J.R.

INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
189/35 BEHIND RAILWAY STATION, VAISH COLLEGE ROAD, ROHTAK PIN-124001 (HARYANA)
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Chapter - 1
Matrices
1.1 Matrices and their properties

Def. Matrix : A set of mn numbers (real or imaginary) arranged in the form of a rectangular array of
m rows and n columns is called an m  n matrix (to be read as ‘m’ by ‘n’ matrix).
An m  n matrix is usually written as
 a11 a12 a13  a1 j  a1n 
 
 a21 a22 a23  a2 j  a2 n 
        
A 
 ai1 ai 2 ai 3  aij  ain 
 
        
a  amj  amn 
 m1 am 2 am 3

In compact form the above matrix is represented by A   aij  or A  [aij ] .

mn

The numbers a11, a12,.... etc. are known as the elements of the matrix A. The element aij belongs to ith

row and j th column and is called the (i, j )th element of the matrix A  [aij ]. Thus, in the element aij

the first subscript i always denotes the number of row and the second subscript j, number of column in
which the element occurs.
Note : Unless otherwise stated, by a matrix we shall mean a complex matrix.

Types of matrices :
Def. Row matrix : A matrix having only one row is called a row-matrix or a row-vector.
e.g., A  1 2 1 2 is a row matrix of order 1 4 .

Def. Column matrix : A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix or a column-
vector.
3
1 2
 
e.g., A   2  and B    are column-matrices of order 3  1 and 4  1 respectively.
5
 1  
4
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Def. Square matrix : A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, say n,
is called a square matrix of order n.
A square matrix of order n is also called a n-rowed square matrix. The elements aij of a square matrix

A   aij  for which i  j , i.e., the elements a11, a22 ,...., ann are called the diagonal elements and
nn

the line along which they lie is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of the matrix.
 2 1 1
e.g., the matrix  3 2 5  is square matrix of order 3 in which the diagonal elements are 2, –2 and –3.
 1 5 3

Def. Identity or unit matrix : A square matrix A  [aij ]nn is called an identity or unit matrix if

(i) aij  0 for all i  j and (ii) aii  1 for all i

In other words, a square matrix each of whose diagonal element is unity and each of whose non-
diagonal elements is equal to zero is called an identity or unit matrix. The identity matrix of order n is
denoted by I n .

1 0 0 
1 0 
e.g., the matrices I 2    , I3   0 1 0  are identity matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
 
0 1   0 0 1 

Def. Null matrix : A matrix whose all elements are zero is called a null matrix or a zero matrix.
 0 0  0 0 0 
e.g.,  ,   are null matrices of order 2  2 and 2  3 respectively.
 0 0  0 0 0 
Def. Equality of matrices : Two matrices A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]rs are equal if

(i) m  r , i.e., the number of rows in A equals the number of rows in B

(ii) n  s, i.e., the number of columns in A equals the number of columns in B

(iii) aij  bij for i  1, 2,..., m and j  1, 2,..., n

If two matrices A and B are equal, we write A  B, otherwise we write A  B . The matrices

3 2 1  3 2 1
0 0
A  x y 5 and B   1 0 5  are equal if x  1, y  0 and z  4 . Matrices
 
 0 0  and
   
 
 1 1 4   1 1 z 
0 0 0
 0 0 0  are not equal, because their orders are not same.
 
Def. Addition of matrices : Let A, B be two matrices, each of order m  n . Then their sum A  B is a
matrix of order m  n and is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B. Thus, if
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A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]mn are two matrices of the same order, their sum A  B is defined to be the

matrix of order m  n such that ( A  B )ij  aij  bij for i  1, 2,..., m and j  1, 2,...., n

Note : The sum of two matrices is defined only when they are of the same order.
Properties of matrix addition :
1. Commutativity : If A and B are two m  n matrices, then A  B  B  A . i.e., matrix addition is
commutative.
2. Associativity : If A, B, C are three matrices of the same order, then ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) . i.e.,
matrix addition is associative.
3. Existence of identity : The null matrix is the identity element for matrix addition, i.e.,
AO  A  O A.
4. Existence of inverse : For every matrix A  [aij ]mn there exists a matrix [ aij ]mn , denoted by

 A , such that A  ( A)  O  ( A)  A
5. Cancellation laws : If A, B, C are matrices of the same order, then
A B  AC  B  C [ Left cancellation law]
B AC A B C [ Right cancellation law]
Def. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar (scalar multiplication) : Let A  [aij ] be an m  n

matrix and k be any number called a scalar. Then the matrix obtained by multiplying every element of
A by k is called the scalar multiple of A by k and is denoted by kA. Thus, kA  [kaij ]mn .

Properties of scalar multiplication : If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]mn are two matrices and k, l are

scalars, then
(i) k ( A  B)  kA  kB (ii) (k  l ) A  kA  lA
(iii) (kl ) A  k (lA)  l (kA) (iv) (k ) A  (kA)  k ( A)
(v) 1 A  A (vi) (1) A   A
Def. Subtraction of matrices : For two matrices A and B of the same order, the subtraction of matrix
B from matrix A is denoted by A  B and is defined as A  B  A  ( B) .
Def. Mulitiplication of matrices : Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB if the
number of columns in A (pre-multiplier) is same as the number of rows in B (post-multiplier). Thus, if
A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]n p are two matrices of order m  n and n  p respectively, then their

product AB is of order m  p and is defined as

 4
n
( AB)ij   air brj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  ainbnj
r 1

 b1 j 
 
b2 j 
 ( AB)ij  [ai1 ai 2 ....ain ]    ( ith row of A) (jth column of B)

 
 bnj 

i  1, 2,...., m and j  1, 2,...., p.

Remark : For any two matrices A and B, the following six possibilities about the products AB and BA
may hold :
(i) AB and BA both does not exist.
(ii) AB exists but BA does not exist.
(iii) BA exists but AB does not exist.
(iv) Both AB and BA exist but their orders are not same.
(v) Both AB and BA exist, their orders are same but matrices are not equal i.e., AB  BA .
(vi) Both AB and BA exist and AB  BA .
Def. Positive integral powers of a square matrix : For any square matrix, we define

(i) A1  A and (ii) An 1  An  A, where n   .

It is evident from this definition that A2  AA, A3  A2 A  ( AA) A. etc.

It can be easily seen that (i) Am  An  Am n and (ii) ( Am ) n  Amn for all m, n   .
Properties of matrix multiplication :
1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general.
2. Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., (AB)C=A(BC), whenever both sides are defined.
3. Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition i.e.,
(i) A( B  C )  AB  AC
(ii) ( A  B)C  AC  BC whenever both sides of equality are defined.
4. If A is an m  n matrix, then I m A  A  AI n

5. The product of two matrices can be the null matrix while neither of them is the null matrix. i.e., if
0 2 1 0  0 0
A   and B    , then AB    while neither A nor B is the null matrix.
0 0  0 0 0 0
6. If A is m  n matrix and O is a null matrix, then
(i) AmnOn p  O m p (ii) O pm Amn  O pn

i.e., the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null matrix.
7. In the case of matrix multiplication if AB  O , then it does not necessarily imply that BA  O . Let
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0 1 1 0 1 0   0 1   0 1 
A   and B    . Then, AB  O. But, BA       O. Thus,
0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0 
AB  O while BA  O .
8. Let A and B are any n  n complex matrices. If sum of elements of each row (column) of A is k1

and sum of elements of each row (column) of B is k2 , then sum of elements of each row (column)

of AB is k1k2 .

Proof : We prove the result for 2  2 matrices and then it can be generalized easily to n  n

a a 
matrices. Let A   11 12  such that a11  a12  k1 , a21  a22  k1
 a21 a22 

 b11 b12 
and B  such that b11  b12  k2 , b21  b22  k2
 b21 b22 

a b  a b a11b12  a12b22 
then AB   11 11 12 21  and
 a21b11  a22b21 a21b12  a22b22 
Sum of elements of first row of AB  a11b11  a12b21  a11b12  a12b22

 a11(b11  b12 )  a12 (b21  b22 )

 a11(k2 )  a12 (k2 )

 k2 (a11  a12 )

 k1k2

Similarly, it can be proved that the sum of elements of second row is also k1k2 .

9. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of elements of each row is k, then sum of elements

of each row of A2 is k 2 .
Proof : Take B  A and k2  k1  k in above result.

10. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of elements of each row is k, then sum of elements

of each row of Am is k m , where m is a positive integer.

11. If A and B are two n  n complex matrices such that sum of elements of each row of A is k1 and

sum of elements of each row of B is k2 , then sum of all elements of AB is nk1k2 .

12. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of each row of A is k, then sum of all elements of

Am is n  k m .
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13. If A and B are two square matrices of same order such that AB  BA and n is a positive integer,
n
then  A  B  can be expanded by binomial theorem i.e.,

( A  B)n  nC0 An B 0  nC1 An 1B1  ....  nCn 1 A1B n1  nCn A0 B n .

14. If A and B are two square matrices of same order such that AB  BA  0 and n is a positive
integer, then ( A  B) n  An  B n .
15. If A is an m  n matrix and B is n  p matrix, then rows of AB are the linear combination of rows
of B and columns of AB are the linear combination of columns of A.
Def. Transpose of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n , then a matrix obtained from A by
inter changing its rows and columns is called the transpose of the matrix A and is denoted by A or AT
which is of order n  m.
The operation of interchanging rows with columns is called transposition. Symbolically if
A   aij  then A   a ji  i.e., (i, j)th element of A = ( j, i)th element of A.
m n n m

Properties of transpose : If A and B denote transpose of A and B respectively, then

(i) ( A)  A
(ii) ( A  B)  A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.
(iii) (kA)  k A , where k is any number, real or complex.
(iv) ( AB)  BA , where A and B are conformable for multiplication.

(v)  A    A
n n
, A being a square matrix and n is a positive integer.

Def. Conjugate of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n whose elements are complex numbers,
then a matrix obtained from A by replacing each of its elements by their corresponding complex
conjugate is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by A where A is also of same order m  n.

Symbolically, if A   aij  then A   aij  where aij is complex conjugate of aij .

m n m n

Note : If the elements of the matrix A are all real numbers then A  A .

Properties of conjugate : If A and B denote the conjugate of A and B respectively, then

 
(i) A  A

(ii)  A  B   A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.

(iii)  k A  k A , where k is any complex number.

(iv)  A B   A B , where A and B are conformable for multiplication.

n
(v)  An   A , where A is a square matrix and n is a positive integer.
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Def. Transposed conjugate of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n , then the transpose of the
conjugate of A is called transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A or A . Symbolically if

A   aij  , then A   aij  and A   A    a ji  .

m n m n n m

Properties of transposed conjugate : If A and B denote the transposed conjugate of A and B

respectively, then

(i)  A   A

(ii)  A  B   A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.

(iii)  kA   k A , where k is any complex number.

(iv) ( AB)  B A , where A and B are conformable for addition.

 n
(v)  An    A  , where A is any square matrix and n is a +ve integer.

Note : If k is any real number then (k A)  k A because in this case k  k

Def. Determinants : Every square matrix can be associated to an expression or a number which is
known as its determinant. If A  [aij ] is a square matrix of order n, then the determinant of A is

a11 a12  a1 j  a1n

a21 a22  a2 j  a2n
 
denoted by detA or A or,
ai1 ai 2  aij  ain
   
an1 an 2  anj  ann

Determinant of a square matrix of order 1 : If A  [a11] is a square matrix of order 1, then the

determinant of A is defined as A  a11 or, a11  a11

a a 
Determinant of a square matrix of order 2 : If A   11 12  is a square matrix of order 2, then
 a21 a22 
the expression a11a22  a12a21 is defined as the determinant of A.

a11 a12
i.e., A  a11a22  a12a21
a21 a22
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Thus, the determinant of a square matrix of order 2 is equal to the product of the diagonal elements
minus the product of off-diagonal elements.
 a11 a12 a13 
Determinant of a square matrix of order 3 : If A   a21 a22 a23  is a square matrix of order 3,
 a31 a32 a33 

then the expression a11a22a33  a12a23a31  a13a32a21  a11a23a32  a22 a13a31  a12 a21a33 is defined as

the determinant of A i.e.,

a11 a12 a13
A  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 A  (1)11 a11  (1)1 2 a12  (1)13 a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 A  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

Thus the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 is the sum of the product of elements a1 j in first

row with (1)1 j times the determinant of a 2  2 sub-matrix obtained by leaving the first row and
column passing through the element.
Remark : For the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 can be arranged in various forms to
obtain the expansion of A along any of its rows or columns. Infact, to expand A about a row or a

column we multiply each element aij in ith row with (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix

obtained by leaving the row and column passing through the element.
Determinant of a square matrix of order 4 or more : To calculate the determinant of a square
matrix of order 4 or more, we expand A about a row or a column by multiplying each element aij in

ith row with (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix obtained by leaving the row and column
passing through the element.
Def. Minor : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then the minor M ij of aij in A is the

determinant of the square sub-matrix of order (n  1) obtained by leaving i th row and j th column of A.

Def. Cofactor : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then, the cofactor Cij of aij in A is equal

to (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix of order (n  1) obtained by leaving i th row and

j th column of A. It follows from this definition that Cij  Cofactor of aij in A  (1)i  j M ij , where
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 M ij if i  j is even
M ij is minor of aij in A. Cij  
 M ij if i  j is odd

Properties of determinants :
Property 1 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then the sum of the product of elements of

any row (column) with their cofactors is always equal to A or, det( A)
n n
i.e.,  aij Cij  A and  aijCij  A.
j 1 i 1

Property 2 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then the sum of the product of elements of

any row (column) with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of some other row (column) is
n n
zero. i.e.,  aijCkj  0 and  aij Cik  0 .
j 1 i 1

Property 3 : The value of a determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged.
Property 4 : If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the value of the
determinant changes by minus sign only.
Property 5 : If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, then its value is zero.
Property 6 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k, then the
value of the new determinant is k times the value of the original determinant.
Property 7 : It follows from the above property that we can take out any common factor from any one
row or any one column of a given determinant.

Property 8 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then kA  k n A , because k is common from

each row of kA.

Property 9 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is expressed as a sum of two or more
terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
a1  1 b1  1 c1   1 a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
e.g., a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 c3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Property 10 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by the same constant
and then added to the corresponding elements of some other row (column), then the value of the
determinant remains same.
 10
Property 11 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is zero, then its value is zero.
Property 12 : If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then AB  A B .

Property 13 : If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then A  B  A  B , in general.

Def. Singular and Non-singular Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular
according as |A| = 0 or |A|  0 .

Def. Adjoint of a square Matrix : Let A =  aij  be the square matrix of order n and Aij be the
nn

corresponding cofactor of aij in |A|, then the matrix

 A11 A21 ........ An1 
A A22 ........ An 2 
  12 
B =  Aij    A ji  
...... ...... ........ ......
 
 A1n A2 n ........ Ann 
is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj. A. Thus the adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the
matrix formed by the co-factors of A.
Properties of adjoint :
1. If A is any n-square matrix, then A(adj. A) = (adj. A) A = |A| In , where In is the unit matrix of order n.
2. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n , then |adj. A| = |A|n  1.
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then A(adj.A)  A I n

Taking determinant on both sides, we get

n n1
A(adj.A)  A I n  A adjA  A  adjA  A

 n12
3. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj.(adj.A)  A .
n1
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adjA  A

Replacing A by adj. A, we get

n 1 n1 ( n 1)2
adj.(adj.A)  adj. A
n 1

 A   A

( n1)k
4. Generalization : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then | adj.adj....adj.( A) |  A .

k times

5. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n and k be any scalar then adj  kA  k n 1adj  A

6. If A is a singular matrix of order n, then adj. A  0 .

7. Adjoint of a non-singular matrix is non-singular.

8. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj. (adj. A) = |A|n  2A.
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then A(adj.A)  A I n
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Replacing A by adj. A, we get

n1 n 1
(adj. A)(adj.(adj. A))  adj.A I n  A In [ adj. A  A ]

Multiplying both sides by A, we get

n1
A(adj.A)(adj.(adj. A))  A A
n1
 A I n (adj.(adj. A))  A A [ A(adj. A)  A I n ]

 adj. (adj. A) = |A|n  2A

9. If A and B are two square matrices of same order then adj A  B   adj A   adj B  , in generally.

10. If A and B are two square matrices of same order then adj. (AB) = (adj. B) (adj. A)
11. If A is a square matrix then adj. A = (adj. A), where A is the transpose of matrix A.
Def. Inverse of a square matrix : Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a square matrix
B of order n such that AB = BA = In , then the matrix A is said to be invertible and the matrix B is
called inverse of the matrix A and is denoted by A1.
Note : (i) If the matrix B is inverse of A then A is the inverse of B.
(ii) For the products AB and BA both to be defined and be equal it is necessary that A and B are both
square matrices of the same order. Thus non-square matrices cannot possess inverse.
Properties of inverse :
1. Inverse of a square matrix , if it exists, is unique.
2. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non singular i.e. |A|  0.
adj. A
3. If A is a non singular matrix then A1  .
| A|
4. A singular matrix cannot have an inverse.
5. If A and B are two square matrices of order n such that A is non-singular and AB  0 , then B  0 .
Proof : Since A is non-singular i.e., A  0 , therefore A1 exists.

Now, AB  0  A1 AB  A1 0 (Pre multiplying both sides by A1 )

 B  0.
6. If A and B are two square matrices of order n such that AB  I n , then BA  I n .

Proof : We have, B  BI n  B  AB    BA  B

 B   BA  B  0
 12

  I n  BA B  0 …….(1)

Since AB  I n , therefore AB  I n  1

 A B 1 0  B 0

Using above result, (1) becomes I n  BA  0

 BA  I n
7. Let A be a non-singular matrix with integer entries, then the necessary and sufficient condition for
A1 to be with all integer entries is that A  1 .

1
Proof : Suppose that A  1 , then since A1  adjA   adjA
A

Since A has integer entries, therefore adjA also has integer entries. Therefore, A1 has all integer
entries.
Conversely : Now suppose that A1 has all integer entries.
Since A A 1  I

 AA1  I  1

 A A 1  1

Since A and A1 both have integer entries, therefore A and A1 are integers and thus 1 can be

factored as 1 1 or  1 1 .

Thus A1  1 .

8. Reversal law for inverse : If A and B be non singular matrices then (AB)1= B1A1
9. Generalization of Reversal law for inverse : If A1, A2,............, An be non singular matrices of same
order then ( A1 A2 ........ An ) 1  An 1 An11.......... A21 A11 .

10. If A is non singular matrix then ( Ak )1  ( A1 ) k , where k is any positive integer.
1
11. If A is a non-singular matrix then A1  .
A

12. If A is a non-singular matrix then (A)1 = (A1).

1
13. If A is a non-singular matrix then  adj. A  adj. A1

14. The reversal law for multiplication holds for adjoint, inverse, transpose and transposed conjugate
but it does not hold for conjugate.
Def. Trace : The sum of the elements of a square matrix A lying along the principal diagonal is called
the trace of A and is denoted by tr( A) .
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Properties of trace : Let A and B be any n  n complex matrices and k is any complex number, then
1. tr (kA)  k tr( A)
2. tr( A  B)  tr( A)  tr( B)
3. tr( AB)  tr( BA)
4. tr( AB)  tr( A)tr( B) , in general. In other words, tr( AB ) may or may not be equal to tr( A)tr( B) .

5. tr( A )  tr( A) , in general.

6. tr( A ')  tr( A)

 
7. tr A*   tr  A  

n n 2
 
8. Let A  [aij ]nn be any complex matrix, then tr( AA )  tr( A A)   aij = Sum of squares of
i 1 j 1

modulus of each element of A.

a a 
Proof : We consider 2  2 matrix first and then it can be easily generalized. Let A   11 12 
 a21 a22 

a a  a a21   a11a11  a12a12 a11a21  a12 a22 

where aij  , then AA   11 12  11   
 a21 a22  a12 a22   a21a11  a22a12 a21a21  a22a22 

 a 2 a 2 a11a21  a12a22 
11 12
 
a a  a a 2 2
 21 11 22 12 a21  a22 
2 2 2 2
 tr( AA )  a11  a12  a21  a22

9. Let A be a n  n complex matrix, then trace of AA is a non-negative real number.

10. Let A be a n  n complex matrix, then tr( AA )  0 iff A is a zero matrix.
n n
11. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then tr( AA ')  tr( A ' A)   aij2
i 1 j 1

= Sum of squares of each element of A.

12. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then trace of AA ' (or A ' A) is a non-negative real number.
13. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then tr( AA ')  0 iff A is a zero matrix.
14. Let A and B be m  n matrices, then tr( A ' B)  tr( BA ')  tr( AB ')  tr( B ' A) .
15. There does not exist two matrices A and B such that AB  BA  I .
 14

16. In trace cyclic rotation is allowed. e.g. tr  BAB '  tr  AB ' B  .

Exercise 1.1
 3 4
1. (i) Compute the adjoint of the matrix A    and verify that  adj. A  A | A | I .
 5 7

 cos   sin  0
(ii) For the matrix  sin  cos  0  , verify that  adj. A  A | A | I .

 0 0 1 

2 3 1 1 1
2. If A    , verify that (i)  adj. A  adj. A1 (ii) A  A
1 2
3 1  4 0 1
3. If A   , B  , verify that  AB   B 1 A1
 4 0  2 5
i 0  0 i 2
, i  1 verify that (i)  AB   BA

4. If A    and B    (ii)  AB   B A
 0 i   i 0 
2 3   2
5. If A    verify that  A2    A 
 5 7 
 2  3i i   i 2i  1
6. If A    , B , verify that (i) AB  A . B (ii)  AB   B A
6  5i 0  2  i i 

 cos  sin  
7. If A   , then prove that
  sin  cos  

 cos n sin n 
(i) A  A  A   (ii) ( A )n   , for every positive integer n.
  sin n cos n 
8. If a is a non-zero real or complex number. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove

a 1  n
a n na n1 
that if A    , then A    for every positive integer n.
0 a   0 a n 

0 1 
9. If A    , prove that (aI  bA)n  a n I  na n1bA , where I is a unit matrix of order 2 and n  0 .
0 0
3n1 3n1 3n1 
1 1 1  
10. If A  1 1 1 , then prove that An  3n1 3n1 3n1  for every positive integer n.
 n1 n1 n1 
1 1 1 3 3 3 


11. Let A, B be two matrices such that they commute. Show that for any positive integer n

(i) AB n  B n A (ii) ( AB )n  An B n
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12. Under what conditions is the matrix equation A2  B 2  ( A  B )( A  B ) is true ?

13. If A and B are square matrices of order n, then prove that A and B will commute iff A   I and
B   I commute for every scalar  .
14. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that
(i) A  O, B  O, AB  O and BA  O
(ii) A  O, B  O, AB  BA  O
15. Suppose A is invertible. Show that if AB  AC , then B  C . Give an example of a nonzero matrix
A such that AB  AC but B  C .
16. Find 2  2 invertible matrices A and B such that A  B  0 and A  B is not invertible.

1 1 0 
1 2
17. Let A    and B   0 1 1  . (a) Find An . (b) Find B n .
0 1   0 0 1 
5 2
18. Let A    . Find all numbers k for which A is a root of the polynomial :
0 k 
(a) f  x   x 2  7 x  10 (b) g  x   x 2  25 (c) h  x   x 2  4

1 0
19. Let B    . Find a matrix A such that A3  B .
 26 27 
20. Prove that for any A, there does not exist a matrix B such that AB  BA  I .
21. (i) Give an example of two matrices A and B such that A  B  A  B .

(ii) Give an example of two matrices A and B such that A  B  A  B .

Answers
 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
12. AB  BA 14. (i) A    , B  (ii) A    , B 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 0
1 2  0 0  2 2 1 2  4 3
15. A    , B  , C  16. A   ; B 3 0
1 2  1 1  0 0 0 3   
 1 
1 n n(n  1) 
2
1 2n   
17. (a)   (b)  0 1 n 
0 1  0 0 
1
 
 
 16

1 0 
18. (a) k = 2, (b) k = –5 (c) none 19.  
 2 3
1 0   1 0  1 0  0 1 
21. (i) A   , B  (ii) A   , B 
0 1   0 1 0 0 0 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.2 Some special matrices
Def. Diagonal matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for all i  j
nn

In other words, a square matrix is a diagonal matrix if its non-diagonal elements are zero.
Remark : An n  n diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are d1, d2, .........., dn can be represented
as diag. (d1, d2, .........., dn).
Properties :
1. The sum of two diagonal matrices of same order is again a diagonal matrix of that order. i.e., if
 d1   d1'   d1  d1' 
 d2   d 2'   d 2  d 2' 
A   and B    , then A  B   
        
     
 dn   d n'   d n  d n' 

2. The product of two diagonal matrices of same order is again a diagonal matrix of that order. i.e., if
 d1   d1'   d1d1' 
 d2   d 2'   d 2 d 2' 
A   and B    , then AB   
        
     
 dn   d n'   d n d n' 

 d1 
 d2 
3. The scalar product of a diagonal matrix is again a diagonal matrix. i.e., if A   
  
 
 dn 

 kd1 
 kd 2 
and k is any complex number, then kA   .
  
 
 kd n 

4. If A is a diagonal matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is again a diagonal matrix. i.e., if
 d1   d1m 
   m 
d2 d
A   , then A  
m 2  , where m  0 .
     
   m
 dn   d n 
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5. If A is a diagonal matrix and all the diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then A1 is also a

 d1 
 d2 
diagonal matrix. i.e., if A    , where d  0 for i  1, 2,..., n , then

i
 
 
 dn 

1/ d1 
 1/ d 2 
A 1    .
  
 
 1/ d n 

6. If A is a diagonal matrix, then A  A ' . In other words, transpose of a diagonal matrix is equal to
the matrix itself.
 d1 
 d2 
7. Pre-multiplication by a diagonal matrix : If D    is a diagonal matrix of order n
  
 
 dn 

 a11 a12 ... a1m   d1a11 d1a12 ... d1a1m 

a a22 ... a2 m  d a d 2 a22 ... d 2 a2 m 
and A   21  be any n  m matrix, then DA   2 21  ,
           
   
 an1 an 2 ... anm   d n an1 d n an 2 ... d n anm 
i.e., ith row of A is multiplied by di .

 d1 
 d2 
8. Post-multiplication by a diagonal matrix : If D    is a diagonal matrix and
  
 
 dn 

 a11 a12 ... a1n   d1a11 d 2 a12 ... d n a1n 

a a22 ... a2 n  d a d 2 a22 ... d n a2 n 
A  21  be any m  n matrix, then AD   1 21  ,
           
   
 am1 am 2 ... amn   d1am1 d 2am 2 ... d n amn 
i.e., ith column of A is multiplied by di .

9. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements, i.e., if
 18

 d1 
 d2 
A   is a diagonal matrix of order n, then A  d d ....d .

1 2 n
 
 
 dn 

Def. Scalar matrix : A square matrix A is called a scalar matrix if A is a diagonal matrix and all
diagonal elements of A are equal.
Mathematically, A =  aij  is a scalar matrix if
nn

(i) aij  0 for all i  j (ii) aii = k, where k is any number

Properties :
1. The sum of two scalar matrices of same order is again a scalar matrix of that order. i.e., if
 k1  k2   k1  k2 
 k1   k2   k1  k 2 
A   and B    , then A  B   .
        
     
 k1   k2   k1  k2 

2. The product of two scalar matrices of same order is again a scalar matrix of that order. i.e., if

 k1  k2   k1k 2 
 k1   k2   k1k2 
A   and B    , then AB   .
        
     
 k1   k2   k1k2 

 k1 
 k1 
3. The scalar product of a scalar matrix is again a scalar matrix. i.e., if A    and k is
  
 
 k1 

 kk1 
 kk1 
any complex number, then kA   .
  
 
 kk1 

4. If A is a scalar matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also a scalar matrix. i.e., if

k  k n 
   n 
k k
A  , then An    , where n  0 .
     
   
 k  kn
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k 
 k 
5. If A( O) is a scalar matrix, then A1 is also a scalar matrix. i.e., if A    , where
  
 
 k

1/ k 
 1/ k 
1
k  0 , then A   .
  
 
 1/ k 
6. If A is a scalar matrix, then A  A ' . In other words, transpose of a scalar matrix is equal to the
matrix itself.
7. The determinant of a scalar matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements. i.e., if
k 
 k 
A  is a scalar matrix of order n, then A  k n .
  
 
 k
8. Scalar matrices are the only matrices which commute with every square matrix of its order.
Def. Upper triangular matrix : A matrix is an upper triangular matrix if all elements below the principal
diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is an upper triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .
nn

Def. Lower triangular matrix : A matrix is called lower triangular matrix if all elements above the
principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a lower triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .
nn

Def. Triangular matrix : A matrix which is either upper triangular or lower triangular is called a
triangular matrix.

Properties :
1. If A and B are two upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then A  B is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix.
2. If A and B are two upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then AB is also an upper (lower)
triangular matrix.
3. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix.
4. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also an upper
 20

(lower) triangular matrix. Further, if d1 , d 2 ,..., d n are the diagonal elements of a triangular matrix,

then d1n , d 2m ,..., d nm are the diagonal elements of Am .

5. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix and all the diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then A1
is also an upper (lower) triangular matrix.
6. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix, then A ' is a lower (upper) triangular matrix.
7. The determinant of upper (lower) triangular matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements.
8. The trace of upper (lower) triangular matrix is equal to the sum of its diagonal elements.
9. Every diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.
Def. Super upper triangular matrix : A matrix is said to be super upper triangular matrix if all
elements below and on the principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a super upper
nn

triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .

Def. Super lower triangular matrix : A matrix is said to be super lower triangular matrix if all
elements above and on the principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a super lower
nn

triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .

Properties :
1. If A and B are two super upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then A  B is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
2. If A and B are two super upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then AB is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
3. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
4. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
5. Inverse of a super upper (lower) triangular matrix does not exist.
6. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix, then A ' is a super lower (upper) triangular matrix.
7. The determinant of super upper (lower) triangular matrix is zero.
8. The trace of super upper (lower) triangular matrix is zero.
Def. Backward diagonal matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a backward diagonal matrix
nn

if aij = 0 for all i, j such that i  j  n  1 .

Properties :
1. The sum of two backward diagonal matrices of same order is again a backward diagonal matrix of
that order.
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0 .. 0 d1  0 .. 0 d1'   0 .. 0 d1  d1' 
0 .. d 2 0  0 .. d 2' 0   0 .. d 2  d 2' 0 
i.e., if A    and B    , then A  B   
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
d n .. 0 0  d n' .. 0 0  d n  d n' .. 0 0 

2. The product of two backward diagonal matrices may or may not be a backward diagonal matrix.
However, the product of two backward diagonal matrices of same order is always a diagonal
matrix of that order.

0 .. 0 d1  0 .. 0 d1'   d1d n ' 

0 .. d 2 0  0 .. d 2' 0   d 2 d n1' 
i.e., if A    and B    , then AB   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..    
     
d n .. 0 0  d n' .. 0 0  d n d1' 

3. The scalar product of a backward diagonal matrix is again a backward diagonal matrix. i.e., if
0 .. 0 d1   0 .. 0 kd1 
0 .. d 2 0   0 .. kd 2 0 
A   and k is any complex number, then kA    .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
d n .. 0 0  kd n .. 0 0 

4. If A is a backward diagonal matrix, then the positive integral power of A may or may not be a
backward diagonal matrix. However, the positive odd integral power of A is a backward diagonal
0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0
matrix while the positive even integral power of A is a diagonal matrix. i.e., if A   
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 d1m1d nm  (d1d n ) m 
 m1 m   m 
0 .. d d 0  (d 2 d n 1 )
then A2 m1   2 n1
and A2 m   ,
 .. .. .. ..    
 m1 m   
 d n d1 .. 0 0   (d n d1 ) m 

where m  0 .
5. If A is a backward diagonal matrix and all the backward diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then
 22

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0
A 1 is also a backward diagonal matrix. i.e., if A    , where d  0 for i  1, 2,..., n ,
i
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 1/ d n 
 0 .. 1/ d n1 0 
then A1   .
 .. .. .. .. 
 
1/ d1 .. 0 0 

6. If A is a backward diagonal matrix, then A ' is also a backward diagonal matrix.

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0 n
7. If A    is a backward diagonal matrix of order n , then det  A   1  2  d  d  d
1 2 n
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0  0 if n is even
8. If A    is a backward diagonal matrix of order n,then tr( A)  
 .. .. .. ..  d n1 if n is odd
 2
 
d n .. 0 0

Def. Backward scalar matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a backward scalar matrix if
nn

k if i  j  n  1
aij  
0 if i  j  n  1
Properties :
1. The sum of two backward scalar matrices of same order is again a backward scalar matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 k2   0 .. 0 k1  k2 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. k2 0   0 .. k1  k2 0 
i.e., if A    and B    , then A  B   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
 k1 .. 0 0 k2 .. 0 0  k1  k2 .. 0 0 

2. The product of two backward scalar matrices may or may not be a backward scalar matrix. However,
the product of two backward scalar matrices of same order is always a scalar matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 k2   k1k 2 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. k2 0   k1k2 
i.e., if A    and B    , then AB   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..    
     
 k1 .. 0 0 k2 .. 0 0  k1k2 
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3. The scalar product of a backward scalar matrix is again a backward scalar matrix. i.e., if
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 kk1 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. kk1 0 
A  and k is any complex number, then kA    .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
 k1 .. 0 0  kk1 .. 0 0 

4. If A is a backward scalar matrix, then the positive integral power of A may or may not be a
backward scalar matrix. However, the positive odd integral powers of A is a backward scalar
0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0 
matrix while the positive even integral power of A is scalar matrix. i.e., if A  
 .. .. .. .. 
 
k .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 k 2 m1  k 2m 
 2 m 1   2m 
0 .. k 0  k
then A 2 m 1
 and A  
2m  , where m  0 .
 .. .. .. ..    
 2 m1   2m 
k .. 0 0   k 

5. If A( O) is a backward scalar matrix, then A1 is also a backward scalar matrix. i.e., if

0 .. 0 k  0 .. 0 1/ k 
0 .. k 0   0 .. 1/ k 0 
A , where k  0 , then A  
1

 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
k .. 0 0 1/ k .. 0 0 
6. If A is a backward scalar matrix, then A ' is also a backward scalar matrix.

0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0  n
7. If A   is a backward scalar matrix of order n , then det  A   1  2  k n
 .. .. .. .. 
 
k .. 0 0

0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0  0 if n is even
8. If A   is a backward scalar matrix of order n,then tr( A)  
 .. .. .. ..  k if n is odd
 
k .. 0 0
 24

Exercise 1.2
4 21 1 4
1. Find all real triangular matrices A such that A2  B , where (a) B   (b) B   .
0 25 0 9

1 8 5
2. Let B   0 9 5  . Find a triangular matrix A with positive diagonal entries such that A2  B .
 0 0 4 

3. Using only the elements 0 and 1, find the number of 3  3 matrices that are :
(a) diagonal (b) upper triangular (c) non-singular and upper triangular. Generalize to
n  n matrices.
4. Let Dk  kI , the scalar matrix belonging to the scalar k, show that :

(a) Dk A  kA (b) BDk  kB (c) Dk  Dk '  Dk k ' (d) Dk Dk '  Dkk '

5. Suppose AB  C , where A and C are upper triangular.

(a) Find 2  2 nonzero matrices A, B, C where B is not upper triangular.
(b) Suppose A is also invertible. Show that B must also be upper triangular.
6. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that AB  BA but neither A nor B is a scalar matrix.

Answers
1 2 1
 2 3  2 3  2 7   2 7 
1. (a)  ,  ,  ,   (b) none 2.  0 3 1 
 0 5   0 5  0 5   0 5   0 0 2

3. All entries below the diagonal must be 0 to be upper triangular, and all diagonal entries must be 1
to be non singular. (a) 8 ; 2n (b) 26 ; 2n n1 / 2 (c) 23 ; 2n  n1 / 2 .

1 1  1 2 4 6 1 2   2 2
5. (a) A    , B , C 0 0 6. A    ,B 
0 0 3 4   3 1   3 2

1.3 Symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices

Def. Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A. or

A square matrix A =  aij  said to be symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j.

a h g  1 1 i 2i 
1 3  
Examples :   , h b f, 1  i 2 3  2i  .
  
3 4  
g h c   2  i 3  2 i 3 
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Def. Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A =  A

or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be skew-symmetric if aij   a ji for all i and j.

0 a b  0 i 2 
0  4   
Examples :   ,  a 0 c  ,   i 0 1 i .
4 0 
     
  b  c 0    2  1  i 0

Properties :
1. The diagonal elements of a symmetric matrix are arbitrary.
2. The diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zero.
3. If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + A is symmetric (ii) A  A is skew-symmetric
4. If A is any square matrix, then AA and AA are both symmetric.
5. If A is symmetric then kA is symmetric, where k is any number real or complex.
6. If A is skew-symmetric then kA is skew-symmetric, where k is any number real or complex.
7. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B , AB  BA are symmetric (ii) AB  BA is skew-symmetric
(iii) BAB, ABA are symmetric.
8. If A and B are skew-symmetric matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric (ii) AB + BA is symmetric
(iii) BAB, ABA are skew-symmetric.
9. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB is symmetric iff AB = BA.
10. If A and B are square matrices of same order then BAB is symmetric or skew-symmetric according
as A is symmetric or skew-symmetric.
11. If A is a symmetric matrix then An is also symmetric for all positive integers n.
12. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix then An is symmetric if n is a positive even integer and An is
skew–symmetric if n is positive odd integer.
13. If A is a non-singular and symmetric matrix then adj. A is also symmetric.
14. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix of order n, then adj. A is symmetric or skew-symmetric according
as n is odd or even.
15. Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is always zero.
16. Determinant a skew-symmetric matrix of even order with integral entries is always a perfect square.
 26
17. Zero matrix is the only matrix which is both symmetric and skew-symmetric.
18. Every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a
skew-symmetric matrix.
Def. Hermitian matrix : A square matrix A is said to be hermitian if A  = A
or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be Hermitian if aij  a ji for all i and j.

 1 2  i 1  2i 
 1 3  i 
Examples :   , 2i 2 3i  .
 
3  i 2 
1  2i 3i 3 

Def. Skew-hermitian matrix : A square matrix A is said to be skew-hermitian if A   A

or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be skew-hermitian if aij   a ji for all i and j.

 3i 1  i 2  3i 
 0 3  5i  
Examples :   , 1  i 0 5i 
 
 3  5i 2i 
 2  3i 5  i 4i 

Properties :
1. The diagonal element of a hermitian matrix are purely real.
2. The diagonal elements of a skew-hermitian matrix are either zero or purely imaginary.
3. If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + A  is hermitian (ii) A  A  is skew-hermitian
4. If A is any square matrix, then AA and A A are both hermitian
5. If A is hermitian then kA is hermitian, where k is any real number.
6. If A is skew-hermitian then kA is skew-hermitian, where k is any real number.
7. If A is hermitian then iA is skew-hermitian.
8. If A is skew-hermitian then iA is hermitian.
9. If A and B are hermitian matrices of same order , then
(i) A  B, A  B , AB  BA are hermitian (ii)AB  BA is skew-hermitian
(iii) BAB, ABA are hermitian.
10. If A and B are skew-hermitian matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B, AB  BA are skew-hermitian (ii) AB + BA is hermitian
(iii) BAB,ABA are skew-hermitian
11. If A and B are hermitian matrices of same order , then AB is hermitian if and only if AB = BA.
12. If A and B are square matrices of same order then B  AB is hermitian or skew-hermitian according
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Page 27

as A is hermitian or skew-hermitian.
13. If A is a hermitian matrix then An is also hermitian for all positive integers n.
14. If A is a skew-hermitian matrix then An is hermitian or skew-hermitian according as n is a positive
even integer or an odd integer.
15. Determinant of a Hermitian matrix is always real.
16. Determinant of a Skew-Hermitian matrix of
(i) Even order is always real (ii) Odd order is either zero or purely imaginary
17. Every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum of a hermitian matrix and a skew-hermitian
matrix.
18. Every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as A  P  iQ where P and Q are hermitian
matrices.
19. Every hermitian matrix A can be written as A  B  iC where B is real symmetric and C is real
skew- symmetric.
4 5 3
Example 1 : Express the matrix A =   2 7 8 as the sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric

  4  6 5

matrix.
4 5 3 4  2  4
Solution : Let A    2 7 8 then A   5 7  6 
   
  4  6 5  3 8 5 

 8 3 1 0 7 7
Now, A  A   3 14 2  and A  A   7 0 14 

   
 1 2 10    7 14 0 

 3 1  7 7
 4    0
2 2 2 2
   
1 3 1 7
 (A A )  
 7 1  and ( A  A )  
 0 7
2  2  2  2 
 1   7 
 1 5   7 0
 2   2 
1 1 1 1
Since A = ( A  A)  ( A  A) where  A  A  is symmetric and  A  A  is skew-symmetric.
2 2 2 2
 28

 3 1  7 7
 4    0
4 5 3 2 2 2 2
   
  3 7
Therefore   2 7 8   7 1  
 0 7
 2   2 
  4  6 5  1   7 
 1 5   7 0
 2   2 

Exercise 1.3
2 x 3 7 6 2 x 
1. Find x, y, z such that A is symmetric, where (a) A   4 5 y (b) A   y
 z 2  .
  
 z 1 7   x 2 5 

2. Suppose A and B are symmetric. Show that the following are also symmetric :
(a) A  B (b) kA, for any scalar k (c) A2
(d) An , for n  0 (e) f  A  , for any polynomial f  x  .

 1 7 1 
3. Express the matrix  2 3 4  as a sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
 5 0 5 

1 0 5 3
 2 1 6 1 
4. Express A   as a sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
3 2 7 1
 
 4 4 2 0

 3 x  2i yi 
5. Find real numbers x, y, z such that A is hermitian, where A   3  2i 0 1  zi  .

 yi 1  xi 1 

6. Suppose A is a complex matrix. Show that AA and A A are hermitian.

7. Let A be a square matrix. Show that (a) A  A is hermitian, (b) A  A is skew-hermitian, (c)
A  B  C , where B is hermitian and C is skew hermitian.
8. Express the following matrices as a sum of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices :

 2 1  i 2  3i   7  4i 2 3  5i 

(i)  2  i 1  2i i  
(ii)  3 i 6i 1 4i 
 
 2  4i 3  2i 4  5i    3i 2  i 3 

9. Let A and B are two hermitian matrices and A2  B 2  O then show that A  O and B  O .

Answers
1. (a) x  4 , y 1, z  3 , (b) x  0, y   6, z any real number.
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 7   1
 9   5   1 1 4
2  0 1 1  
2
 1 3  0 2     
2 2  1 1 3 5 
    4    1 0 2
9 5  2  
 2 
3.  3 2  
 0 2 4. 
2   2 
4 1  3 
3 2   2 4 7    1 2 0
 5  2 0   2  2 
    7 3 1  1 5 3 
   0     0 
2 2 2  2 2 2 
1 1
5. x  3, y  0, z  3 7. (c) Hint : Let B 
2
 A  A  and C   A  A 
2
 4 3  2i 4  7i  0 1 i 
1  1
8. (i)  3  2i 2 3i  1 4i 3  3i 
2  2  
 4  7i 3  i 8   i 3  3i 10i 

 14 2  3i 3  8i   8i 2  3i 3  2i 
1  1
(ii)  2  3i 0 3  3i  2  3i 12i 1  5i 
2  2  
 3  8i 3  3i 6   3  2i 1  5i 0 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.4 Orthogonal and Unitary matrices

Def. Orthogonal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA  AA  I . It is clear
from the definition that if the matrix A is orthogonal then A1  A .

 cos   sin  0 1 0 0 
 cos   sin   1 0  
Examples :  ,  0 1 ,  sin  cos  0  ,  0 1 0  ,
 sin  cos     0
  
 0 1   0 0 1

 cos  0 0 sin   1 0 0 0 
 0 cos  sin  0   0 0 1 0 
 ,   .
 0  sin  cos  0   0 1 0 0 
   
  sin  0 0 cos    0 0 0 1
Remark : In a matrix, if every row and column contains exactly one element from the set {1, 1} and
all other elements are zero, then the matrix is orthogonal.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two orthogonal matrices need not be orthogonal. i.e., if A and B are two orthogonal
matrices of same order, then A  B may or may not be orthogonal.
 30
(ii) If A and B are two orthogonal matrices of same order, then A  B is orthogonal iff
AB ' BA ' I  O
Proof : Since A and B are orthogonal, therefore we have AA '  I , BB '  I
Suppose, AB ' BA ' I  O
Now, ( A  B)( A  B) '  ( A  B)( A ' B ')  AA ' BA ' AB ' BB '  I  BA ' AB ' I  I
 A  B is orthogonal.
Conversely : suppose A  B is orthogonal. i.e., ( A  B)( A  B) '  I
 AA ' AB ' BA ' BB '  I
 I  AB ' BA ' I  I
 AB ' BA ' I  O
2. The product of two orthogonal matrices of same order is again an orthogonal matrix of that order.
3. Generalization : If A1, A2 ,..........., An be n orthogonal matrices of same order then their product
A1 A2.......... An is also orthogonal.
4. (i) The scalar product of orthogonal matrix need not be orthogonal. i.e., if A is an orthogonal
matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be orthogonal.
(ii) If A is an orthogonal matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is orthogonal iff k  1 .
Proof : Since A is an orthogonal matrix, therefore we have AA '  I
Now, (kA)(kA) '  k 2 AA '  k 2 I  I iff k 2  1 i.e., k  1
5. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also an orthogonal matrix.
6. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A1 is also orthogonal.
7. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A is also orthogonal.
8. The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is 1 .
OR
The absolute value of determinant of an orthogonal matrix is unity.
9. An orthogonal matrix is always non-singular.
Def. Proper and Improper orthogonal matrix : An orthogonal matrix is said to be proper or
improper according as |A| = 1 or |A| =  1
10. If A is an orthogonal matrix with |A| =1, then each element of A is equal to its cofactor .
11. If A is a orthogonal matrix with |A| =  1, then each element of A is equal to negative of its cofactor.
Def. Orthonormal set : A set of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn  is said to be an orthonormal set if  vi , v j   0

for i  j and  vi , vi  1 for all i . e.g. the set  1,0,0 ,  0,  1,0  ,  0,0,  1 is an orthonormal set.
12. A matrix is orthogonal iff its rows (columns) form an orthonormal set.
13. The number of orthogonal matrix of order n  n with entries from the set 0,1, 1 is 2n n !
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1 2  2 
1 
Example 1 : Show that  2 1 2  is orthogonal. Also find the inverse.
3 
 2  2 1 

1 2  2 1 2 2
1 1
Solution : Let A 2 1 2 Then A  2 1  2
3   3  
 2  2 1    2 2 1 

 1 2 2   1 2 2 9 0 0 1 0 0
1 1
and AA  2 1 2  2 1 2  0 9 0 = 0 1 0  I
9    9   
 2 2 1   2 2 1  0 0 9   0 0 1 

 1 2 2
1
Similarly AA = I. Hence A is orthogonal and A  A '   21
1 2 
3 
 2 2 1

Def. Unitary Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be unitary if AA  A A  I . It is clear from the

definition that if a matrix A is unitary then A1  A .

 i 0 ... 0   0 ... 0 i 
   
1 1  i 1  i   ei 0   0 i ... 0   0 ... i 0 
Examples : 1  i 1  i  ,   , ,
2   0 e  i             
   
 0 0 ... i   i ... 0 0 
Note : If each element of the matrix A is real, then A  A

 A   A  '  A  A A  A A  I  A A  AA  I

So, a unitary matrix whose elements are all real, is an orthogonal matrix.
Remark : In a matrix, if every row and column contains exactly one element from the set {ei :   }
(i.e., unit modulus) and all other elements are zero, then the matrix is unitary.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two unitary matrices need not be unitary. i.e., if A and B are two unitary matrices
of same order, then A  B may or may not be unitary.
(ii) If A and B are two unitary matrices of same order, then A  B is unitary iff
AB  BA  I  O
Proof : Since A and B are unitary, therefore we have AA  I , BB  I

Suppose, AB  BA  I  O

 32

Now, ( A  B)( A  B)  ( A  B)( A  B  )

 AA  BA  AB   BB 
 I  BA  AB   I
I
 A  B is unitary.
Conversely : suppose A  B is unitary. i.e., ( A  B)( A  B)  I

 AA  AB  BA  BB  I

 I  AB  BA  I  I
 AB  BA  I  O
2. The product of two unitary matrices of same order is again a unitary matrix of that order.
3. Generalization : If A1 , A2 ,..., An be n unitary matrices of same order then their product A1 A2 ...An
is also unitary.
4. (i) The scalar product of unitary matrix need not be unitary. i.e., if A is a unitary matrix and k is
any complex number, then kA may or may not be unitary.
2
(ii) If A is a unitary matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is unitary iff k  1 .

Proof : Since A is a unitary matrix, therefore we have AA  I

2 2
Now, (kA)(kA)  kkAA  k I  I iff k  1 .

5. If A is a unitary matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also a unitary matrix.
6. If A is a unitary matrix, then A1 is also unitary.
7. If A is a unitary matrix, then A is also unitary.
8. The conjugate of a unitary matrix is unitary.
9. The transposed conjugate of a unitary matrix is unitary.
10. The determinant of a unitary matrix has absolute value 1.
11. A unitary matrix is always a non-singular matrix.

1  1  2i  4  2i 
Example 2 : Show that   is unitary and find A1.
5  2  4i  2  i 

1  1  2i  4  2i 
Solution : Given that A  
5  2  4i  2  i 

1  1  2i 2  4i  1  1  2i 2  4i 
Then A  and  A '   A
5   4  2i 2  i   
5   4  2i 2  i 

1  1  2i  4  2i   1  2i 2  4i  1 1  4  16  4 0 
Now A A    4  2i  2  i  = 25 
25  2  4i 2  i     0 4  16  4  1
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1  25 0  1 0
=  I
25  0 25  0 1 

1   1  2i 2  4i 
Similarly AA = I . Hence A is unitary and hence A1    [ A1  A ]
5   4  2i  2  i 

Def. Normal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be normal if AA  A A .

Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two normal matrices need not be a normal matrix. i.e., if A and B are two normal
matrices of same order, then A  B may or may not be a normal matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two normal matrices of same order such that AB  B A and A B  BA , then
A  B is also a normal matrix.
Proof : Since A and B are two normal matrices, therefore we have AA  A A and BB  B B .
Now, ( A  B)( A  B)  ( A  B)( A  B  )  AA  BA  AB  BB

 A A  A B  B A  B B  A ( A  B)  B ( A  B)

 ( A  B )( A  B)  ( A  B ) ( A  B )
 A  B is a normal matrix.
2. (i) The product of two normal matrices need not be normal. i.e., if A and B are two normal
matrices of same order, then AB may or may not be a normal matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two normal matrices of same order such that AB  B A and A B  BA , then
AB is also a normal matrix.
Proof : Since A and B are two normal matrices, therefore we have AA  A A and BB  B B .
Now, ( AB)( AB)  ( AB)( B A )  A( BB ) A  AB BA  B ( AA ) B  B A AB  ( AB) ( AB)
 AB is a normal matrix.
3. The scalar product of normal matrix is again a normal matrix.
4. If A is a normal matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also a normal matrix.
5. If A is a normal matrix, then A is also a normal matrix.
6. Every real symmetric, real skew-symmetric, hermitian, skew-hermitian, real orthogonal and
unitary matrix is normal.
7. A normal matrix need not be symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian, skew-hermitian, orthogonal
or unitary.
 34

Exercise 1.4
1. Check whether the following matrices are proper orthogonal or improper orthogonal :
3 4   12 5
5 5   13 13  3 5 
(i)   (ii)   (iii) 1 2 
4 
3   5 12   
 5 5   13 13 
2. Prove that a matrix A  [a ] of order 1 is orthogonal if and only if a  1 .

a b   a b a b  2 2
3. Show that the matrix A    is orthogonal iff A =  b a  or  b  a  where a + b = 1.
c d     
4. If A is an orthogonal matrix and if B  AP, where P is non-singular, then prove that PB1 is
orthogonal.
5. If A is symmetric and P is orthogonal, then show that P1AP is symmetric.
6. If A and B commute, then prove that CAC and CBC commute if C is orthogonal.
1
7. If A is skew-symmetric and I  A is non-singular, then prove that B   I  A  I  A is

orthogonal.
8. Show that the following matrices are unitary and hence find their inverse :
 1 i 
 0 i   2 2 
(i) i 0  (ii)  
   i 1 
  2 
2 

1  i i 3 i 
 2 3 2 15 

1  1 1 i  1 1 4  3i 
(iii)  
3 1  i 1 
(iv) 2 3 2 15 
 
 1 i 5i 
 2 
3 2 15 

 a  ic b  id 
9. Show that the matrix A   is unitary if and only if a 2  b 2  c 2  d 2  1 .
b  id a  ic 

10. Show that if A is hermitain and P is unitary, then P 1 AP is hermitian.

11. If A is unitary and hermitian matrix, then show that A is involutory  A2  I  .

12. If A is unitary and B = AP where P is non-singular then PB1 is unitary.

13. If A is skew hermitian and (A  I) is non-singular then (A + I) (A  I)1 is unitary.
14. Show that the following matrices are unitary :
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i 0 0 0
 i 0 0   i 0 0  i 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 
1 0 
(i)  0 i 0  (ii)  0 1 0  (iii)  0 0 1 
  (iv)  (v)  0 1 0 
 0 i 0 0
 0 0 i   0 0 1   0 i 0     i 0 0 
0 0 0 1
15. What do you notice in above matrices.
16. Show that the following matrices are orthogonal and hence find their inverse.
1 2 2
3 4 3 3 3
5  
5 2 1 2
(i)   (ii) 
4 3 3 3 3
  
 5 5  2 
2 1
 3 3 3 

 1 1 1 
 
3 6 2 
 1 2 2  
1  1 2 
(iii) 2 1 2  (iv)   0 
3   3 6
 2 2 1  
 1 1 1 
 3 6 2 
17. Find a 2  2 orthogonal matrix P whose first row is a multiple of (a) (3, –4) (b) (1, 2)
18. Find a 3  3 orthogonal matrix P whose first two rows are multiple of :
(a) (1,2,3) and (0,–3,2) (b) (1,3,1) and (1,0,–1)
19. Suppose A and B are orthogonal matrices. Show tht AT , A1 , AB are also orthogonal.

1 1 1 
3 4  1 2 
20. Which of the following matrices are normal ? A    , B , C  0 1 1  .
4 3 2 3   
 0 0 1 

21. Determine which of the following matrices are unitary :

 i  3
   1 i 1  i 
1 1  i 1  i  1
A 2 2 ,
B  , C i 1 1 i 
 3 i  2 1  i 1  i  2 
   1  i 1  i 0 
 2 2 
22. Suppose A and B are unitary. Show that A , A1 , AB are unitary.

3  4i 1   1 0 
23. Determine which of the following matrices are normal A    and B   .
 i 2  3i  1  i i 
 36

Answers
1. (i) Improper orthogonal. (ii) Proper orthogonal (iii) The matrix is not orthogonal.
 1 i 1 1 
  
 1 i 
 2 2 2 
0  i  2 2  1  1 1 i  i 1 i 
8. (i) i (ii)   (iii) (iv)  
 0   i 1  
3 1  i  1  3 3 3 
 
  2 
2   3i 4  3i 5i 
 2 15 
2 15 2 15 

 1 1 1 
 3 3 3 
3 4 1 2 2   1 2 2  
5 5 1 1  1 2 1 
16. (i)   (ii)  2 1 2  (iii) 2 1 2  (iv)  
4 3 3 3  6 6 6
  2 2 1   2 2 1  
 5 5   1 1 
 2 0
2 

3 4  1 2 
   5
5 5 5 
17. (a)   , (b) 
4 3   2 1 
 5 5   5 5 

 1 2 3   1 3 1 
  
 14 14 14   11 11 11 
 3 2   1 1 
18. (a)  0 (b)  0
 13 13  2 2 
 
 13 2 3   3 2 3 
 182 182 182   22 22 22 

20. A, C 21. A, B 23. A

1.5 Idempotent, Involutory and Nilpotent matrices

Def. Idempotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be idempotent matrix if A2  A .

 2 1 1
1 1  1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3  3  3  3
2  
1 k  2  , 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 ,  1 2  1 
Examples : Zero matrix, identity matrix,  ,  
0 0  1 1    3 3 3
1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3  
 2 2   1  1 2 
 3 3 3 
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1
Remark : The matrix A  [aij ]nn where aij  for all i, j and n  2 is an idempotent matrix. i.e.,
n
 1 1 1 
1  n  n ...  n 
1/ n 1/ n ... 1/ n   
1/ n 1/ n ... 1/ n    1 1  1 ...  1 
  is always an idempotent matrix and I  A   n n n  is also an
       
       
1/ n 1/ n ... 1/ n   1 1 1
  ... 1  
 n n n
idempotent matrix.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two idempotent matrices need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
idempotent matrices, then A  B may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are idempotent matrices of same order, then A  B is idempotent iff AB  BA  O .
Proof : We have A2  A, B 2  B
Suppose AB  BA  O .
Now, ( A  B) 2  A2  AB  BA  B 2  A2  B 2  A  B
 A  B is idempotent.
Conversely : suppose A  B is idempotent. i.e., ( A  B)2  A  B  A2  AB  BA  B 2  A  B
 A  AB  BA  B  A  B
 AB  BA  O ……(1)
Pre-multiplying (1) both sides by A, we get AAB  ABA  O  AB  ABA  O ……(2)
Post-multiplying (1) both sides by A,we get ABA  BAA  O  ABA  BA  O ……(3)
By (2) and (3), we get AB  BA ……(4)
By (1) and (4), we get AB  BA  O .
2. (i) The product of two idempotent matrices need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two idempotent matrices, then AB may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two idempotent matrices such that AB  BA , then the product AB is also idempotent.
Proof : Since A and B are idempotent matrices, therefore we have A2  A, B 2  B

Now, ( AB) 2  ABAB  AABB  A2 B 2  AB ( AB  BA )

 AB is idempotent.
3. (i) The scalar product of an idempotent matrix need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A is an
 38
idempotent matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A is an idempotent matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is an idempotent matrix iff
k  0,1 .

Proof : Since A is an idempotent matrix, therefore we have A2  A

Now, (kA) 2  k 2 A2  k 2 A  kA iff k 2  k i.e., k  0,1 .
4. If A is an idempotent matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also an idempotent matrix.
5. If A is an idempotent matrix, then A ' is also an idempotent matrix.
6. If A is an idempotent matrix, k is a complex number and n is a positive integer, then (kI  A)n can
be expressed as the linear combination of I and A.
Proof : As A is idempotent so An  A for all n  1 . Further kI and A commute with each other so
(kI  A)n can be expanded by Binomial Theorem, so

(kI  A) n  k n I n  nC1 (kI )n 1 A  nC2 (kI )n 2 A2  ....  nCn1 (kI ) An 1  nCn  An

 k n I  nC1k n1 A  nC2k n 2 A  ...  nCn  A

 k n I   nC1k n 1  nC2 k n 2  ...  nCn  A

 k n I   (1  k )n  k n  A

7. If A is an idempotent matrix, then I  A is also an idempotent matrix.

Proof : Since A is an idempotent matrix, therefore A2  A .
2
Now,  I  A  I  2 A  A2  I  2 A  A  I  A

8. The determinant of an idempotent matrix is always 0 or 1.

9. The trace of a n  n idempotent matrix always belongs to the set 0,1, 2,...., n .

Def. Involutory matrix : A square matrix A is said to be involutory matrix if A2  I .

 1 0 .. 0   0 ... 0 1   0 ... 0 1
 0 1 .. 0   0 ... 1 0   0 ... 1 0 
Examples : I,  ,  ,  .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
0 0 .. 1  1 ... 0 0   1 ... 0 0 
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two involutory matrices need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
involutory matrices, then A  B may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A and B are involutory matrices of same order, then A  B is involutory iff AB  BA  I  O .
Proof : We have A2  I , B 2  I
Suppose, AB  BA  I  O
Now , ( A  B) 2  A2  AB  BA  B 2  I  AB  BA  I  I  O  I
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 A  B is involutory.
Conversely : suppose A  B is involutory. i.e., ( A  B) 2  I  A2  AB  BA  B 2  I
 I  AB  BA  I  I
 AB  BA  I  O
2. (i) The product of two involutory matrices need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two involutory matrices, then AB may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two involutory matrices such that AB  BA , then the product AB is also
involutory.
Proof : Since A and B are involutory matrices, therefore we have A2  I , B 2  I

Now, ( AB) 2  ABAB  AABB  A2 B 2  I ( AB  BA )

 AB is involutory.
3. (i) The scalar product of an involutory matrix need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A is an
involutory matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A is an involutory matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is an involutory matrix iff
k  1 .
Proof : Since A is an involutory matrix, therefore we have A2  I
Now, (kA) 2  k 2 A2  k 2 I  I iff k 2  1 i.e., k  1 .

4. If A is an involutory matrix then A2n  I and A2 n1  A where n is any positive integer.
5. If A is an involutory matrix, then A ' is also an involutory matrix.
6. Let A be an involutory matrix. If k is any complex number and n be a positive integer then
(kI  A)n can be expressed as a linear combination of I and A.

Proof : (kI  A) n  nC0 (kI ) n  nC1 ( kI ) n1 A  nC2 ( kI ) n 2 A2  nC3 ( kI ) n 3 A3  ....

 nC0 k n I  nC1k n 1 A  nC2 k n2 I  nC3k n3 A  ....

  nC0k n  nC2k n 2  .... I   nC1k n 1  nC3k n3  .... A

7. If any two rows of the identity matrix are interchanged the resulting matrix is an involutory matrix.
1
8. A square matrix A is involutory iff ( A  I ) is idempotent. This relation gives a bijection between
2
involutory matrices and idempotent matrices.
9. The determinant of an involutory matrix is always 1 or –1.
 40

10. The trace of a n  n involutory matrix always belongs to the set  n,   n  1 ,...,  1,0,1, 2,...., n .

Def. Nilpotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix if there exists a positive
integer k such that Ak  O .
0 1 1 2
0 0 2 3 
Examples : Zero matrix, 
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
Remark : All super lower triangular and super upper triangular matrices are nilpotent.
Def. Index of nilpotency : Let A be a nilpotent matrix then the smallest positive integer k for which
Ak  O is called index of nilpotency of A.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two nilpotent matrices need not be nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
nilpotent matrices, then A  B may or may not be nilpotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices of same order such that AB  BA , then A  B is also
nilpotent matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices with index m and n such that AB  BA , then A  B is
nilpotent with index  m  n  1 .
2. (i) The product of two nilpotent matrices need not be nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two nilpotent matrices, then AB may or may not be nilpotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices of same order such that AB  BA , then AB is also a
nilpotent matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices with index m and n such that AB  BA , then AB is
nilpotent with index  min m, n .

3. If A and B are any square matrices of same order such that AB is nilpotent, then BA is also
nilpotent. Further, (index of nilpotency of BA)  (index of nilpotency of AB) +1.
4. The scalar product of nilpotent matrix is again a nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A is nilpotent matrix and
k is any complex number, then kA is also a nilpotent matrix.
5. Index of nilpotency of a nilpotent matrix cannot exceed its size. In other words if A is a n  n
nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency k then k  n .
6. If A is a n  n nilpotent matrix then we must have An  O .
7. If A is a n  n matrix such that A  O, A2  O, ..., An  O , then A cannot be nilpotent.

8. If A is a nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotent n and k is a positive integer then Ak is nilpotent
n
matrix with index of nilpotent   , where  denotes the ceiling function.
k 
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Def. Ceiling function :  x  is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x, where x is any real number.

9. Transpose of a nilpotent matrix is nilpotent.

10. Let A be a nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency m. If k is a complex number and n  m be a
positive integer then (kI  A)n can be expressed as the linear combination of I , A, A2 ,...., Am1 .
Proof :
(kI  A) n  nC0 ( kI ) n  nC1 ( kI ) n1 A  nC2 ( kI ) n2 A2  ...  nCm1 (kI )n m1 Am1  nCm ( kI ) nm Am  ...  nCn An

 k n I  nC1k n1 A  nC2k n2 A2  ...  nCm1k n m1 Am1  Am  Am1  ....  An  0 

11. The determinant of a nilpotent matrix is always 0 i.e., every nilpotent matrix is singular.
However, every singular matrix is not nilpotent.
12. The trace of a nilpotent matrix is always 0.

Exercise 1.5
1. Show that the following matrices are idempotent :
0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
(i)  (ii) 
0 b 0 0 a b 1 c
   
0 c 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. What do you notice in above matrices.
3. If AB  A and BA  B , then show that A and B are idempotent matrices.
2 2 0
4. Express the matrix B   0 3 0  as the sum of a scalar matrix and an idempotent matrix and
 0 2 2 

hence calculate B 5 .
 a b
5. Show that the matrix 1  a 2  , b  0 is always involutory.
 a 
 b 

3 0 0 1
0 3 1 0
6. Express the matrix B   as the sum of a scalar matrix and an involutory matrix and
0 1 3 0
 
1 0 0 3

hence calculate B 3 .
 42
7. Show that the following matrices are nilpotent and also find their index of nilpotency.
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1  0
 0 1 1  0 0 0 1 
(i) A   0 0 0 1 1 (ii) B   (iii) C  
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 1 0 0 2  1 1 1
(iv) D   0 0 1  (v) E  0 0 0  (vi) F   1 1 1
 0 0 0  0 0 0   0 0 0 

1 1 1 1 2 3 
(vii) G   1 1 1 (viii) H   5 10 15
 1 1 0   3 6 9 

8. Construct five different nilpotent matrices by taking hint from the matrix H in above question.
 2 2 2
9. Express the matrix  0 2 3  as the sum of a scalar matrix and a nilpotent matrix and hence
 0 0 2 

calculate B10 .
10. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that AB is nilpotent but neither A nor B is nilpotent.

Answers
2 0 0 0 2 0 32 422 0 
4. B   0 2 0    0 1 0  ; B   0 243 0 
    5

 0 0 2   0 2 0   0 422 32 

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  36 0 0 28
0 3 0 0   0 0 1 
0  0 36 28 0 
6. B    ; B 
3 
0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0  0 28 36 0 
     
0 0 0 3  1 0 0 0  28 0 0 36 
7. (i) 4 (ii) 4 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 2 (vi) 2 (vii) 3 (viii) 2
2 0 0 0 2 2 1024 10240 79360 
9. B   0 2 0    0 0 3  ; B   0
    10
1024 15360 

 0 0 2   0 0 0   0 0 1024 

1 0  0 0
10. A    , B 
0 0 0 1 
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Sr. Matrix Definition A+B AB kA A tr(A)

No.
1 Diagonal aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
diagonal elements
elements
2 Scalar 0 , i  j    kn nk
aij  
k , i  j
3 Lower aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
triangular diagonal elements
elements
4 Upper aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
triangular diagonal elements
elements
5 Super lower aij  0, i  j    0 0
triangular
6 Super upper aij  0, i  j    0 0
triangular
7 Backward 0 , i  j  n 1    n  0 if n is even
aij     
, i  j  n 1 (1)  2  d n 1 if n is odd
diagonal ai  2
(d1d 2 ...d n )

8 Backward 0 , i  j  n  1    n  0 if n is even

aij    
(1)  2  k n 
scalar k , i  j  n  1 k if n is odd

9 Symmetric A'  A    --- Sum of diagonal

elements
10 Skew-symmetric A'  A    0 if n is 0
odd
11 Hermitian A  A    Real Real

12 Skew-hermitian A   A    Real or Either zero or

purely purely
 44

imaginary imaginary
13 Orthogonal AA '  I    1 Sum of diagonal
elements
14 Unitary AA  I    Unit Sum of diagonal
modulus elements
15 Normal AA  A A    --- Sum of diagonal
elements
16 Idempotent A2  A    0 or 1 0,1, 2,...., n}
17 Involutory A2  I    1 or –1 n,...,0,1,..., n
18 Nilpotent Ak  0    0 0
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True-false exercise 1 2  10 2 5 1 

  3 1 2 1   
12.  2 1     3 3 3 2
1. The product of two n  n symmetric 3 1 1 0
 1 2    
 9 1 4 1 
matrices may be non-symmetric.

1 3 7 13. Let A and B be n  n matrices. Multiplying

a matrix by a scalar t obeys this formula :
2. The matrix  4 2 3 is symmetric.
t  AB    tA  tB  .
 2 4 1 
14. Each column in the product AB is a linear
3. The sum of any two n  n symmetric combination of columns in B.
matrices is symmetric.
15. Each row of the product AB is a linear
T
4. For any square matrix A, the sum A  A is combination of the rows in A.
symmetric.
16. The product of two n  n skew-symmetric
5. For square matrices, if AA  0 , then A  0 . matrices is skew-symmetric.

6. Let A and B be n  n matrices. The  i, j   2 

element in the product BT A is given by the 17. 1 3 2  3   7 
n
 0 

formula BT A ij   Akj Bki .
k 1
 2 
7. For two n  n matrices, A and B, we have 18.  3  1 3 2    7 
n  0 
  BT sj A ji   ABT si .
j 1
2 2 6 2
8. For a 4  4 matrix A, if A4  0 , then 19. 1 3 2  3    3 9 6 
A0.  0   0 0 0 

9. If two 2  2 matrices A and B satisfy the 20. The only n  n matrix that commutes with
equation BA  0 , then either A  0 or all other n  n matrices is I n .
B0.
1
10. For n  n matrices, this cancellation law a b  1  d b 
21.   =
holds : If AB  CA and A  0 , then B  C . c d  ad  bc  c a 
Establishes that every 2  2 matrix has an
11. If three matrices A, B and C satisfy the inverse.
equation AB  CB and if B  0 , then it
follows that A  C . 22. If A and B are n  n matrices such that
AB  I , then BA  I also.
 2

23. If A and B are invertible n  n matrices, 37. Let A be an m  n matrix, and let B be an
then so is AB , and furthermore, n  m matrix. If n  m and AB is
 AB 1  A1B 1 . invertible, then so is BA.

38. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices,

24. If A and B are n  n matrices such that then AB  BA .
AB  I , then AT BT  I .
39. If ABC is invertible, then so is BCA.
k
25. If A is a square matrix such that A  I for
some positive integer k, then A is invertible. 40. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices,
then A  B is invertible.
26. If A and B are invertible n  n matrices,
then A  B  0 and AB  0 . 41. For invertible n  n matrices A and B,
B 1  A1  B 1  B  A A1 .
27. Let  be a scalar. Let Q be an n  n
matrix. If Q  0 , then   0 .
 
42. If A  AT A1  0 , then A is nonsingular
28. If A has only nonnegative entries and is skew-symmetric matrix.
invertible, then A1 has only nonnegative
entries.

29. If A and B are n  n matrices such that Assignment

BA  I , then BT is invertible.
---------------- S C Q ---------------------
a c
30. A 2  2 matrix   is invertible if and
 p q 1. If A and B are two odd order skew
only if aq  pc .
symmetric matrices such that AB = BA ,
1 3 5  then what is the matrix AB ?
31. Let A  0 3 5  1. An orthogonal matrix
1 1 2  2. A skew-symmetric matrix
1
Then the first row in A is 1, 1, 0 . 3. A symmetric matrix
4. An identity matrix
32. For square matrices, if AB  0 , then
BA  0 .
2. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the
 2 4 
33. If the matrix   is noninvertible, same order, then which one of the
 4 2 
then  must be 2. following is not correct?
1. A  B is a symmetric matrix.
34. If A is an n  n matrix containing no zeros,
then A is invertible. 2. AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
3. AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
35. If A and B are n  n matrices such that
AB   I , then A is invertible. 4. A  AT and B  BT are symmetric
matrices.
36. If A and B are n  n matrices such that AB
is invertible, then A is invertible.
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3. Let A and B be any two n  n matrices and 1 1

1. n 2  n  1 2.  1
n n n2 n
tr ( A)   aii and tr ( B)   bii .
i 1 i 1 1 n(n  1)
3. 4.
n! 2
Consider the following statement
I. tr ( AB)  tr ( BA)
6. If A be a non-zero square matrix of order
II. tr ( A  B)  tr ( A)  tr ( B)
n, then
Which of the following statement given
1. the matrix A  A ' is anti-symmetric, but
above is/are correct ?
the matrix is A  A ' symmetric.
1. I only 2. II only
2. the matrix A  A ' is symmetric, but the
3. Both I and II 4. Neither I nor II
matrix A  A ' is anti-symmetric.
3. Both A  A ' and A  A ' are symmetric.
 2 0
4. Let A    be expressed as P  Q , 4. Both A  A ' and A  A ' are anti-
 3 5
symmetric.
where P is symmetric matrix and Q is
skew-symmetric matrix. Which one of the
7. If C is a non-singular matrix and
following is correct ?
0 x y 
1 3
 
 3 B  C 0 0 z  C 1 , then
 0 2  
1. Q   2 2 0 0 0 
 2. Q   
3 0  3 0 
 
2  2  1. B 2  1 2. B 2  0
1  0 3  1  2 3 3. B3  1 4. B 3  0
3. Q    4. Q   
23 0  2  0 5

8. Suppose, P is an n  n real matrix such that

5. What is the determinant of the following the k th diagonal element of PPT is zero.
matrix ? Consider the following statements
1 0 0 .. .. 0  I. The k th row of P is zero.
 1 
1 0 .. .. 0  II. The k th row of PPT is zero.
 2 
 1 1  III. The k th column of P is zero.
1 .. .. 0 
 2 3  IV. The k th column of PPT is zero.
.. .. .. .. .. .. 
  Select the correct answer using the codes
1 1 1 1
.. .. given below
 2 3 n 
 4
1. I and III 2. I,II and IV 3. 215 4. 515
3. II,III and IV 4. I,II and III 13. Let A be an improper orthogonal matrix,
(GATE) then, adj A is equal to
1. A 2. AT
9. The determinant of the matrix 3.  A 4.  AT
1 0 0 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 2 0 
 14. Which is not correct, if Tr ( A)  Trace of
0 0 1 2 0 0
  is A ,then
0 0 2 1 0 0
0 2 0 0 1 0 1. Tr ( A  B)  Tr ( A)  Tr ( B)
 
2 0 0 0 0 1
2. Tr ( AB)  Tr ( BA)
1. 0 2. 9 3. 27 4. 1
3. Tr ( A)  Tr (CAC 1 ), C is non-singular
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
4. For any A there exists B (both are
square of same order) s.t. ( AB  BA)  I n
10. If A and B are two n  n matrices over
 and    , then
15. If B is a non-singular matrix and A is a
1. det ( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
square matrix. Then, det ( B 1 AB) is equal to
2. det ( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
1. det ( BAB) 2. det( A )
3. det( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
n 3. det ( B 1 ) 4. det ( A1 )
4. det( A  B )   det( A)  det( B )

16. Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is

11. Let A be a 2  2 matrix which satisfy
1. singular
A2  A  0, then
2. non-singular
 1 0   1 0 
1. A is either   or   3. invertible
 0 1   0 1
4. Skew-Hermitian
2. there exists infinitely many such
matrices
17. If ( A  B)1 exists, then
3. there exists no such matrix
1. A1 and B 1 both exist
4. A must be diagonal
2. A1 and B 1 do not exist

12.The number of different n  n symmetric 3. atleast one of A1 and B 1 exists

matrices with each element being either 0 4. nothing can be said

or 1 where n  5
1. 5! 2. 55
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18. A, B, ( A  B ) are non-singular matrices. 3. 6 and 3 4. 5 and 4

Then, [ B( A  B)1 A]1 is equal to

1. A  B 2. A1  B 1 23. Let Ann   aij  , n  3, where

3. A1  B 1  I 4. AB aij   bi2  b 2j  , i, j 1, 2,...., n for some

distinct real numbers b1 , b2 ,...., bn . Then

19. If A and B are two matrices of the same
det  A  is
order such that AB  BA, then
1. A is diagonal and B is any matrix 1. i j  bi  b j  . 2. i j  bi  b j  .
2. A and B are both diagonal 3. 0 4. 1
3. A is scalar and B is diagonal matrix (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
4. None of the above
24. Let A be a 5  5 matrix with real entries
20. If A and B are Hermitian, then select the such that the sum of the entries in each row
incorrect one of A is 1. Then the sum of all the entries in
1. AB  BA is hermitian A3 is
2. AB  BA is skewhermitian 1. 3 2. 15

3. B B is hermitian 3. 5 4. 125
4. A  A is skewhermitian (CSIR NET June 2014)

21. The columns of an orthogonal matrix forms 25. Given the permutation
1. an orthogonal set of vectors 1 2 3 4 5 
   , the matrix A is
2. an orthonormal set of vectors  3 1 2 5 4 
3. a linearly independent set defined to be the one whose i-th column is
4. All of the above the  (i)-th column of the identity matrix I.
Which of the following is correct ?
2 6  3 x 1. A  A2 2. A  A4
22. If A    ,B    , then in order
3 9  y 2
3. A  A5 4. A  A1
that AB  0. The values of x and y will be,
(CSIR NET June 2014)
respectively
1. 6 and 1 2. 6 and 1
 6
26. Let J denote a 101  101 matrix with all the n  n identity matrix. Which of the
entries equal to 1 and let I denote the following is always true ?
identity matrix of order 101. Then the 1. A is nonsingular
determinant of JI is 2. B is nonsingular
1. 101 2. 1 3. A+B is nonsingular
3. 0 4. 100 4. AB is nonsingular
(CSIR NET June 2014) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

27. For the matrix A as given below, which of 29. The determinant of the n  n permutation
them satisfy A6 =I ? matrix

     1
 cos 4 sin
4
0  1 
  
   . 
1. A    sin cos 0  
 4 4  .
   
 0 0 1

 . 
   
 1 
  1 
 
1 0 0 
  n
n
  1.  1 2.  1 2 
2. A   0 cos sin 
 3 3
   3. 1 4. 1
 0  sin  cos
 3 3 (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
  
 cos 6 0 sin
6
  1 1  x 1  x  x2
3. A   0 1 0 
30. The determinant 1 1  y 1  y  y 2 is
  
  sin 0 cos  1 1 z 1 z  z2
 6 6
equal to
   
 cos 2 sin
2
0 1. ( z  y )( z  x )( y  x)
 
 
4. A    sin cos 0 2. ( x  y ) ( x  z )( y  z )
 2 2 
  2 2 2
 0 0 1 3.  x  y  y  z  z  x

 
4. x 2
 y 2  y 2  z 2  z 2  x 2 
(CSIR NET June 2014)
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)

28. Let A, B be n  n matrices such that

31. Let S { A : A   aij  ,
BA  B 2 = I  BA2 where I is the 55

aij  0 or 1  i, j ,
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a ij 1 i and  aij 1 j } Then the 1. 4 2. 6

j i
3. 8 4. 12
number of elements in S is
1. 52 2. 55
 5 8 0 
3. 5! 4. 55 35. If A   3 5 0  , then A is
(CSIR NET June 2011)  1 2 1
2 i
32. Let   e 5
and the matrix 1. idempotent 2. nilpotent
3. involutory 4. periodic
1   2 3 4
 2 
0   3 4
M  0 0  2 3 4 36. Let f  x   x 2  5 x  6, and
 
0 0 0 3 4
2 0 1
0 0 0 0  4 
 A   2 1 3  , then f (A) is equal to
 
Then, the trace of the matrix I  M  M 2 is  1 1 0 
1. 5 2. 0 3. 3 4. 5  1 1 3  1 1 5
(GATE 2012) 1.  1 1 10 2.  1 1 4 

 5 4 4   3 10 4 

   1 1 4 
1 0 0 
  3.  1 4 10  4. None of these
1  i 3
33. If A   i 0  , then the  4 3 5 
2 
 
0 1  i 3 
 1  2i 
2 37. Multiplication of matrices E and F is G.

trace of A102 is Matrices E and G are as follows :

1. 0 2. 1 cos   sin  0 1 0 0 
3. 2 4. 3 E   sin  cos  0 , G  0 1 0

   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
(GATE 2009)
Then, the value of matrix F is

34. For which value of x will the matrix given  cos   sin  0
below become singular ? 1.  sin  cos  0

 0 0 1 
 8 x 0
 4 0 2
 
12 6 0 
 8

 cos  cos  0  x a  p 
 
2.   cos  sin  0 D2  det  y b q  . Then

 0 0 1   z c r 
 
1. D1  D2 2. D1  2 D2
 cos  sin  0
3. D1   D2 4. 2D1  D2
3.   sin  cos  0
 (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
 0 0 1 
 cos  sin  
 sin   cos  0 42. Consider the matrix A   ,
4.  cos  sin  0   sin  cos 
 2
 0 0 1  where   . Then A2015 equals
31
1. A
2. I
38. Let A be a 5  5 matrix such that sum of
 cos13 sin13 
3.  
elements of each row is 2 then the sum of   sin13 cos13 
all elements of A3 is  0 1
4.  
1. 45 2. 40  1 0 
3. 90 4. None of these (CSIR NET Dec 2016)

43. Let A and B be real invertible matrices such

39. Let A and B are two 3  3 complex matrices that AB   BA . Then
such that sum of elements of each row of A 1. Trace  A   Trace  B   0
is 1  i and that if B is i then sum of all nine 2. Trace  A   Trace  B   1
elements of AB is 3. Trace  A   0, Trace  B   1
1. 3  3i 2. 3  3i 4. Trace  A   1, Trace  B   0
3. 3  3i 4. 3  3i (CSIR NET June 2017)
 0 1 
44. Let A    . Then the smallest
  1 1 
40. Let P be a n  n matix with integral entries positive integer n such that An  I is
1 1. 1 2. 2
and Q  P  I , where I denotes the
2 3. 4 4. 6
n  n identity matrix. Then, Q is (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
1. idempotent, i.e., Q 2  Q  2 1 0
20

2. invertible  
45. The trace of the matrix  0 2 0  is
3. nilpotent  0 0 3
4. unipotent, i.e., Q  I is nilpotent  
(GATE 2004)
1. 7 20 2. 220  320
a b c 3. 2  220  320 4. 220  320  1
41. Let D1  det  x 
y z  and
(CSIR NET June 2018)
p q r 
 ------------------------ M C Q -----------------------
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Page 9

1. Let A   aij  bean n  n complex matrix and 1 2 0

in  / p , A   0 3 1 . Which of the
let A denote the conjugate transpose of A.  2 0 2 
 
Which of the following statements are
following statements are true ?
necessarily true?
1. S contains all the prime numbers.
1. If A is invertible, then tr  A A   0 , i.e,
2. S contains all the prime numbers greater
the trace of A A is non zero. than 10.
2. If tr  A A   0 , then A is invertible. 3. S contains all the prime numbers other
than 2 and 5.
3. If tr  A A  n 2 , then aij 1 for some i,j.
4. S contains all the odd prime numbers.
4. If tr  A A   0 , then A is zero matrix.

(CSIR NET June 2013)

(CSIR NET Dec 2012)

2. Let A be a 5  5 skewsymmetric matrix 5 9 8
4. The matrix A   1 8 2  satisfies
with entries in  and B be the 5  5 9 1 0
 
th
symmetric matrix whose  i, j  entry is the 1. A is invertible and the inverse has all
integer entries.
i
binomial coefficient   for 1  i  j  5. 2. det(A) is odd.
 j
3. det(A) is divisible by 13.
Consider the 10  10 matrix, given in block
4. det(A) has atleast two prime divisors.
A A B
form by C   . Then (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
0 B 
1. det C 1or  1 2. det C  0
5. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
3. trace of C is 0 4. trace of C is 5
1. The transpose of a symmetric matrix
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) need not be symmetric matrix.
2. If A and B are symmetric matrix of same
3. Let S denote the set of all primes p such order, then AB+BA must be symmetric
that the following matrix is invertible when matrix.
considered as a matrix with entries 3. If A is symmetric matrix, then all
positive integral powers of A are
symmetric matrices.
 10
4. If A is any square matrix, then A  A ' is 1. If det A  1 then det B  1
always symmetric matrix. 2. A sufficient condition for each bij to
be an integer is that det A is an integer.
3. B is always an integer matrix.
6. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 4. A necessary condition for each bij to be
1. If A is orthogonal matrix, then A is an integer is det A  1,  1
nonsingular and A1  A ' (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
2. If A is orthogonal matrix, then A   1 10. Let m,n,r be natural numbers. Let A be an
m  n matrix with real entries such that
3. Transpose of an orthogonal matrix is r

orthogonal
 AAt   I , where I is the m  m identity

matrix and At is the transpose of the

4. None of the above
matrix A. We can conclude that
1. m  n
7. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 2. AAt is invertible
1. If A is unitary matrix, then A is also 3. At A is invertible
4. if m  n , then A is invertible
unitary matrix. (CSIR NET June 2017)
2. Inverse of unitary matrix is unitary matrix. True false key
1  1 1 i 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
3. A    is unitary matrix.
3 1  i 1 
5. F 6. T 7. F 8. F
4. None of the above 9. F 10. F 11. F 12. F
13. F 14. F 15. F 16. F
8. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 17. T 18. F 19. F 20. F
1. In a skew hermitian matrix, the element 21. F 22. T 23. F 24. T
on the principal diagonal must be 25. T 26. F 27. F 28. F
purely imaginary. 29. T 30. T 31. T 32. F
2. If A is hermitian matrix, then iA is skew 33. F 34. F 35. T 36. T
hermitian matrix. 37. F 38. F 39. F 40. F

3. If A is any square matrix, then A  A is 41. T 42. F
skew hermitian matrix. Assignment key
4. All of the above. SCQ
1. 3 2. 2 3. 3 4. 3
9. Let A   aij  be an n  n matrix such that 5. 3 6. 2 7. 4 8. 2
aij is an integer for all i. j. Let AB  I 9. 3 10. 4 11. 2 12. 3
with B  bij  (where I is the identity 13. 4 14. 4 15. 2 16. 1
matrix). For a square matrix C, det C 17. 4 18. 2 19. 4 20. 4
denotes its determinant. Which of the
21. 4 22. 1 23. 3 24. 3
following statements is true ?
J.R. INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
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25. 3 26. 4 27. 2 28. 2

29. 2 30. 1 31. 3 32. 4
33. 4 34. 1 35. 3 36. 1
37. 3 38. 2 39. 3 40. 2
41. 3 42. 2 43. 1 44. 4
45. 3

MCQ
1. 1,3,4 2. 2,4 3. 2,3 4. 3,4
5. 2,3,4 6. 1,2,3 7. 1,2,3 8. 2,3
9. 1,4 10. 2,4