a perpendicular P M to the plane XOY . From Figure 1.6, we
can observe that M L⊥OX and M N ⊥OY . Then OL = x, ON = y, and
P M = z.
−→ −−→ −−→
∴ OL = xi, ON = yj, and OM = zk
The vectors xi, yj, and zk are called the rectangular components of
−−→ −−→
−−→ −−→  we can write OP = xi + yj + zk.
the vector OP and
−−→
The magnitude of
2 2 2
OP = |OP | = x + y + z . Thus, P (x, y, z) and OP = xi + yj + zk
represent the same vector.
6 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

 in terms of unit vectors

Figure 1.6 Represents a vector OP

1.8 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

If −
→
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and −
→
y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), then the sum vector →
−
x +−
→
y is
given by
→
−
x +− →
y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 ) .
And the subtraction of vector −
→
x −− →y is given by
→
−
x −−
→
y = (x1 − y1 , x2 − y2 , x3 − y3 ) .

−
→
Illustration 1.5: If →
−
a = (4, −3, 2) and b = (−2, 5, 3).then
−
→ →
−
a + b = (4 − 2, −3 + 5, 2 + 3) = (2, 2, 5) .

Illustration 1.6: If →
−
x = (4, 10, −2) and →
−
y = (0, 1, −3).then
−
→
x −−→y = (4 − 0, 10 − 1, −2 − 3)
= (4 − 0, 10 − 1, −2 + 3)
= (4, 9, 1) .

1.9 Product of a Vector with a Scalar

Definition: Let k be a scalar and − →a be a vector. Then k −→
a is defined as
a vector whose modulus is k times the modulus of the vector − →
a and whose
→
− →
−
direction is the same as that of a or opposite to that of a according to k is
positive or negative (See Figure 1.7).
 1.10 Direction of a Vector 7

Figure 1.7 Represents the product of a vector with a scalar

→ → −
− → → →
−
Note: −→
a  b ⇔− a =k b or b =k − a , k∈R
Illustration 1.7: If −
→a = (5, −3, 2), then

3−
→
a = 3 (5, −3, 2) = (15, −9, 6) .

Here 3−
→
a is a vector whose modulus is three times the modulus of →
−
a and
whose direction is the same as that of −
→
a.

1.10 Direction of a Vector

In this section, we try to understand the concept of the direction of a vector.
The direction of a vector in the direction from its initial point to its
terminal point. Two vectors can be of the same direction, opposite direction,
or different directions.
→
−
Definition: If − →
a and b are two non-null vectors and
−
→ →
−
(1) if there exists −
→a k > 0 such that −→a = k b . then −→a and b are of the
same direction.
→
− →
−
(2) if there exists −→
a k < 0 such that − →
a = k b . then − →a and b are of
opposite direction,
→
−
(3) if there does not exist −→
a k ∈ R − {0} such that − →a = k b , then the
→
−
directions of →−
a and b are different.

Illustration 1.8: Compare the directions of the vectors −

→
a = (2, −5, 3) and
→
−
b = (4, −10, 6).
Solution: Here −→a = (2, −5, 3) = 12 (4, −10, 6)
→
−
= 12 b and 12 > 0.
→
−
∴−→a and b are of the same direction.
8 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Illustration 1.9: Compare the direction of the vectors →

−
p = (3, −2, 1) and
→
−q = (−9, 6, −3)
Solution: Here −→q = (−9, 6, −3) = −3 (3, −2, 1)
→
−
= −3 p and −3 < 0.
∴−→p and −
→q are of opposite direction.
−
→
Illustration 1.10: Compare the directions of →
−
g = (2, 5, 7) and h =
(3, 1, 6).
Solution: Here 23 = 51 = 76 i.e., there does not exist the same ratio between
→
−
the elements of − →g and h .
→
− →
−
. . . We cannot express − →
g and h in the form −→
g = k h . (k = 0)
→
−
. . . The directions of −
→
g and h are different.

1.11 Collinear and Coplanar Vectors

1.11.1 Collinear Vectors
→
− →
− →
−
If two vectors −
→
a and b are such that −
→
a = k b , or b = k −→
a , where k ∈ R−
→
−
→
− →
−
{0}, then a and b are called collinear vectors. Thus a , →
1−
a , 3−
2
→a , −5−
→a are
2
collinear vectors.
Collinear vectors can be represented by parallel lines or line segments of
the same line.

1.11.2 Coplanar Vectors

Any number of vectors, which are parallel to the same plane, are called
coplanar vectors.
→
− →
−
If two non-linear vectors −
→
a and b are coplanar, then vector R given by
→
− →
− →
−
R = x− →a + y b is coplanar with the vectors −
→
a and b for any x, y ∈ R.

1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum

1.12.1 Law of Parallelogram of Vectors
−−→ →
− −−→
If −
→
a is a vector represented by AB and b is a vector represented by AD
→
−
(the two vectors →−
a and b have a common initial point), then their sum
→
− →
− −→
a + b is represented in magnitude and direction by AC, where ABCD is
 1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum 9

Figure 1.8 Represents the law of parallelogram of vectors

a parallelogram (See Figure 1.8). This method of addition is called the law of
the parallelogram of vectors.

1.12.2 Law of Triangle of Vectors

If two vectors −
→
u and −
→
v are represented by the sides P Q and QR of ΔP QR,
then the sum u + v is represented by P R. The direction of −
→
− →
− →
u +−→
v is from
P to R and its modulus is the length of the side P R of ΔP QR.
This method of addition is called the law of the triangle of vectors.
Here the terminal point of the vector −
→u should be the initial point of the
vector v . The resultant (sum) vector u + −
→
− →
− →v can be obtained by joining the
initial point of the vector u and the terminal point of the vector −
→
− →
v as shown
in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Represents the law of the triangle of vectors

1.12.3 Properties of Addition of Vectors

→
−
Let −
→
a , b , and −
→
c be vectors then
10 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
→ −
− → →
(1) Commutative law: −→
a + b = b +−a
 →
−  −
→ →
(2) Associative law: −→
a + b +−→c =−
→a + b +−
c
→
−
(3) Identity vector for addition: θ = (0, 0, 0) is identity vector for addition.
→
− → → −
− → →
a + θ =− a = θ +− a

(4) Opposite vector or negative of a vector: For a vector, there exists a

→ →
−
vector (−−→a ) such that −
→
a + (−−
→a ) = θ . −− a is called the opposite
or negative of −
→a.

Note: If −
→
a = (x, y, z), then −−→a = (−x, −y, −z). And −− →a = −1 · −→a.
→
− →
−
The moduli of a and (− a ) are equal but their directions are opposite to
→
− →
−
 −
each other.→We can define the
→ →
− 
difference
→
− 
of vectors a and b as the sum of
→
−a and − b i.e. − →a − b =− a + −b .

1.12.4 Properties of Scalar Product

→ →
−
Let −
→
a , b ,−
c be vectors and m, n ∈ R be scalars.

(1) m−
→
a =−
→
am

(2) m (n−
→
a ) = n (m−
→
a ) = (mn−
→
a)

(3) Distributive law: (m + n) −

→
a = m−
→
a + n−
→
a
 →
−  →
−
(4) m − →a + b = m− →a +mb
→
−
(5) θ→
−
a =−
→
aθ= θ

1.12.5 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of the Vectors

Associated with its Initial Point and Terminal Point
−−→ ←→
Let BC be a vector. Take a point A which is not on BC join AB and AC.
−−→ −→ −−→
We now have three different vectors AB, AC, and BC (See Figure 1.10).
By the law of the triangle of vectors, we have
−−→ −−→ −→
AB+BC=AC
−−→ −→ −−→
∴ BC=AC−AB
 1.12 Geometric Representation of a Vector Sum 11

Figure 1.10 Represents any vector in terms of various vectors associated with its endpoints.

−−→
In other words, BC= vector of point C− vector of point B.
In general, any vector=vector of its terminal point-vector of its initial
point.

1.12.6 Expression of Any Vector in Terms of Position Vectors

The method of expression of a vector discussed above is true for any point A.
We can take the origin O in place of the point A.
As shown in Figure 1.11,
−→ −−→ −−→
OA+AB=OB

Figure 1.11 Represents any vector in terms of the position vector

12 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
−−→ −−→ −→
∴ AB=OB−OA
In other words, any vector=position vector of its terminal point –position
vector of its terminal point –position vector of its initial point.
Illustration 1.11: Let the position vectors of the points A and B are (2, 5, -3)
and (3, -2, 5) respectively. Then
AB= position vector of B− position vector of A

= (3, −2, 5) − (2, 5, −3) = (1, −7, 8)

1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector

In two dimensions, a vector makes angles with only two axes, namely X-
axis and Y-axis. Hence it is easier to understand. But in three-dimensional
space, a vector makes angles with three axes, and to understand the position
of the vector, direction cosines of the vector are useful. In Figure 1.12, three
important angles are shown considering OP .

(i) Angle formed by OP with the X-axis is ∠P OX. It is denoted by α.

(ii) Angle formed by OP with the Y-axis is ∠P OY . It is denoted by β.

(iii) Angle formed by OP with the Z-axis is ∠P OZ. It is denoted by γ.

The cosines of these angles are called direction cosines. Thus, we get
three direction cosines.

Figure 1.12 Represents direction cosines of a vector

 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 13

x
(1) l = cos α = OP . Taking OP = r, we have cos a = xr .
Now, r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

∴ OP = r = x2 + y 2 + z 2

x
∴ l = cos α =  (1.1)
x2 + y 2 + z 2
(2) cos β is denoted by m. It is connected with the Y-axis. As explained
above.
y
m = cos β =  (1.2)
x2 + y 2 + z 2
(3) cos γ is denoted by m. It is connected with the Z-axis.
z
n = cos γ =  (1.3)
x + y2 + z2
2

Relation among l, m and n,

Squaring and adding (1.1), (1.2), and (1.3), we get
x2 + y 2 + z 2
l 2 + m2 + n 2 = = 1.
x2 + y 2 + z 2
Thus l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
i.e., cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1.
Note that the direction cosines of a vector are the components of its unit
vector.
Illustration 1.12: If the position vectors of the vertices A, B, and Cof the
→
−
parallelogram ABCD are − →a , b and −
→c respectively, find the position vector
of the vertex D.
→
−
Solution: Here OA = − →a , OB = b, and OC = − →c . ABCD is a
parallelogram (See Figure 1.13).
→
−
∴ AD = BC = OC − OB = −
→
c − b

Now,
∴ AD = OD − OA
 → →
−
∴ OD = AD + OA = − →
c − b +−
a
14 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Figure 1.13 Represents a parallelogram

→ →
−
=−
→
a − b +−
c

Illustration 1.13: If the position vectors of the points A, B, C, D

→ →
− → →
− →
−
are respectively −
→
a , b , 3−
a − b , −− a + 3 b , then express the vectors
−
→
AB, AC, BC, BD, and CD in terms of − →a and b .
→
− →
− →
−
Solution: Here OA = − →
a , OB = b , OC = 3− →
a − b, and OD = −− →a +3 b .
→ →
−
Now, AB = OB − OA = b − − a
→ →
− →
−
AC = OC − OA = 3−
→
a − b −−a = 2−
→
a − b
→ →
− →
−
AD = OD − OA = −−→
a +3b −− a = 3 b − 2−
→
a
→ −
− → →
−
BC = OC − OB = 3−→a − b − b = 3− →
a −2b
→ −
− → → →
−
BD = OD − OB = −− →a +3b − b =2b −− a
→
−  →
− 
CD = OD − OC = −− →a + 3 b − 3− →
a − b
→
− →
−  → →
−
= −−
→a + 3 b − 3−
→
a + b =4 b −− a

Illustration 1.14: If ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, prove that

AB + AC + AD + AE + AF = 3AD.
→
−
Solution: Suppose AB = −
→
a , BC = b , and CD = −
→
c.
As ABCDEF is a regular hexagon,
CD = AF = − →
c,
→
−
AB = ED = −
→
a and BC = F E = b .
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 15

Figure 1.14 Represents a regular hexagon

→
−
Now AB = →
−
a , AC = AB + BC = →
−
a + b , AD = AC + CD =
→
− →
−
a + b +−
→
c

AE = AD + DC = AD − ED
→ → −
− → →
−
=−→
a + b +−c −→a = b +−c
→
−
AF = CD = c
∴ LHS = AB + AC + AD + AE + AF
→ → −
− → → − → → −
=−→a +−→a + b +−a + b +−
c + b +−
c +→
c
 →
− 
=3 − →
a + b +−→
c = 3AD = RHS

Another method: From Figure 1.14, we have

LHS = AB + AC + AD + AE + AF
= ED + AC + AD + AE + CD
(∵ AB = ED and CD = AF )
= (AC + CD) + (AE + ED) + AD
= AD + AD + AD = 3AD = RHS

Illustration 1.15: If the sides AB and AC of ΔABC (See Figure 1.15)

represent two vectors and M is the mid-point of the side BC, then prove
that
AB + AC = 2AM
16 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Figure 1.15 Represents a triangle ΔABC

Solution:
Here
AB + BM = AM (1.4)
and
AC + CM = AM (1.5)
Adding (1.4) and (1.5), we have

AB + BM + AC + CM = 2AM (1.6)

But BM and CM are opposite vectors.

∴ BM + CM = 0 (1.7)

Using (1.7) in (1.6), we get

AB + AC = 2AM

Illustration 1.16: Find position vectors, moduli, unit vectors, and direction
cosines for vectors represented by the following points:
(i) P (3, −4) (ii) Q (6, 2) (iii) R (−4, −6)
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 17

Solution:

(i) OP = −
→r = (3, −4) = 3î − 4ĵ

Modulus = |OP | = |−
→
r | = (3)2 + (−4)2
√ √
= 9 + 16 = 25 = 5
→
−
r 3î − 4ĵ 3 4
Unit vector r̂ = →− = = î − ĵ
|r| 5 5 5
Direction cosines: l = 35 , m = − 45

(ii) OQ = −
→r = (6, 2) = 6î + 2ĵ
√ √ √ √
Modulus = |−
→
r | = 62 + 22 = 36 + 4 = 40 = 2 10
→
−
r 6î − 2ĵ 3 1
Unit vector r̂ = →− = √ = √ î + √ ĵ
|r| 2 10 10 10

Direction cosines: l = √3 , m = √1 .
10 10

(iii) OR = −
→r = (−4, −6) = 4î − 6ĵ
 √ √ √
→
−
Modulus = | r | = (−4)2 + (6)2 = 16 + 36 = 52 = 2 13

→
−
r −4î − 6ĵ 2 3
Unit vector r̂ = →− = √ = √ î − √ ĵ
|r| 2 13 13 13

Direction cosines: l = − √213 , m = − √313

  →  1 1   
Illustration 1.17: If −
→ y = √2 , √2 and −
x = 1, 12 , − →
z = −2, − 32 then

(i) Find a unit vector in the direction of −

→
x +−→
z,
√ →
x − 2−
(ii) Find a unit vector in the direction of 2−
→ y + 2−
→
z.

Solution:
   
(i) Here −
→
x +−
→
z = 1, 12 + −2, − 32
18 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

1 3
= 1 − 2, −
2 2

= (−1, −1) = −î − ĵ

 √ √
∴ |−
→x +− →z | = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2
. . . The unit vector in the direction of −
→
x +−
→
z
→
−
x +−
→z 1   1 1
= →− →
− = √ −î − ĵ = − √ î − √ ĵ
|x + z | 2 2 2
1 1
= −√ , −√
2 2
√ →
x − 2−
(ii) 2→
− y + 2−
→
z
1 √ 1 1 3
= 2 1, − 2 √ ,√ + 2 −2, −
2 2 2 2

= (2, 1) − (1, 1) + (−4, −3)

= (2 − 1 − 4, 1 − 1 − 3) = (−3, −3)
 √ −  
 −→ → →
−  2 2
 2 x − 2 y + 2 z  = (−3) + (−3)
√ √ √
= 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2
√ →
. x − 2−
2−
→ y + 2−→
z
. . Required unit vector =  − √ 
2→ →
−
x − 2y +2z →
−

1 1 1
= √ (−3, −3) = −√ , −√
3 2 2 2

Illustration 1.18: Let −

→
a = (2, −1, 2) be a given vector.

(i) Find the unit vector in the direction of −

→
a.

(ii) Find a direction cosine of −

→
a.

(iii) Find a vector of magnitude 6 in the direction of −

→
a.

(iv) Find a vector of magnitude 4 in the opposite direction of −

→
a.
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 19

Solution: Here −
→
a = (2, −1, 2) = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂.

(i) Unit vector in the direction of a

→
−
a 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ 1 
â = →− = √ = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂
|a| 4+1+4 3
2 1 2
= î − ĵ + k̂
3 3 3
(ii) Direction cosines: l = 23 , m = − 13 , n = 2
3

(iii) Vector of magnitude 6 in the direction of −→

a
6 
= 6â = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ = 4î − 2ĵ + 4k̂
3

(iv) Vector of magnitude 4 in the opposite direction of −

→
a
4  8 4 8
= −4â = − 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ = − î + ĵ − k̂
3 3 3 3

Illustration 1.19: Answer the followings:

→
−
(i) If −→
a = 3î − ĵ − 4k̂, b = −2î + 4ĵ − 3k̂ and −
→
c = î + 2ĵ − k̂, then find
−
→
the direction cosines of the vector 3 a − 2 b + 4−
→
− →c.
→
−
(ii) If −→
a = 2î + ĵ − k̂, b = î − ĵ + 2k̂ and −
→
c = î − 2ĵ + k̂, then find the
→
− →
− →
−
direction cosines of a + b − 2 c .
→
−
(iii) If −
→
a = (3, −1, −4)  , b = (−2, 4, −3) and − →c = (−1, 2, −1) then find
 − → →
− →
− 
3 a − 2 b + 4 c .
→
−  →
− 
 → 
(iv) If −
→
a = î + ĵ, b = ĵ + k̂, and −
→
c = k̂ + î, then find 2−
a − 3 b − 5−
→
c .
→
−
(v) If −
→
a = 5î −3ĵ + 2k̂, b = 2î + →
−
 3ĵ − k̂ and c = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, then find
 → →
− 
the value of 2−
a − 3 b + 4− →c .

→
− →
−  and −
→
 a = 3−
(vi) If î − 2ĵ +k̂, b = 2î − 4ĵ − 3k, c = −î + 2ĵ + 2k̂, find
 −→ → →
− 
2 a − 3 b − 5 c .
20 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

→
− →
−
 a =
(vii) If 2î + ĵ − k̂, b = î − ĵ + 2k̂ and →
−c = î − 2ĵ + k̂ then find
− →
− 
→a + b − 2− →
c .
→
−
(viii) If −
→
a = (1, 2, 1), b = (2, 1, 1) and −
→
c = (3, 4, 1) then find
−→ → −
− → 
 a + 2 b + c .
→
−  →
−
 →
a = ĵ + k̂ − iand b = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂ then find 2−
(ix) If −
→ a + 3 b .
→
−
(x) If −
→a = (1, 2, 1),
 b = (1, −1, 2) and →
−c = (3, 2, −1) then find
 − →
− 
3→ a + b − 2−
→c .

Solution:
→
−
(i) Here −
→a = (3, −1, −4), b = (−2, 4, −3) and −
→
c = (1, 2, −1).
→
−
Let −
→
x = 3−→
a − 2 b + 4− →
c.

∴−
→
x = 3 (3, −1, −4) − 2 (−2, 4, −3) + (1, 2, −1)

= (9, −3, −12) − (−2, 4, −3) + (4, 8, −4)

= (9 + 4 + 4, −3 − 8 + 8, −12 + 6 − 4)
= (17, −3, −10)

→
−
∴ | x | = 172 + (−3)2 + (−10)2
√ √
= 289 + 9 + 100 = 398
If l, m, n are the direction cosines of −
→
x , then
x1 17 x2 −3 x3 −10
l= =√ ,m = =√ ,n = =√
|x| 398 |x| 398 |x| 398
17 −8 −10
∴ cosα = √ , cosβ = √ , cosγ = √
398 398 398
→
−  
(ii) −
→
a + b − 2→
−c = 2î + ĵ − k̂ + î − ĵ + 2k̂ − 2 î − 2ĵ + k̂

= 3î + k̂ − 2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂

 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 21

= î + 4ĵ − k̂ = (1, 4, −1)

  
→ − → 
∴ |−
→r | = −a + b − 2− →c  = 12 + 42 + (−1)2
√ √ √
= 1 + 16 + 1 = 18 = 3 2
−
→
If l, m, n are the direction cosines of − →a + b − 2− →
c , then
x1 1 x2 4
l = cosα = →− = √ , m = cosβ = →− = √ ,
|r| 3 2 |r| 3 2
x3 −1
n = cosγ = →− = √
|r| 3 2
→
−
(iii) 3→
−
a − 2 b + 4−
→
c

= 3 (3, −1, −4) − 2 (−2, 4, −3) + (−1, 2, −1)

= (9, −3, −12) + (4, −8, 6) + (−4, 8, −4)
= (9 + 4 − 4, −3 − 8 + 8, −12 + 6 − 4)
= (9, −3, −10)
 →
−  
 −
→ →
− 
∴ 3 a − 2 b + 4 c  = (9)2 + (−3)2 + (−10)2
√ √
= 81 + 9 + 100 = 190

→
−
(iv) Here −
→
a = î + ĵ, b = ĵ + k̂, −
→
c = k̂ + î = î + k̂
→
−
∴−→
a = (1, 1, 0) , b = (0, 1, 1) , −
→
c = (1, 0, 1)
→
−
∴ 2→
−
a = (2, 2, 0) , 3 b = (0, 3, 3) , 5−
→
c = (5, 0, 5)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a − 3 b − 5−→c = (2, 2, 0) − (0, 3, 3) − (5, 0, 5)
= (2 − 0 − 5, 2 − 3 − 0, 0 − 3 − 5)
→
−
∴ 2→−
a − 3 b − 5−→c = (−3, −1, −8)
 →
−  
 → 
∴ 2−a − 3 b − 5−→c  = (−3)2 + (−1)2 + (−8)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 9 + 1 + 64 = 74
22 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
→
−
(v) Here −
→
a = (5, −3, 2) , b = (2, 3, −1) , −
→
c = (1, 2, 3).
→
−
Let−→
x = 2− →a − 3 b + 4−→c
→
−
∴ x = 2 (5, −3, 2) − 3 (2, 3, −1) + 4 (1, 2, 3)
= (10, −6, 4) − (6, 9, −3) + (4, 8, 12)
= (10 − 6 + 4, −6 − 9 + 8, 4 + 3 + 12)
∴− →
x = (8, −7, 19)

∴ |−→
x | = 82 + (−72 ) + 192
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 64 + 49 + 361 = 474
→
−
(vi) Here −
→
a = (3, −2, 1) , b = (2, −4, −3) , −→
c = (−1, 2, 2)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a − 3 b − 5−→c = 2 (3, −2, 1) − 3 (2, −4, −3) − 5 (−1, 2, 2)
= (6, −4, 2) + (−6, 12, 9) + (5, −10, −10)
= (6 − 6 + 5, −4, 12, 10, 2 + 9 − 10)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a − 3 b − 5−→c = (5, −2, 1)
 →
−  
 → 
∴ 2−a − 3 b − 5−→c  = (5)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 25 + 4 + 1 = 30
→
−
(vii) Given that −
→
a = (3, −1, −4) , b = (−2, 4, −3) , −
→c = (−1, 2, −5)
→
− →
∴−→a +2b −− c = 2 (3, −1, 4) + 2 (−2, 4, −3) − (−1, 2, −5)
= (3, −1, −4) + (−4, 8, −6) + (1, −2, 5)
= (3 − 4 + 1, −1 + 8 − 2, −4 − 6 + 5)
→
− →
∴−→a +2b −− c = (0, 5, −5)
 →
−  
→ 
∴ −a +2b −− →
c  = 0 + 52 + (−5)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √
= 25 + 25 = 50
 → →
− √
→
∴ −a +2b −− c=5 2
 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 23

(viii) Here −
→
a = 2î + ĵ − k̂,
∴− →
a = (2, 1, −1) ,
−
→
b = î − ĵ + 2k̂
→
−
∴ b = (1, −1, 2) and−
→
c = î − 2ĵ + k̂
→
−
∴ c = (1, −2, 1)
→
−
Now, −
→
a + b − 2−
→
c
= (2, 1, −1) + (1, −1, 2) − 2 (1, −2, 1)
= (2, 1, −1) + (1, −1, 2) + (−2, 4, −2)
= (2 + 1 − 2, 1 − 1 + 4, −1 + 2 − 1)
→
−
∴−→a + b − 2− →c = (1, 4, −1)
 
→ − → 
∴ −a + b − 2− →c  = |(1, 4, −1)|

= (1)2 + (4)2 + (−1)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√
= 1 + 16 + 1
√
= 18

= 9 (2)
√
=3 2
→
−
(ix) Here −
→
a = (1, 2, 1) , b = (2, 1, 1) , −
→
c = (3, 4, 1) are given
→ →
−
∴− →a +2b +− c
= (1, 2, 1) + 2 (2, 1, 1) + (3, 4, 1)
= (1, 2, 1) + (4, 2, 2) + (3, 4, 1)
= (1 + 4 + 3, 2 + 2 + 4, 1 + 2 + 1)
→ →
−
∴− →a +2b −− c = (8, 8, 4)
 → −
−  
−→ → 
∴  a + 2 b + c  = (8)2 + (8)2 + (4)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √ 
= 64 + 64 + 16 = 144 = (12)2
24 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars
 → →
−
→
∴ −a +2b +−
c  = 12

(x) Given that −

→
a = ĵ + k̂ − î = −î + ĵ + k̂
→
−
∴−→
a = −î + ĵ + k̂ = (−1, 1, 1) and b = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂ = (2, 1, −3)
→
−
∴ 2−
→
a +3b
= 2 (−1, 1, 1) + 3 (2, 1, −3)
= (−2 + 6, 2 + 3, 2 − 9)
→
−
∴ 2−→
a + 3 b = (4, 5, −7)
 →
−
 →
∴ 2−a + 3 b  = (4, 5, −7)

= (4)2 + (5)2 + (−7)2
(∵ Definition of magnitude)
√ √ √
= 16 + 25 + 49 = 90 = 9 × 10
 − 
→ √
 →
∴ 2−
a + 3 b  = 3 10

→
−
(xi) Given that −
→
a = (1, 2, 1) , b = (1, −1, 2) , −
→
c = (3, 2, −1)then find
 →
− 
 − 
3→a + b − 2− →
c
→
−
∴ 3−
→a + b − 2− →
c
= 3 (1, 2, 1) + (1, −1, 2) − 2 (3, 2, −1)
= (3, 6, 3) + (1, −1, 2) − (6, 4, −2)
= (3 + 1 − 6, 6 − 1 − 4, 3 + 2 + 2)
= (−2, 1, 7)
 →
−  √ √
 −
→ →
− 
Hence, 3 a + b − 2 c  = 4 + 1 + 49 = 54

Illustration 1.20: If a (1, 0, 0) + b (0, 1, 0) + c (2, −3, −7) = (0, 0, 0), where
a, b, c ∈ R, then find the values of a, b, and c.
Solution: Here

a (1, 0, 0) + b (0, 1, 0) + c (2, −3, −7) = (0, 0, 0)

 1.13 Direction Cosines of a Vector 25

∴ a (a, 0, 0) + b (0, b, 0) + c (2c, −3c, −7c) = (0, 0, 0)

∴ (a + 0 + 2c, 0 + b − 3c, 0 + 0 − 7c) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ (a + 2c, b − 3c, −7c) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ a + 2c = 0, b − 3c = 0, −7c = 0
∴ c = 0, a = 0, b = 0 or a = 0, b = 0, c = 0.
Illustration 1.21: A space shuttle of 1000 tons hangs from two skyscrapers
using steel cables as shown in Figure 1.16. Find the forces or tensions in both
the cables attached with skyscrapers and also find their magnitude.

Figure 1.16 A space shuttle of 1000 tons weight hangs from two skyscrapers using steel
cables

Solution:
−
→ −
→
Let F1 and F2 be two forces or tensions on the steel cables respectively. First,
−
→ −
→
we represent F1 and F2 in terms of vertical and horizontal components.
−
→ −  − 
 →  →
F1 = − F1  cos50o î + F1  sin50o ĵ

→ −
− → −
 →

F2 = F2  cos32o î + F2  sin32o ĵ
→
−
The gravity force acting on the space shuttle is F = −mg ĵ =
→
− −
→
− (1000) (9.8) ĵ = −9800ĵ. Therefore, the counterbalance of F with F1
−
→
and F2 is given as
→ −
− → − → −
→ − → →
−
∴ F1 + F2 + F = 0 ⇒ F1 + F2 = − F = − (−9800) ĵ = 9800ĵ
26 Basic Concept of Vectors and Scalars

Thus,
 −  −  
 →  →
− F1  cos50o î + F1  sin50o ĵ +
−  −  
 →  →
F2  cos32o î + F2  sin32o ĵ = 9800ĵ
 −  −  
 →  →
∴ − F1  cos50o + F2  cos32o î+
−  −  
 →  →
F1  sin50o + F2  sin32o ĵ = 9800ĵ

Now, equation the components

−  −  −  − 
 →  →  →  →
− F1  cos50o + F2  cos32o = 0 ⇒ F1  cos50o = F2  cos32o
−  − 
 →  →
F1  sin50 + F2  sin32o = 9800
o

−
→
Solving for |F2 |, we get
− 
−   →
 →  1  cos50o
F
o
F1  sin50 + sin32o = 9800
cos32o
− 
 → 9800
∴ F1  = ≈ 8392 N
sin50o + tan32o cos50o
And − 
−   →
 → F1  cos50
o
 2
F = ≈ 6361 N
cos32o
Thus, the force vectors are
−
→ −
→
F1 ≈ −5394 î + 6429 ĵ and F2 ≈ 5394î + 3371ĵ.

1.14 Exercise
1. If −
→
x = (2, 1) and − →
y = (1, 3), then (i) find a unit vector in the direction
of 3 x − 2 y , (ii) find direction cosines of 3−
→
− →
− →x − 2− →
y.
 
Answer : (i) 45 î − 35 ĵ, (ii) 45 , − 35

2. If x (3, 2) + y (2, 3) = (17, 13), find the real values of x and y.

(Answer : (x, y) = (5, 1))
 1.14 Exercise 27

3. Find a, b ∈ R such that (i) (4, 7) + (a, b) = (17, 13) (ii) (a, −8) −
2 (3, b) = (−4, 6).
(Answer : (i) (a, b) = (13, 20) , (ii) (a, b) = (2, −7))

4. If x̂ = (4, 7, 2) and ŷ = (−1, 3, 4), find the vectors 2x̂ + 4ŷ and 3x̂ − ŷ.
(Answer : (i) 2−→x + 4− →
y = (4, 26, 20) , (ii) 3−
→
x −− →y = (13, 18, 21))

5. If for real values of x, y, z, x (1, 2, 0) + y (0, 3, 1) + z (−1, 0, 1) =

(2, 1, 0), then find x, y, z.
(Answer : (x, y, z) = (5, −3, 3))

6. Find the vectors x, y ∈ R2 such that |x| = |y| = 1and |x − y| = 2.

(Answer : (1, 0) and (−1, 0))

7. If P (2, 4, −5) , and Q (1, 2, 3) are points in R2 , find the direction

cosines of P Q.
 
Answer : − √169 , − √269 , √869

8. If â = (3, −1, −4) , b̂ = (−2, 4, −3) , ĉ = (−1, 2, −1), then find the
direction cosines of the vector 3â − 2b̂ + 4ĉ.
 
9 3
Answer : √190 , − √190 , √−10
190

9. If â = (1,2, 3) , b̂ = (2, −2, −5) , ĉ = (3, −2, −1), then find (i) â +
 
2b̂ − ĉ (ii) â + b̂ + ĉ.
 √ √ 
Answer : (i) 68 (ii) 41
 
10. Show that â = (2, −3, 2) , b̂ = 1, − 32 , 1 are parallel vectors
 2
Scalar and Vector Products

2.1 Scalar Product, or Dot Product, or Inner Product

(1) Algebraic definition: If − →
x = x1 î + x2 ĵ + x3 k̂ = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and
→
−
y = y1 î + y2 ĵ + y3 k̂ = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) are two vectors in R3 , then their
dot product →
−
x ·− →y (read −→
x dot − →
y ) is defined as
−
→
x ·→
−
y = x1 y 1 + x 2 y 2 + x 3 y 3 (2.1)

Note that the result of a dot product is a scalar i.e., it is a real number.
→
−
(2) Geometric definition: If the angle between the vectors − →a and b is θ
as shown in Figure 2.1 then

→
− − 
−
→ →
− →
a . b = | a |  b  cos θ = ab cos θ, (2.2)

Figure 2.1 Represents a scalar or dot product

29
30 Scalar and Vector Products
− 
→
where, |−
→
a | = a and  b  = b.
 →
− →
−
Note: The angle θ is denoted by →−
a ,̂ b (read −
→
a cab b ) also.

2.2 The Measure of Angle Between two Vectors and

Projections
→
−  →
−
Let OA = −
→
a , OB = b , and −→
a ,̂ b = θ as shown in Figure 2.1.
Now,
−
→ → →−
− → OM
a · b =− a b cos θ = − →a (OB cosθ ) = − →
a OB × =− →a · OM
OB
→
− →
−
∴−→
a · b = |− →
a | (Projection
  of b on the direction of −
→
a)
→
− →
− →
−
  →
− →
−
Similarly, a · b =  b  (Projection of a on the direction of b )
→ −
− →−→
Also, the projection −
→a on the direction of b = a . b and the projection
−
→
b
→
− →
− −
→
of b on the direction of −
→
a = a.b
→
− .
| | a
→
− →
−
Thus, geometrically, a · b denoted the product of the modulus of one
vector and the projection of the second vector in the direction of the first
vector. →
−
→
−
a·b
An important result: From (2.2), we get cos θ = −→ → .
−
| a || b |

2.2.1 Properties of a Dot Product

(1) The scalar product of two vectors is commutative.
→ −
− → →
Thus, −
→
a · b = b ·− a
→
−
We have −→
a · b = x 1 y 1 + x 2 y 2 + x 3 y3
= y1 x1 + y2 x2 + y3 x3
→ →
−
= b ·− a
(2) If two non-zero vectors are perpendicular to each other then their dot
product is zero.
→
−
If −
→
a ⊥ b , then θ = 90◦ and cos θ = 0.
→
−
∴− →
a · b = ab cos θ = 0
 2.2 The Measure of Angle Between two Vectors and Projections 31

→
−
Also, if −
→
a · b = 0, then ab cos θ = 0.
i.e., cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = π2 .
(3) Scalar product of two like vectors or two opposite vectors:
→
−
(i) If −
→
a and b are of the same direction, then θ = 0 and cos θ =
cos θ = 1.
→
− →
−
∴−→
a · b = ab cos θ = − →a b = Product of their moduli
→
−
(ii) If −
→
a and b have opposite directions, then θ = p and cos θ =
cos π = −1.
→
− →
−
∴− →
a · b = ab cos θ = − →a b (−1)
→
−
= −− →
a b = −(Product of their moduli)
→
−
a = b , then −
From (i), if −
→ →
a ·−
→
a =−
→a−
→a =− →a = |− →
2 2
a|
(4) From unit vectors i, j, k in the directions of the axes:

î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1,

î · ĵ = 0, ĵ · k̂ = 0, k̂ · î = 0,
Because î, ĵ, k̂ are mutually perpendicular.
(5) For p, q ∈ R,
→
−  →
− → →  −
− →
p−
→
a · p b = pq −→
a · b = (pq −
→
a)· b =−
a · pq b

(6) The scalar product of two vectors is distributive with respect to the vector
addition. −
→ → − → → −
−
→
−a · b +− c =→ a · b +− a ·→c
−→ → − → → −
−
Also, −
→a · b −− c =→ a · b −− a ·→ c
−→ →  −→ →
Note: If −→
a = θ and − →
a · b −− c = 0, then − →
a⊥ b −− c or
→ −
−
b −→ c = θ.
(7) The scalar product of two vectors is given by the sum of the products of
their corresponding elements.
32 Scalar and Vector Products
→
−
If →
−
a = (a1, a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1, b2 , b3 ), then
→
− →
−
a · b = (a1, a2 , a3 ) · (b1 , b2 , b3 )
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = Σai bi
 
Also −
→
a = |−
→
a | = a21 + a22 + a23 = Σa2i

−
→ −   
→
b =  b  = b21 + b22 + b23 = Σb2i
→
−
Now, −
→
a · b = ab cos θ gives
−
→ →
−
a.b
cos θ =  →
→
− −
| a | b 
a 1 b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3
= 2 
a1 + a22 + a23 b21 + b22 + b23
Σai bi
= 
Σa2i Σb2i
Σai bi
=
Σa2i × Σb2i
⎧ ⎫
⎨ Σai bi ⎬
∴ θ = cos−1  
⎩ Σa2 Σb2 ⎭
i i

Note:

(1) If (l1 , m1 , n1 ) and (l2 , m2 , n2 ) are the direction cosines of vectors −

→
a
→
−
and b respectively. Then
cos θ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = Σl1 l2

(2)
sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ
 2  2
a · b a2 b2 − a · b
=1− =
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
pilgrimage, called the Caaba money. It is in gold pieces, and every one who
goes to Mecca must provide himself with this circulating medium.

The wants of the numerous poor pilgrims are provided for in part, by an
appeal to the superstitions of the populace. A model of the temple at Mecca
is paraded through the streets followed by a crowd of the zealous chanting
hosannas in Arabic, accompanied by the music of a drum of antique
contrivance.

But few can withhold a tribute. The miser opens his hoards, and the widow
adds her slender mite; the grandee and the slave, one and all, gladly answer
the appeal of their fellows, when under a banner of such sacred veneration,
and for a cause so laudable as a pilgrimage to the holy shrine of their faith.
Rich and poor are busily employed in preparations.

The dervish in his humble robes, needs no costly array. His garb of sanctity,
and the renunciation of all the trappings of wealth, open the purses of the
more gaily apparelled; and often the rags of a mendicant conceal a full
purse, much better filled perhaps, than his, who has spent his all on costly
embroideries and richly caparisoned steeds.

The pasha and the efendi arrange their financial affairs, taking care to carry
costly offerings, and largesse, wherewith to impress the multitude with their
own greatness.

The ladies of the harems, in like manner, collect their jewels, their
perfumes, in a word gifts of all things esteemed rare and precious, that they
may not go empty-handed to the holy temple.

The merchants pack up their silks and rich stuffs of all sorts, and prepare for
edification both temporal and spiritual.

Considering the immense throng of pilgrims, what must be the din of

preparation throughout the Ottoman dominion?

Constantinople, its sultan, its treasury, its inhabitants high and low, its
ladies, its saints and beggars—even the lisping children are whispering,
God is great, Mohammed is his Apostle, and the Caaba is the house of God.
The Egyptian viceroy is assembling his horseman and his camels at Berket
el Hadge; the Maghrubees, or Barbaresques, are sharpening their scimitars,
and preparing as if for war. India’s wealth, her pearls, shawls, and rubies,
and stately elephants, are slowly wending their way to the shores of the
Persian Gulf, where at al Katif, on the Arabian side, the old sheikh is
tarrying with his herds of camels, to sell or hire them for the passage of the
desert.

The holy Mecca is thus, for several months at least, the theme of all classes
of Mohammedans.

At length the day arrives to begin the journey so fraught with blessings
temporal and spiritual.

The conductor of the Constantinople caravan, called the Surré Emminee, or

the trustee of the pilgrimage, proceeds to the palace, to receive his
commission from the sultan; and to him are consigned all the treasures
destined for Mecca.

All hopes of worldly aggrandizement are henceforth renounced by this

dignitary; for having once imbibed the holy atmosphere of Mecca, his
future aspirations are supposed to be only heavenward. He therefore, upon
his return, generally retires to Damascus, where, nearer to the shrine, and in
a clime more genial for holiness, he awaits his translation into that Paradise,
of which his earthly honors are the type and foretaste.

Quitting the august presence of the “Thrice happy lord of the refulgent
Mecca,” the Surré Emminee goes to the Porte, where he takes leave of his
former colleagues in temporal greatness, and thence to the gate of the
Sheikh-ul-Islam, who grants his blessing on the enterprise.

The pilgrims and others collect about him, and they proceed to Bahchai
Capusoo, where a steamer is waiting to transport them over to Scutari, in
Asia.
There, all along the route, are multitudes of people waiting to see the
procession.

The insignia of the Surré Emminee are borne before him; two long poles, to
which the expressive horse-tails are attached, and the Pasha of two tails
follows on a beautiful Arabian charger.

The treasures destined for Mecca succeed on a train of camels, all bedecked
with ribbons and spangles. But this world’s grandeurs are bestowed
unequally even to these patient animals; for there is one of their number
who outshines all his fellows. A venerable camel is covered with trappings
enriched with precious stones of rare and sparkling lustre, for on his back
he carries the sacred Koran extravagantly bound, and enclosed in a golden
box set in brilliants; the gift of the sultan to the temple.

Happy is this distinguished animal, and his companions also, if they survive
the pilgrimage and return; for, like the Surré Emminee, they are exempt
from all future toil in this work-day world; and when Death at last claims
them for his prey, they enjoy the honors of a burial, where no rude dogs or
vultures can disturb their remains.

The Validé Sultan, or the mother of the sultan, reclines in her Tahtravan, a
sort of elongated sedan chair, which is suspended on long poles between
two camels and magnificent in proportion to the high rank of its occupant.

Mussulman women and children follow, in huge panniers, suspended on the

sides of camels, horses, and donkeys.

Indeed, the good fathers and husbands of the Osmanlis are ever anxious to
ensure to the female portion of their families high places in the celestial
regions; and they are generally accompanied by their harems.

“It is incumbent on him whose family shall not be present at the holy
temple, to fast three days in the pilgrimage, and seven when he is returned;
they shall be ten days complete.”
And the same period of fasting is enjoined upon him “who findeth not
anything to offer” at the shrine.

Mohammed himself set an example in this respect; for when he

encompassed the Caaba, he was accompanied by his family, and his wife
Kadijah, who, with his daughter Fatima, were two of the four women whom
he pronounced to have attained a state of perfection on this side of the
grave.

Trains of servants, led horses and camels, swell the concourse; and the
whole is protected by a body of cavalry.

About six miles from Scutari, there is a fountain which bears the name of
Iraluk Cheshmaysee, or the fountain of separation.

Thus far a number of friends and relations have accompanied the pilgrims;
but, as in the journey of life, none can carry their loved ones with them into
the celestial regions, so these travellers who are on an emblematic
pilgrimage must now sunder strong ties, and loosen their hearts from
earthly affections.

Fountain of parting! how are thy streams now accumulating, as the pearly
drops of human woe trickle in among thy waters; how many days must pass
ere those waters regain their crystal brightness, now all turbid with the
crimson gushings of the heart blood of fathers, mothers, wives, husbands,
and children!

Sadly they part: some turn their faces homeward with bitter sighs, while the
pilgrims pursue their course, every advancing step widening the distance,
till their clouded eyes can discern no further traces of the severed.

Even as faith reveals to the dying the glory of a celestial world, and
reconciles the most trembling to a passage from the dim scenes of Earth; so
does superstition foreshadowing the hour of mortal dissolution, display an
earthly temple as the vestibule to the heavenly.
With eager steps, the pilgrims now press onwards, till they reach the most
ancient and beautiful city of Damascus; where they halt for the caravans
from Bagdad, Aleppo, and the neighboring towns. Time-worn associations
flit about this monument of the wealth of the earliest founders of cities,
after the universal deluge.

As the descendants of the great survivor of the wreck of the antediluvian

world sought out a portion of the wide expanse of uninhabited, and as yet
uncultivated earth, this lovely valley of nature’s own handiwork seemed to
invite their tarrying, as it lay in calm repose, all fresh and verdant from the
great waste of waters. Perhaps they discovered the ruins of a great city, the
remnants of ancestral wealth; or the relics of the luxury and degeneracy
which brought about the awful destruction of the victims of the flood.

Rapidly rose the proud city, and was famed even at the time of the first
battle of which there is any record, of the five kings against four, the great
Chedorlaomar and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, when the patriarch
Abram went to rescue his nephew Lot, who had been taken captive.

It was the birth-place, too, of Eliezer, the steward of Abram, who must have
been a man of superior attainments, as he had the care of all his master’s
possessions, and even of the betrothal of his beloved son Isaac.

This ancient capital of Syria did not escape the enthusiasm of Moslem
conquest, and the great Saracen generals, Abu-Obeidah and Khaled, took
possession of the famous city, after a slaughter of 50,000 infidels, during
the reign of Abubekir, the successor of Mohammed, A. D. 633. Damascus
now became the capital of the Ottoman dominions, and their pride and
glory; for they boast Evvely sham, Akhery sham, or, that as they had their
beginning in Sham or Damascus, so there also, they will have their end.

So precious do they esteem this city, that it is styled the pearl surrounded by
diamonds, and the gate of the most holy Mecca.

Here, then, at the most beautiful gate, do the pilgrims to the sacred shrine
delight to repose awhile, their senses ravished with the loveliest
enchantments of nature. Their eager vision extends over vast plains of
richly waving foliage, mingling with its emerald hues, the brilliant tints of
the citron, pomegranate, and fig. Sweet odors of aromatic freshness pervade
the balmy air, while luscious and juicy fruits revive their thirsty senses.
Over this vast and exquisite prospect, tower tall minarés, and graceful
domes with glittering crescents, proclaiming as far as the eye can reach, the
sway of Mohammed Ressoul Ullah.

But there is yet a weary way to the shrine, and the zealous throng, now
swelled to a vast multitude, renew their journey. If the weather is very
oppressive, they encamp in the day-time, and proceed by the light of
innumerable torches at night.

How mysterious the pageant, stretching its long train over the barren and
trackless sands. The camels, with stealthy step, waving their long necks
slowly and majestically; now and then the Arabian coursers neighing in
wearied restlessness, break the silence. Then a voice chanting a hymn of
praise, and anon, a shout or chorus from the multitude. Now all is still, and
fitful shadows glide along side by side with the wanderers, as the bright
jewels on the camels glisten in the torch-light.

The caravan has passed, leaving in its track many palpitating forms, panting
on the sands for that breath of life, which is rapidly exhaling from their
bodies.

So weary a way—sometimes no water to quench the thirst, which rages in

proportion to the scarcity of its antidote; fatigue adding its prostrating
effects day by day, no wonder that many of the way-worn pilgrims are
transferred to the Heavenly Temple, without a sight of the earthly.

The caravan from Cairo is also moving onwards, made up of a motley

multitude, headed by the Emir Hadgee, who is appointed by the pasha of
Cairo, and receives great emoluments from his office. Every pilgrim pays
him a certain sum for the enregistering of his name and property, and the
possessions of all those who die on the road, are also his perquisites. He is
the governor of the pilgrimage, and is judge and jury in all matters of
dispute. The Egyptians always carry with them the tomb of Hassan, and
accompanied by cavalry and artillery, they proceed as far as Redowa, near
Medina, where they are to meet the Constantinople caravan. About two
days’ journey from Cairo, they arrive at a place called Miz-Haara, the
ancient Marah of the Israelites, where, when the people murmured at the
bitterness of the waters, Moses cast a tree into them, and they became
sweet, of surpassing sweetness to all thirsty pilgrims. Thus they travel over
the same wilderness as their ancient predecessors, encamping in the very
spots selected by Moses for the tents of the chosen people of God.

After these caravans meet, they proceed, a vast multitude, to a village about
sixty miles from Mecca, where is Abram’s mountain, on which he erected
the altar to sacrifice his son.

On the top of this hill is a mosque, where an old sheikh resides, who, as the
pilgrims halt, stands on the brow of the hill, and delivers an address to them
on the importance of the duty they are performing, reminding them also of
the blessings in store for all zealous Mussulmans. To what an immense
audience does this lonely old man once a year proclaim the tenets of the
Koran, and how eagerly do their thirsty souls quaff the water of everlasting
life as he dispenses it.

Now the Emir Hadgee conducts the pilgrims one by one to the feet of the
sheikh, as he stands in the mosque on the top of the hill, Rabiie. As they
enter one door and pass out at the other in rapid succession, each one is
touched by the divining rod in the hands of the old sheikh, and the burden
of all their past transgressions rolls from their backs, as he pronounces the
words, “May sin here leave thee.”

Lightened from the pressure of sin in every form, they run swiftly down the
hill, and bathing their hands and faces in a stream which flows below, they
become renewed, men, women, and children; and prepared to gaze upon the
holy city of Mecca, which is not far distant. Now turning their faces to the
shrine, the true believers hasten on their way; sometimes halting at the tomb
of Eve, which is at Giddeh, the port of Mecca.
This illustrious and ancient mother of the human race must have been a
dame of fair proportions; for her grave measures, from the head to the foot
stone, no less than twenty-five yards, or seventy-five English feet. If she
was of such exceeding stature, what must have been the dimensions of our
great parent Adam, or what lofty personages must have been the giants of
those days.

After travelling about three days longer, the domes of the Holy Temple are
descried in the distance; when the multitude with mad delight prostrate
themselves on the ground, and kissing the earth three times, proclaim with
tremendous clamor, La Illah! Ill Lallah! Mohammed Ressoul Ullah!

There is no other God but God! Mohammed the Apostle of God!

The artillery is now fired to announce the arrival of the caravans to the
inhabitants of Mecca, who, headed by the Shereef of the city and all the
Imams, immediately proceed to meet the pilgrims, and conduct them within
the sacred precincts.

Those who possess but scanty means, encamp without the city, and others
are accommodated at khans, which are very numerous.

The next thing is to visit the bath, and thus purify themselves for the
ceremonies at the temple—“I will wash my hands in innocency, so will I
compass thine altar, O Lord.” Having invested themselves in the ehram, or
covering of crimson woollen shag, which is always wrapped around the
person on this occasion, they proceed to the Caaba.

Mohammed having performed these same ceremonies, his followers have

ever since imitated his example.

Immediately after the Prophet took possession of the city of Mecca, he

proceeded to the Caaba. There he stood upon the roof of the house of
prayer, and proclaimed the first ezan, or call to prayer, at noon-day.

He then commenced his adorations at the shrine, by first kissing the black
stone in the corner, near the door of the Caaba, then he proceeded to
compass the building seven times, and then again kissed the sin-atoning
stone. When the Caaba was let down from heaven to Adam, he requested
that it might be so placed that he could compass it as he had seen the angels
do. Ever since the creation, the number seven has had a mystic
signification, and its sacred meaning is demonstrated in these devotions of
the faithful. Mohammed then proclaimed to the people from Mount Arafat,
the manner in which they were to perform the ceremonies at the Temple,
and went to the valley of Mina, where he threw seven stones at the devil,
every time pronouncing the words, Allah Ikbér! Allah Ikbér! God Almighty!
God Omnipotent, as did Adam and Abraham, when the great Adversary
interrupted their devotions.

The enemies of the Prophet account for the accumulation of stones in this
valley by the following story.

It is well known that Mohammed was assisted in the preparation of the

Koran, by an Armenian monk, by name Serkiss. When their work was
completed, the Prophet wished to attest it by a miracle.

He accordingly persuaded Serkiss to descend into a deep well, while he

called all the multitude to assemble. Holding a blank book in his hand, he
declared that if the Koran was indeed revealed from Heaven, he would drop
this blank-book into the well, and Allah would send it up all written and
inscribed.

The book descended, and Serkiss sent up the one he had already prepared.
“Now,” said Mohammed, “let each man cast a stone into the well, which
will be a monument to the world.” Whereupon every one of the great
concourse cast a stone, and thus effectually prevented Serkiss from
appearing to contradict the miracle. Ever since that time, the pilgrims have
helped to accumulate these stones, until a vast monument, indeed, has been
erected.

The Prophet now offered the sacrifice of sixty-three camels, according to

the years of his own life, shaved his head, and having run seven times
between the two hills Safa and Merwa, in imitation of Hagar searching for
water, he completed the holy ceremonies.

According to this model have the pilgrims continued, ever since his time,
the performance of these superstitious devotions.

The holy duties of the shrine being over, after a few worldly cares are
disposed of, the now self-satisfied travellers turn their footsteps homewards.
Purified, and set apart, henceforth the chosen of Allah, fearless of all
danger, as if within the shadow of the eternal world, nothing intimidates the
followers of the Prophet, as with the greatest self-complacency they
anticipate the rest of their sojourn in this lower world. Many have sacrificed
all their earthly possessions, but are they not sure of the imperishable riches
of paradise. With eager fondness, they embrace once again friends and
relations, while the odor of sanctity exhales from their sacred persons. With
what panting bosoms and restless vision do the friends search among the
remnant returned from the wanderings, for dear and familiar faces; and
human wailings rend the air, as they are told that brother, sister, and
husband, lie whitening on the sand, long ere this the prey of the vulture. The
happy father clasps to his breast his precious offspring, and with sweet
complacency, ties around its neck a morsel the holy covering of the Caaba,
so sure the charm, and obtained at such infinite perils. The pilgrims are
surrounded, and with jealous caution they bestow a few drops of the water
of the holy well Zem-Zem, which glides down the throats of the faithful
like the oily fountains of Paradise.

The weary camels even linger out their lives in luxurious idleness, retired
from oppressive service, with an air of unconscious sanctity and repose.

Henceforward, the glorious title of Hadgee, belongs to the returned pilgrim;

no razor profanes the beard, and the very door of the house, by its hue of
the Prophet’s robe, the sacred green, proclaims the rank and holiness of its
master.

The Hadgee, with long and solemn face, never wearies of recounting his
wonderful adventures, portraying with ecstasy, the splendors of the shrine,
detailing with holy rapture the ceremonies and devotions, until the flame of
superstitious zeal is enkindled in every bosom, and their spirits yearn for the
sweet sanctity and all-atoning atmosphere of the most refulgent Mecca—
and many vows are made that in the coming year, their footsteps shall
surely be thitherward.

Such, then, are the illusions which beguile life’s wearisome journey to the
followers of Mohammed; such the stepping-stones to their future Elysium.

Thus the tortures of conscience are eased, and thus does superstition stand
fully armed at the portals of the soul.

Few, indeed, are the members of the great human family, who dare to
combat this enemy to moral greatness; and how small the number of those,
who renounce her sway. Chained down to creeds and dogmas, the mind of
man seldom soars above the atmosphere of human inventions, but relyingly
lingers in the leading strings of bigotry, in one form or another.

Thus is constituted the Practice of the Mohammedan Religion, viz.,

Ablutions, Prayers, Alms, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to Mecca, which are
denominated Farz, or obligatory. There are, however, many other traditional
observances termed Sünnet, which as the Turks are Sünnees or traditionists,
they have incorporated with their religious duties, such as circumcision, and
many other rites. These rites, whose observance is only optional, are,
however, performed with as much zeal and ceremony as those required by
the Koran. Although the ceremony of circumcision is not alluded to in the
Koran, and therefore not indispensable, yet it is a custom generally
observed, and is performed when the child is able to pronounce the formula
of faith “La Illah, Ill Allah, Mohammed Ressoul Ullah,” or is about the age
of seven years.

This is a great festival, and when the sultan’s children, or those of any of the
grandees, are the neophytes, a general invitation is extended to other
candidates. Music, dancing, and feasting occupy the minds and distract the
thoughts of the numerous company, young and old, during the week
devoted to this ceremony.
CHAPTER VII.
 PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT.
A people descended from nomadic tribes, and, until very recently, severed
from foreign intercourse, would naturally retain its simple and national
type. Besides, the peculiar bond of an exclusive faith, would still more tend
to the preservation of ancient and characteristic usages.

Thus the Osmanlis have, with hitherto but few deviations, preserved their
identity as an eminently patriarchal nation. As the son recognized the parent
to be the governor and controller of his career, the fountain of experience
and wisdom, and rendered to him a willing and natural obedience; so the
people, needing such a fatherly care and control, were ready to invest one of
their number with this authority.

Every system has its centre. The sun rules in the heavens—and the great
mass of humanity seek a centre, around which to rally. The wonderful
magnetism of mortal emotion tends to a common point, as surely as the
needle to the pole. Thus some species of monarchy, whether elective or
hereditary, seems inevitable to a multitude of beings, cast in human mould.

Tribes were instituted in early times, each with its patriarch or petty
monarch; and when, for mutual strength or by conquest, these various tribes
were combined, the monarch, with increasing subjects, became more
powerful and distinguished.

When the wandering Tartars embraced Islamism, their chief becoming the
successor to the Caliphate, was not only their temporal, but spiritual head.
These two elements of power, church and state, endowed the monarch with
unlimited sway, beyond whom there could be no appeal. The simple
patriarch now becomes not only the father of his people, but the
representative of Allah; the sole controller of life and death, property and
religion. Years, even centuries, roll on, the scimitar gains nation after
nation, fertile territories and treasures to the followers of the Crescent, and
innumerable multitudes swarm around the standard.
The Padi-Shah, or ruler of this vast concourse of men, the absolute owner of
the domain far and wide, now rejoices in the adulations of his superstitious
subjects who acknowledge him as the

“King of Kings, and Lord of Lords; Ruler of the East and West, and of all
parts of the world; Prince of the Holy and chaste city of Jerusalem; shining
with the brightness of God. Thrice happy Lord of the refulgent Mecca.
Tamer of infidels, and the scourger of the unbelieving race of Christian
vassals. Lord of the White (Mediterranean), and the Black Seas. The most
mighty and invincible Sultan, who has power from God to rule all people
with a bridle.”

Many other similar titles are bestowed upon him, which, though they may
seem somewhat bombastic, or even ridiculous, in these days of equality and
freedom, yet are not unparalleled in some of the more civilized realms of
modern Europe; nor without their legitimate influences upon the subjects of
this potentate.

In order to illustrate the wonderful effect which the assumption of such

high-sounding appellatives has upon the general mass of the people, I will
relate an incident which happened to myself:—

During a recent sail on the Bosphorus in a cayik, and immediately after the
arrival of the allied fleets, I thought to amuse myself with some political
chit-chat with my boatman. As I was remarking about the assistance of the
Allies, the simple-minded, but thorough Mussulman, was very prompt in
solving the mystery of this unheard-of political combination; why should
two sets of giavours combine with the true believers, against a third?

The reason seemed plain enough to him. The French giavours had a new
king, and since the Padi-shah is the “Prince of Princes, and Lord of Lords,”
in order to merit at his hands the consummation of royalty, they had come
to fight for him, bringing along England to intercede for them.
CHAPTER VIII.
 THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT.
Although the power and authority of the sultan is unlimited, and his sway
entirely arbitrary, the disposal of affairs is naturally consigned to various
officers. The two principal of these are the Grand Vezir, and the Sheikh-ul-
Islam.

The Grand Vezir was formerly called Lala, or Tutor, because he was the
sole adviser to his majesty, and as he exercised the civil functions of the
executive, he was styled “Vekili-Mutlah,” or vicar absolute. He therefore
enjoyed all the rights and immunities of his imperial master—to the entire
control of property and life itself.

He used to head the army in time of war; make all appointments to office;
give audiences to the foreign ambassadors, receive and answer their
memorials; and he only, of all the ministers of the realm, had free access to
the royal presence. As he was amenable to no tribunal, his only forfeit being
his own head, and his worldly possessions, it was his policy to render the
person of the sultan inapproachable—between whom and his people, a
mystic veil seemed ever to depend. By degrees, the monarch, who should
have been the father of his people, removed from all intercourse with his
subjects, became only the shrine of their superstitious devotions, the deity
of their worship, the proxy of Allah; while the real administrator of the
realm, was the selfish, ambitious, scheming, and blood-thirsty Grand Vezir.
Even on Fridays, as his majesty appeared in public on his way to the
mosque, he was so surrounded by pomp and royal pageantry, as to be
almost invisible. But since the promulgation of the Tanzimat or reformation,
an entire change has been effected in the administrative department, and a
substantial check imposed upon the Grand Vezir, whose former prerogatives
and immunities have been much curtailed.

There is now a council attached to each department, which deliberates upon

the various measures proposed. A grand national council, established on a
somewhat European system, called the Medjlissi-Wala, or senate, composed
of the dignitaries and notables of the nation, and presided over by a Reiss or
chief of its own, controls the affairs of the nation in general. Its duties are to
prepare the laws; establish or revise the basis of the taxation; regulate the
revenues and expenditure of the government; to draft the instructions for the
governors of the provinces; to try all treasonable acts and crimes committed
against the state; to correct the abuses of the functionaries; to attend to the
complaints of citizens brought against the different agents or authorities; to
draw up sentences for criminals, which are either maintained or modified
by his majesty, etc. etc.,

There is another council called the Medjlissi-Khass, or special council,

which, being composed of the ministers of the different departments, may
be termed a cabinet, or privy council.

The Grand Vezir, as prime minister, presides over this. These two councils
together, constitute what is termed and generally known as the Baabu-Aali,
or the Sublime Porte.

Baab is the Arabic word for gate, or porte in French. Ever since Mordecai
sat in the king’s gate, and perhaps long before his time, all the places of
public administration in the East, have been designated by this term. For
instance, Baabū-Sheik-ul-Islam, is the Superior Court; Baabū-Serasker, the
war department, and in contradistinction to all the other courts or
departments, the government of the Ottoman empire is denominated the
Baabū-Aali, or the supreme gate or court; a term of similar significance,
with the Court of St. James, the Tuileries, or the Government at
Washington.

Thus it will be perceived, that the original autocratic government has now
been reduced into a form of bureaucracy.

The vast empire of Turkey, partaking of the territories of no less than three
continents, is divided into thirty-seven Ayalets or provinces; each Ayalet
being sub-divided into Livas or counties; and each Liva into Kazas or
townships. These provinces, counties, and townships, are respectively
governed by Valis, Kaimakams, and Müdirs.
The governors, etc., of these provinces, formerly enjoyed in their respective
domains the same absolute authority as the Grand Vezir, and answered with
the same forfeiture of their heads and property for their misdemeanors. But
of late years, the same check has also been put upon their powers, as in the
central government, by the establishment of councils, &c.

All the ministers and governors of Provinces are now appointed by the
sultan, and the secondary places are filled by the appointment of the Grand
Vezir.

When his majesty designs to elevate a person to the office of minister of the
realm, one of the chamberlains of the palace proceeds to summon the
individual to the royal presence, where he is invested in his new office by
the bestowal of the Nishani-Müshir or the badge of rank in brilliants, which
is suspended around the neck; and an Iradé or Edict is granted him by the
Sultan. He then proceeds with much pomp and ceremony to the Porte,
where he is immediately recognized, according to the royal commands. He
is met at the foot of the stairway by the Grand Vezir in person, who bows to
the edict presented to him by the chamberlain with as much reverence as if
it were his royal master himself. Holding the document over his head, the
viceroy enters the grand council chamber, where he reads it in a loud voice,
and the ceremony is concluded by an extempore prayer, offered by the
mufty of the council—and the new minister is conducted to his gate, or his
own department.

When they are deposed from office, the royal chamberlain appears,
demanding the Nishan which is immediately relinquished.
CHAPTER IX.
 THE POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT.
The policy of the government has hitherto been centralization, that is, to
draw the mass of the people from the frontiers to a common centre, in order
the more readily to suppress any rebellion; and by depopulating the borders,
to prevent the approach of foreign invasion.

Besides, even while consigning the inhabitants of the provinces to the

arbitrary control of the governors, a certain degree of awe and ready
submission might be inspired towards the central government, which could,
at pleasure and option punish, with one fell blow, the very ruler who was
regarded as omnipotent in his own territories.

Also, it was with ulterior designs, that such a degree of laxity was tolerated.
The distant and provincial authorities, in grasping all within their reach, and
oppressing the people under their control, were able to amass great
possessions for themselves; but they were amenable to the supreme power,
which availed itself of its prerogatives to judge and condemn, upon the
slightest accusation, and to confiscate and appropriate the spoils, with the
semblance of justice itself—as if avenging the wrongs of an injured
population.

Notwithstanding, there was often an assumption of independence in many

of the provincial authorities, who succeeded in maintaining the dignity of
Déré-Beys or Feudal Barons, such as Tchapan-Oghlou, Tepelene, and
Mehmed Aali.

The consequence has been, that as you receded from the seat of government
over the vast tracts of territory, the very limited internal communications,
combined with the independence and rapacity of the governors of the
distant provinces, produced anarchy, misrule and misery, in frightful ratio.
Some amelioration has been attempted of late by the Tanzimat or
reformation, and the establishing of roads and post-offices, councils, &c.;
but the spirit of centralization still pervades with all its legitimate evils.
Another equally pernicious error in their policy, was the idea that it was
better to employ the heads and hands of the people in foreign wars, with the
view to keep them constantly occupied, and to maintain a military ardor.
Although this system contributed vastly to the extension of the empire, yet
sad experience has developed its injurious effects. For constant acquisitions
so enlarged their dominions and inflated the soldiery, that the very sultan
began to tremble on his throne, until the destruction of the janissaries
became indispensable for the preservation of the empire.

This famous military body was created in the reign of Sultan Mourad, the
son and successor of Orkhan; and it was notorious for many centuries, till
they were at last destroyed by Mahmoud, the father of the present sultan.

The janissaries are so interwoven with the past and present history of
Turkey, that it does not seem amiss to give here a slight sketch of their
origin and downfall.
CHAPTER X.
 HISTORY OF THE JANISSARIES.
The Janissaries were first instituted for the protection of the throne and
person of the sultan; the army being then composed of the victorious
Turkomans, who had become turbulent, and were ready to take the reins of
government into their own hands. A new militia was consequently instituted
by Mourad, composed of young prisoners of war, who were brought up in
the Moslem faith: and, in contradistinction to the existing army, were
denominated Yeni-tcheri, or new soldiers.

With the design of giving more solemnity to the new order, the founder
resorted to the aid of religion, and they were blessed by a famous sheikh,
Hadji-Bektash,1 who extending his arms over the troops, invoked the
blessing of Allah, and predicted their future victories, pronouncing these
words:

“Let them be called Yeni-tcheries. May their countenance ever be bright!

their hand victorious! their sword keen! May their spear always hang over
the head of their enemies, and wheresoever they go, may they return with a
white face!”

Their uniform consisted of loose trousers, and long, flowing robes, tucked
up. Their head-gear, when in full dress, was very peculiar. A round cap of
grey felt, with a long piece of the same hanging behind, in commemoration
of the loose sleeve of the saint, which was suspended over their heads when
he extended his arms to bless their institution.

They were armed with sabres, scimitars, pistols, yataghans, muskets,

constituting, as it were, a peripatetic model arsenal.

Their mode of warfare was quite primitive; each fighting on his own
responsibility.
From their earliest years, these Christian slaves snatched from the bosom of
their families, were inured to all sorts of hardships, and to perfect
resignation to the will of their superiors. They were diligently trained in the
art of war, and every trace of their parents and native country being
obliterated from their minds, their only aim was to promote the interest and
glory of their lord and sultan, and they were, for many centuries, justly
distinguished for the excellence of their discipline, and for their indomitable
courage.

But, owing to their constant successes, they at last began to consider

themselves invincible, and by degrees becoming insolent, respected neither
the laws nor even the sultan himself. They thus turned that power, which
was originally the defence and glory of the country, to its ruin and
destruction; and many were the sultans who fell victims to their audacity
and rebellion.

Sultan Selim III., in his attempt to reform them, was sacrificed to their fury.

They were, in reality, the ruling power in the country: dethroning sultans,
and taking off the heads of ministers at their will. They were upheld in all
their excesses by the people, from a dread of their vengeance, many of
whom, from motives of personal safety, even enlisted as honorary members
of their corps. For, even the assassin could find a secure asylum in their
barracks, from which no power or authority could claim him.

Nothing was sacred in their estimation; families dared not to venture abroad
without a janissary escort; and, on this account, the different foreign
embassies were always accommodated with two or three of their number,
which custom is still in vogue; though Kavasses, or Turkish police officers,
have been substituted for the janissaries of former times.

Even the royal harem was not safe from them, and neither life nor property
were secure from their depredations.

Besides their regular rations, their pay was at the rate of from one asper to
twenty, according to their rank, per day. An asper was, at that time, equal to
one cent of Federal money. But they had various ways of increasing their
personal revenues.

They assumed a peculiar style of taxing the peaceable citizens, by

carelessly tossing their handkerchiefs at them, with an intimation that their
pockets needed replenishing, and none dared to return the handkerchief
without a tribute tied in one of its corners.

Those who were stationed in the city as metropolitan guards, generally

contrived to amass a quantity of mud before the guardhouse, which they
would ask all the rayahs who passed by, either to sweep away, or contribute
something for its removal.

The day of their revolt was most memorable, and our own janissary
boatman coolly put the number and mark of his regiment upon the street-
door of our residence, as an intimation to his comrades that the house was
already appropriated by one of the brotherhood.

Assassination was a matter of frequent occurrence in those days. The father

of the writer once narrowly escaped with his life.

He happened to be passing by a shop, where a janissary was examining a

yataghan with a view of purchasing it.

“Stop,” cried the janissary, to him, “come here, I want to test this blade on
you.”

He knew the character of those villains too well to suppose that the rascal
was joking—as a forlorn hope, he indifferently remarked, “that it would be
hardly worth the while to try such an exquisite blade on my old tottering
body,” at the same time suggesting, that it would be better for his
excellency to accept the sword as a gift, with the view of trying it on some
worthier subject, and throwing the money to the merchant, the old
gentleman very suddenly disappeared.

Imbued with the wildest fanaticism, and with all the prejudices of ancient
times, and habituated to command rather than to obey, these janissaries