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Table of Contents
1. Cover
2. Table of Contents
3. Series Page
4. Title Page
5. Copyright Page
6. Foreword
7. Preface
8. 1 Metaheuristic Algorithms and Their Applications in
Different Fields: A Comprehensive Review
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Types of Metaheuristic Algorithms
3. 1.3 Application of Metaheuristic Algorithms
4. 1.4 Future Direction
5. 1.5 Conclusion
6. References
9. 2 A Comprehensive Review of Metaheuristics for
Hyperparameter Optimization in Machine Learning
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Fundamentals of Hyperparameter Optimization
3. 2.3 Overview of Metaheuristic Optimization Techniques
4. 2.4 Population-Based Metaheuristic Techniques
5. 2.5 Single Solution-Based Metaheuristic Techniques
 6. 2.6 Hybrid Metaheuristic Techniques
7. 2.7 Metaheuristics in Bayesian Optimization
8. 2.8 Metaheuristics in Neural Architecture Search
9. 2.9 Comparison of Metaheuristic Techniques for
Hyperparameter Optimization
10. 2.10 Applications of Metaheuristics in Machine Learning
11. 2.11 Future Directions and Open Challenges
12. 2.12 Conclusion
13. References
10. 3 A Survey of Computer-Aided Diagnosis Systems for Breast
Cancer Detection
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Procedure for Research Survey
3. 3.3 Imaging Modalities and Their Datasets
4. 3.4 Research Survey
5. 3.5 Conclusion
6. 3.6 Acknowledgment
7. References
11. 4 Enhancing Feature Selection Through Metaheuristic Hybrid
Cuckoo Search and Harris Hawks Optimization for Cancer
Classification
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Related Work
3. 4.3 Proposed Methodology
 4. 4.4 Experimental Setup
5. 4.5 Results and Discussion
6. 4.6 Conclusion
7. References
12. 5 Anomaly Identification in Surveillance Video Using
Regressive Bidirectional LSTM with Hyperparameter
Optimization
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Literature Survey
3. 5.3 Proposed Methodology
4. 5.4 Result and Discussion
5. 5.5 Conclusion
6. References
13. 6 Ensemble Machine Learning-Based Botnet Attack Detection
for IoT Applications
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Literature Survey
3. 6.3 Proposed System
4. 6.4 Results and Discussion
5. 6.5 Conclusion
6. References
14. 7 Machine Learning-Based Intrusion Detection System with
Tuned Spider Monkey Optimization for Wireless Sensor
Networks
 1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Literature Review
3. 7.3 Proposed Methodology
4. 7.4 Result and Discussion
5. 7.5 Conclusion
6. References
15. 8 Security Enhancement in IoMT‑Assisted Smart Healthcare
System Using the Machine Learning Approach
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Literature Review
3. 8.3 Proposed Methodology
4. 8.4 Conclusion
5. References
16. 9 Building Sustainable Communication: A Game-Theoretic
Approach in 5G and 6G Cellular Networks
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Related Works
3. 9.3 Methodology
4. 9.4 Result
5. 9.5 Conclusion
6. References
17. 10 Autonomous Vehicle Optimization: Striking a Balance
Between Cost-Effectiveness and Sustainability
1. 10.1 Introduction
 2. 10.2 Methods
3. 10.3 Results
4. 10.4 Conclusions
5. References
18. 11 Adapting Underground Parking for the Future:
Sustainability and Shared Autonomous Vehicles
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Related Works
3. 11.3 Methodology
4. 11.4 Analysis
5. 11.5 Conclusion
6. References
19. 12 Big Data Analytics for a Sustainable Competitive Edge: An
Impact Assessment
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Related Works
3. 12.3 Hypothesis and Research Model
4. 12.4 Results
5. 12.5 Conclusion
6. References
20. 13 Sustainability and Technological Innovation in
Organizations: The Mediating Role of Green Practices
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Related Work
 3. 13.3 Methodology
4. 13.4 Discussion
5. 13.5 Conclusions
6. References
21. 14 Optimal Cell Planning in Two Tier Heterogeneous
Network through Meta-Heuristic Algorithms
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 System Model and Formulation of the Problem
3. 14.3 Result and Discussion
4. 14.4 Conclusion
5. References
22. 15 Soil Aggregate Stability Prediction Using a Hybrid Machine
Learning Algorithm
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Related Works
3. 15.3 Proposed Methodology
4. 15.4 Result and Discussion
5. 15.5 Conclusion
6. References
23. Index
24. Also of Interest
25. End User License Agreement

List of Tables
1. Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1 Strengths and weaknesses of metaheuristic
algorithms.
2. Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1 Breakdown of popular metaheuristics and their
I&D components [75]....
2. Table 2.2 Performance comparison of four different
metaheuristics based on a...
3. Table 2.3 Performance comparison of eight population-
based metaheuristics fo...
3. Chapter 3
1. Table 3.1 Summary of the medical jargon used.
2. Table 3.2 Advantages and disadvantages.
4. Chapter 4
1. Table 4.1 Information regarding the six cancer microarray
data.
2. Table 4.2 Parameter settings of the proposed algorithm.
3. Table 4.3 Accuracies of the proposed algorithm with the
mRMR, mRMR+CSA, and ...
4. Table 4.4 Accuracies of the proposed algorithm with the
mRMR, mRMR+CSA, and ...
5. Table 4.5 Accuracies of the proposed algorithm with the
mRMR, mRMR+CSA, and ...
 6. Table 4.6 Comparison of the different published methods
with the proposed me...
5. Chapter 8
1. Table 8.1 Comparison of the accuracy.
2. Table 8.2 Comparison of the precision.
3. Table 8.3 Comparison of the sensitivity.
4. Table 8.4 Comparison of the specificity.
5. Table 8.5 Comparison of the security.
6. Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Example of demand and supply data from
expert interviews with the...
2. Table 10.2 Provides an analysis of the logistic network
situation.
7. Chapter 11
1. Table 11.1 Index of the driver, status, and response model
system.
2. Table 11.2 The DSR indexes’ weights and value
attributions.
3. Table 11.3 Rankings of function replacement for each UPS
type.
8. Chapter 12
1. Table 12.1 Results of validity and reliability tests.
2. Table 12.2 HTMT values.
3. Table 12.3 Examine the legitimacy of differences.
 4. Table 12.4 The model’s fit outcomes.
9. Chapter 13
1. Table 13.1 Description of the companies.
2. Table 13.2 Presentation of illustrative information.
3. Table 13.3 Impact on the various aspects.
4. Table 13.4 Credibility, dependability, and relevance.
5. Table 13.5 Inferential statistics.
6. Table 13.6 Evaluation of interactions.
10. Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1 Parameter values.

List of Illustrations

1. Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 Flowchart of the genetic algorithm.
2. Figure 1.2 Flowchart of simulated annealing.
3. Figure 1.3 Flowchart of the particle swarm optimization.
4. Figure 1.4 Flowchart of the ant colony optimization.
2. Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 Tabu search for optimizing the tour cost for a
city plotted vs. ite...
2. Figure 2.2 A Gaussian process approximation of an
objective function being ite...
3. Figure 2.3 Convergence comparison of four metaheuristics
based on the first 10...
 4. Figure 2.4 Best score convergence profiles vs. iterations for
eight renowned a...
5. Figure 2.5 Accuracy of metaheuristics for different ML
models [83].
3. Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 Pictorial representation of the imaging
modalities.
2. Figure 3.2 CNN architecture as illustrated by Mohamed et
al. in [29].
4. Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 The proposed research methodology.
2. Figure 4.2 Hybrid flowchart of the HHO and CSA.
3. Figure 4.3 Error comparison with the SVM classifier.
4. Figure 4.4 The variance observed in the proposed
algorithm (mRMR+CSAHHO) compa...
5. Figure 4.5 Error comparison with the KNN classifier.
6. Figure 4.6 The variance observed in the proposed
algorithm (mRMR+CSAHHO) compa...
7. Figure 4.7 Error comparison with the NB classifier.
8. Figure 4.8 The variance observed in the proposed
algorithm (mRMR+CSAHHO) compa...
5. Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.1 Schematic architecture of our proposed system.
 2. Figure 5.2 Normal and abnormal clips from the
ShanghaiTech dataset.
3. Figure 5.3 Accuracy comparison between the suggested
and current techniques.
4. Figure 5.4 Precision comparison between the suggested
and current techniques....
5. Figure 5.5 Recall comparison between the suggested and
current techniques.
6. Figure 5.6 Error rate comparison between the suggested
and current techniques....
6. Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 The proposed methodology.
2. Figure 6.2 The dataset’s distribution.
3. Figure 6.3 Architecture of the ANN.
4. Figure 6.4 Results of accuracy.
5. Figure 6.5 Results of precision.
6. Figure 6.6 Results of recall.
7. Figure 6.7 Results of the F-measure.
7. Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 Flowchart of the proposed SVM-TSMO model.
2. Figure 7.2 The support vector machine.
3. Figure 7.3 Accuracy of the existing and proposed methods.
4. Figure 7.4 Precision of the existing and proposed methods.
5. Figure 7.5 Recall % of the existing and proposed methods.
 6. Figure 7.6 F1-measure of the existing and proposed
methods.
8. Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 The IoMT-smart healthcare system.
2. Figure 8.2 A systematic diagram of security enhancement
in the IoMT using mach...
3. Figure 8.3 Diagrammatic representation of the proposed
method.
4. Figure 8.4 The linear SVM model.
5. Figure 8.5 The MLPSO algorithm flowchart.
9. Chapter 9
1. Figure 9.1 IDO based on a game model.
2. Figure 9.2 Spectrum use ratio.
3. Figure 9.3 Offload ratio.
4. Figure 9.4 Throughput analysis.
5. Figure 9.5 Response delay analysis.
6. Figure 9.6 Energy consumption analysis.
10. Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Framework for logistic clusters that limits
supply chain managemen...
2. Figure 10.2 Illustrates the assumptions of the logistic
network model.
3. Figure 10.3 Distribution model simulations with simulated
annealing.
11. Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 Weight matrix of attributes.
2. Figure 11.2 Ranking of the factors.
3. Figure 11.3 UPS-type characteristics.
4. Figure 11.4 Renewal time outcomes.
5. Figure 11.5 Analyzing renewal timing and UPS properties.
6. Figure 11.6 Distribution of renewal times.
12. Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 Suggested research design.
2. Figure 12.2 Reliability and validity of the CA.
3. Figure 12.3 Reliability and validity of the CR.
4. Figure 12.4 Reliability and validity of the AVE.
13. Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Method of measuring model.
2. Figure 13.2 Model of structure.
14. Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1 System model.
2. Figure 14.2 Flowchart of the proposed model.
3. Figure 14.3 Optimal user association to BSs with data suit-
1.
4. Figure 14.4 Optimal user association to BSs with data suit-
2.
5. Figure 14.5 Network utility maximization graph.
15. Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 Block diagram of soil aggregation.
2. Figure 15.2 C5.0’s algorithm flow.
3. Figure 15.3 Comparative analysis of the RMSE.
4. Figure 15.4 Comparative analysis of the R2.
5. Figure 15.5 Comparative analysis of the nRMSE.
6. Figure 15.6 Comparative analysis of the MAE.
Scrivener Publishing
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Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing for Industrial

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Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Metaheuristics for Machine Learning

Algorithms and Applications

Edited by

Kanak Kalita
Vel Tech University, Avadi, India

Narayanan Ganesh
Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India

and

S. Balamurugan
Intelligent Research Consultancy Services, Coimbatore,
Tamilnadu, India
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541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-23392-2

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Foreword
In the dynamic landscape of today’s technological revolution,
machine learning and its applications span multiple domains,
offering both opportunities and challenges. As we navigate this
terrain, the significance of data has shifted; it has transformed
from merely passive entities to active drivers influencing
decisions, sculpting perceptions, and determining collective
trajectories. This book serves a pivotal reference that sheds
light upon complex computational arenas and provides clarity
to those navigating this domain.

This book is more than an aggregation of knowledge. It

epitomizes the expertise and adaptability of current
computational researchers and accentuates the potential of
metaheuristics. For those unfamiliar with the term, envision
metaheuristics as high-level strategists that steer a multitude of
heuristic methodologies toward their zenith. They offer the
requisite tools to address complex challenges where
conventional algorithms might be inadequate.

Throughout the book, you will find a wide range of applications

and potential uses of metaheuristics that span across domains
from machine learning to the cutting-edge fields of
sustainability, communication, and networking. It is fascinating
to note that the algorithms aren’t just theoretical entities; they
resonate with pressing real-world challenges. For instance,
consider the pivotal role of metaheuristics in life-saving
applications like breast cancer detection, or in ensuring
security through anomaly identification in surveillance systems
and botnet attack detection.

Moreover, as we delve deeper, we witness the subtle yet

profound synergies between metaheuristics and contemporary
technological innovations. The chapters dedicated to the
advancements in 5G and 6G communication, and the future of
autonomous vehicles, are prime examples. These sections
underline the intricate balance and interdependence of the
challenges we face today and the innovative solutions
metaheuristics can offer.

For researchers who dedicate their lives to exploration,

practitioners at the frontline of technological innovations, and
students who look with hopeful eyes toward the future, this
book will be a pivotal tool. Let it guide you, as it did for me,
through the mesmerizing world of algorithms and their real-
world applications.

Diego Alberto Oliva

Universidad de Guadalajara, Mexico
Preface
While compiling this book, we were guided by a singular vision:
to sculpt a resource that seamlessly melds the theoretical
intricacies of metaheuristics with their myriad practical
applications. Our aspiration was to produce a reference that not
only delves deeply into the subject, but is also accessible to
readers across spectra, offering a holistic understanding that is
both profound and practical.

With every chapter, we strived to weave a narrative, oscillating

between the vast expanse of the topic and the intricate
minutiae that define it. The book commences with a
foundational introduction, leading readers through the
labyrinthine world of metaheuristics. Going forward, the
narrative transitions, diving deeper into their multifaceted
applications—spanning from the dynamic domain of machine
learning to the ever-evolving spheres of technology,
sustainability, and the intricate web of communication
networks.

Metaheuristics present a promising solution to many

formidable optimization conundrums. Yet, their true allure
comes not just from their theoretical promise but their practical
prowess. This book attempts to unveil this allure, transforming
nebulous algorithms into tangible entities with real-world
resonances—whether in the life-saving realm of healthcare or
the cutting-edge world of vehicular communications.

We extend our endless gratitude to the brilliant authors,

reviewers, and countless others whose relentless dedication,
insight, and expertise are evident in these pages. The editorial
journey has been one of profound learning and growth for all
involved. With each chapter, we have gleaned new
perspectives, and we hope this book becomes a wellspring of
knowledge, inspiration, and introspection for both scholars and
professionals.

In closing, we offer our sincere thanks to the Scrivener and

Wiley publishing teams for their help with this book. We
entreat you to immerse your intellect and curiosity in the
mesmerizing world of metaheuristics and their applications.
Here’s to an enlightening reading journey ahead!

Kanak Kalita

Narayanan Ganesh

S. Balamurugan
1
Metaheuristic Algorithms and
Their Applications in Different
Fields: A Comprehensive Review
Abrar Yaqoob1*, Navneet Kumar Verma2 and Rabia Musheer
Aziz1

1
School of Advanced Science and Language, VIT Bhopal
University, Kothrikalan, Sehore, India

2
State Planning Institute (New Division), Planning Department
Lucknow, Utter Pradesh, India

Abstract

A potent method for resolving challenging optimization issues

is provided by metaheuristic algorithms, which are heuristic
optimization approaches. They provide an effective technique
to explore huge solution spaces and identify close to ideal or
optimal solutions. They are iterative and often inspired by
natural or social processes. This study provides comprehensive
information on metaheuristic algorithms and the many areas in
which they are used. Heuristic optimization algorithms are
well-known for their success in handling challenging
optimization issues. They are a potent tool for problem-solving.
Twenty well-known metaheuristic algorithms, such as the tabu
search, particle swarm optimization, ant colony optimization,
genetic algorithms, simulated annealing, and harmony search,
are included in the article. The article extensively explores the
applications of these algorithms in diverse domains such as
engineering, finance, logistics, and computer science. It
underscores particular instances where metaheuristic
algorithms have found utility, such as optimizing structural
design, controlling dynamic systems, enhancing manufacturing
processes, managing supply chains, and addressing problems in
artificial intelligence, data mining, and software engineering.
The paper provides a thorough insight into the versatile
deployment of metaheuristic algorithms across different
sectors, highlighting their capacity to tackle complex
optimization problems across a wide range of real-world
scenarios.

Keywords: Optimization, metaheuristics, machine learning,

swarm intelligence

1.1 Introduction
Metaheuristics represent a category of optimization methods
widely employed to tackle intricate challenges in diverse
domains such as engineering, economics, computer science,
and operations research. These adaptable techniques are
designed to locate favorable solutions by exploring an extensive
array of possibilities and avoiding stagnation in suboptimal
outcomes [1]. The roots and advancement of metaheuristics can
be traced back to the early 1950s when George Dantzig
introduced the simplex approach for linear programming [2].
This innovative technique marked a pivotal point in
optimization and paved the way for the emergence of
subsequent optimization algorithms. Nonetheless, the simplex
method’s applicability is confined to linear programming issues
and does not extend to nonlinear problems. In the latter part of
the 1950s, John Holland devised the genetic algorithm, drawing
inspiration from concepts of natural selection and evolution [3].
The genetic algorithm assembles a set of potential solutions and
iteratively enhances this set through genetic operations like
mutation, crossover, and selection [4]. The genetic algorithm
was a major milestone in the development of metaheuristics
and opened up new possibilities for resolving difficult
optimization issues. During the 1980s and 1990s, the field of
metaheuristics experienced significant expansion and the
emergence of numerous novel algorithms. These techniques,
which include simulated annealing (SA), tabu search (TS), ant
colony optimization (ACO), particle swarm optimization (PSO),
and differential evolution (DE), were created expressly to deal
with a variety of optimization issues. They drew inspiration
from concepts like simulated annealing, tabu search, swarm
intelligence, and evolutionary algorithms [5].

The term “meta-” in metaheuristic algorithms indicates a higher

level of operation beyond simple heuristics, leading to
enhanced performance. These algorithms balance local search
and global exploration by using randomness to provide a range
of solutions. Despite the fact that metaheuristics are frequently
employed, there is not a single definition of heuristics and
metaheuristics in academic literature, and some academics
even use the terms synonymously. However, it is currently
fashionable to classify as metaheuristics all algorithms of a
stochastic nature that utilize randomness and comprehensive
exploration across the entire system. Metaheuristic algorithms
are ideally suited for global optimization and nonlinear
modeling because randomization is a useful method for
switching from local to global search. As a result, almost all
metaheuristic algorithms can be used to solve issues involving
nonlinear optimization at the global level [6]. In recent years,
the study of metaheuristics has developed over time and new
algorithms are being developed that combine different concepts
and techniques from various fields such as machine learning,
deep learning, and data science. The development and
evolution of metaheuristics have made significant contributions
to solving complex optimization problems and have led to the
development of powerful tools for decision-making in various
domains [7]. In order to find solutions in a huge search area,
metaheuristic algorithms are founded on the idea of mimicking
the behaviors of natural or artificial systems. These algorithms
are particularly valuable for tackling problems that are
challenging or impossible to solve using traditional
optimization methods. Typically, metaheuristic algorithms
involve iterations and a series of steps that modify a potential
solution until an acceptable one is discovered. Unlike other
optimization techniques that may become stuck in local optimal
solutions, metaheuristic algorithms are designed to explore the
entire search space. They also exhibit resilience to noise or
uncertainty in the optimization problem. The adaptability and
plasticity of metaheuristic algorithms are two of their main
features. They can be modified to take into account certain
limitations or goals of the current task and are applicable to a
wide variety of optimization situations. However, for complex
problems with extensive search spaces, these algorithms may
converge slowly toward an optimal solution, and there is no
guarantee that they will find the global optimum. Metaheuristic
algorithms find extensive application in various fields including
engineering, finance, logistics, and computer science. They have
been successfully employed in solving diverse problems such as
optimizing design, control, and manufacturing processes,
portfolio selection, and risk management strategies [8].

1.2 Types of Metaheuristic Algorithms

We shall outline some of the most popular metaheuristic

methods in this section.

1.2.1 Genetic Algorithms

Genetic algorithms (GAs) fit to a cluster of metaheuristic

optimization techniques that draw inspiration from natural
selection and genetics [9–11]. In order to find the optimal
solution for a particular issue, the core idea underlying the GA
is to mimic the evolutionary process. The genetic algorithm has
the capability to address challenges spanning various fields
such as biology, engineering, and finance [12–14]. In the
methodology of the GA, a potential solution is denoted as a
chromosome, or a collection of genes. Each gene within the
context of the problem signifies an individual variable, and its
value corresponds to the potential range of values that the
variable can take [15, 16]. Subsequently, these chromosomes
undergo genetic operations like mutation and crossover. This
process can give rise to a fresh population of potential
solutions, resulting in a novel set of potential outcomes [17–19].

The following are the major steps in the GA:

Initialization: The algorithm initializes a set of potential
responses first. A chromosome is used to symbolize each
solution, which is a string of genes randomly generated
based on the problem domain [20].

Evaluation: The suitability of each chromosome is assessed

based on the objective function of the problem. The quality
of the solution is evaluated by the fitness function, and the
objective is to optimize the fitness function by either
maximizing or minimizing it, depending on the particular
problem [21].

Selection: Chromosomes that possess higher fitness values

are chosen to form a fresh population of potential solutions.
Various techniques, such as roulette wheel selection,
tournament selection, and rank-based selection, are
employed for the selection process [22].

Crossover: The selected chromosomes are combined

through crossover to generate new offspring chromosomes.
The crossover operation exchanges the genetic information
from the parent chromosomes and is utilized to generate
novel solutions [23].
Mutation: The offspring chromosomes are subjected to
mutation, which introduces random changes to the genetic
information. Mutation aids in preserving diversity within
the population and preventing the occurrence of local
optima [24].

Replacement: As the child chromosomes multiply, a new

population of potential solutions is formed and replaces the
less fit members of the prior population.

Termination: The technique proceeds to iterate through the

selection, crossover, mutation, and replacement phases until
a specific termination condition is satisfied. Reaching a
predetermined maximum for iterations is one scenario for
termination, attaining a desired fitness value, or exceeding a
predetermined computational time limit.
Figure 1.1 Flowchart of the genetic algorithm.

The GA has several advantages, such as being capable of solving

complex issues, locating the global optimum, and being
applicable to various domains. However, the GA also has some
limitations, such as the need for a suitable fitness function, the
possibility of premature convergence, and the high
computational cost for complex problems. Figure 1.1 shows the
flowchart of the genetic algorithm.

1.2.2 Simulated Annealing

Simulated annealing is a probabilistic method for optimizing

complex multidimensional problems by seeking the global best
solution. It draws inspiration from the metallurgical technique
of annealing, which includes heating and gradually cooling a
metal to enhance its strength and resilience [25]. Similarly,
simulated annealing commences at an elevated temperature,
enabling the algorithm to extensively investigate a vast array of
possible solutions, and then slowly decreases the temperature
to narrow down the search to the most promising areas. SA
works by maintaining a current solution and repeatedly
making small changes to it in search of a better solution. At
each iteration, the algorithm calculates a cost function that
measures how good the current solution is. The cost function
can be any function that assigns a score to a potential solution,
such as a distance metric or a likelihood function. Subsequently,
the algorithm determines whether to embrace or disregard a
new solution by utilizing a probability distribution that relies
on the existing temperature and the disparity between the costs
of the current and new solutions [26]. High temperatures
increase SA’s propensity to embrace novel solutions even if they
have a higher cost than the current solution. This is because the
algorithm is still exploring the space of potential solutions and
needs to be open to new possibilities. As the temperature
decreases, SA becomes increasingly discriminating and admits
novel solutions solely if they surpass the existing solution. By
employing this approach, SA prevents itself from becoming
trapped in local peaks and eventually achieves convergence
toward the global peak [27]. SA offers a notable benefit by
effectively addressing non-convex optimization problems,
characterized by numerous local optima. By permitting the
acceptance of solutions with greater costs, SA can navigate
diverse areas within the solution space and prevent
entrapment in local optima. Moreover, SA boasts ease of
implementation and independence from cost function
gradients, rendering it suitable for scenarios where the cost
function lacks differentiability. However, SA does have some
limitations. It can be slow to converge, especially for large or
complex problems, and may require many iterations to find the
global optimum. SA’s effectiveness is also influenced by the
decision of cooling schedule, which determines how quickly the
temperature decreases. If the cooling schedule is too slow, the
algorithm may take too long to converge, while if it is too fast,
the algorithm may converge too quickly to a suboptimal
solution [28, 29].
Figure 1.2 Flowchart of simulated annealing.

To put it briefly, simulated annealing is a highly effective

optimization method that has the capability to address intricate
problems, multidimensional problems with multiple local
optima. It works by exploring the solution space and gradually
narrowing down the search for the most promising regions.
While it has some limitations, SA is a helpful tool for a variety
of optimization issues in the real world. Figure 1.2 shows the
flowchart of simulated annealing.
1.2.3 Particle Swarm Optimization

Particle swarm optimization is a technique for optimization

that employs a population-based strategy to address a wide
range of optimization problems. First introduced by Kennedy
and Eberhart in 1995, this concept takes inspiration from the
coordinated movements observed in the flocking of birds and
the schooling of fish [30–32]. This algorithm emulates the social
dynamics exhibited by these creatures, where each member
learns from its own encounters and the experiences of its
nearby peers, with the aim of discovering the best possible
solution [33]. The PSO method begins by generating a
population of particles, each of which acts as a potential
solution to the optimization issue at hand. These particles,
which have both a location and a velocity vector, are randomly
distributed throughout the search space [34]. The location
vector represents the particle’s current solution, whereas the
velocity vector represents the particle’s moving direction and
magnitude inside the search space. Through iterative steps,
each particle’s location and velocity vectors undergo constant
modification and adjustment in the PSO algorithm, guided by its
own best solution encountered thus far and the solutions of its
neighboring particles [35]. Collaborative learning continues
until a predetermined stopping condition is met, such as when
the desired outcome is attained or the maximum number of
iterations has been reached. Compared to other optimization
algorithms, the PSO algorithm boasts various advantages,
including simplicity, rapid convergence, and robustness [36, 37].
PSO has found applications in diverse problem domains,
spanning function optimization, neural network training, image
processing, and feature selection. Nevertheless, the algorithm
does come with certain limitations. These include the risk of
premature convergence, where the algorithm may converge to
suboptimal solutions prematurely, and challenges in effectively
handling problems with high-dimensional spaces [38].

Figure 1.3 Flowchart of the particle swarm optimization.

In general, the particle swarm optimization algorithm is a

robust and effective optimization method capable of addressing
numerous practical optimization problems. Its simplicity and
intuitive approach make it an appealing choice compared to
more intricate optimization methods. Figure 1.3 shows the
flowchart of the particle swarm optimization.

1.2.4 Ant Colony Optimization

Ant colony optimization is a nature-inspired method that

addresses difficult optimization problems by mimicking the
behavior of ant colonies. The program takes its cues from the
behavior of ant colonies, specifically the way ants communicate
to discover the shortest path toward food sources. The
fundamental idea behind the ACO is to simulate the foraging
behavior of ants to solve optimization problems effectively. A
simulated group of ants is put on a graph representing the
problem space in the ACO. These ants navigate the graph by
selecting the next node to visit based on the pheromone trails
left behind by other ants. The strength of the pheromone trail
represents the quality of the solution that passed through that
edge. As more ants traverse the same edge, the pheromone trail
becomes stronger. This is similar to how ants communicate with
each other in real life by leaving pheromone trails to signal the
location of food sources [39, 40]. The ACO algorithm has several
key parameters, such as the amount of pheromone each ant
leaves, the rate at which pheromones evaporate, and the
balance between exploiting the best solution and exploring new
solutions. The optimal values of the parameters in the
algorithm are determined through a process of
experimentation and refinement to obtain the best possible
results for a specific problem [41].

The ACO has showcased impressive achievements in resolving

diverse optimization challenges, including but not limited to the
traveling salesman problem, vehicle routing, and job
scheduling. One notable advantage of the algorithm is its ability
to swiftly discover favorable solutions, even when confronted
with extensive search spaces. Furthermore, because the ACO
belongs to the category of metaheuristic algorithms, it can be
applied to a variety of situations without requiring a deep
understanding of the underlying structure of those problems
[42]. Figure 1.4 shows the flowchart of the ant colony
optimization.
Figure 1.4 Flowchart of the ant colony optimization.

1.2.5 Tabu Search

The tabu search is a metaheuristic technique utilized for

optimization problems, initially proposed by Fred Glover in
1986. It has gained significant popularity across diverse
domains, including operations research, engineering, and
computer science. The core concept behind the tabu search
involves systematically traversing the search space by
transitioning between different solutions in order to identify
the optimal solution. However, unlike other local search
algorithms, the tabu search incorporates a memory structure
that records previous moves executed during the search. These
data are then used to steer the search to potential places within
the search space [43]. The tabu list, a memory structure that
plays an important part in the algorithm, is at the heart of the
tabu search. This list serves to store and remember previous
moves made during the search process, ensuring that the
algorithm avoids revisiting solutions that have already been
explored. By utilizing the tabu list, the tabu search effectively
restricts the search to new and unexplored regions of the
solution space, promoting efficient exploration and preventing
repetitive or redundant searches. This list is used to enforce a
set of constraints, known as the tabu tenure, which determines
how long a move is considered tabu. By imposing this
constraint, the algorithm is compelled to investigate diverse
regions within the search space and evade being trapped in
local optima. This ensures that the algorithm remains dynamic
and continually explores new possibilities, preventing it from
being overly fixated on suboptimal solutions [43]. The tabu
search is a versatile optimization algorithm applicable to both
continuous and discrete optimization problems. When
addressing continuous optimization problems, the algorithm
typically uses a neighborhood function to generate new
solutions by perturbing the present solution. In the event of
discrete optimization problems, the neighborhood function is
typically defined in terms of specific moves that can be made to
the solution, such as swapping two elements in a permutation.
The effectiveness of the tabu search is based on a number of
variables, such as the choice of neighborhood function, the tabu
tenure, and the stopping criterion. The algorithm can be
enhanced by using various strategies, such as diversification
and intensification, which balance the search space’s
exploitation and exploration [44].

The tabu search, a metaheuristic approach introduced by Fred

Glover in 1986, is utilized for optimizing problems. Its
application spans a wide array of domains, including
operations research, engineering, and computer science,
establishing it as a widely recognized technique. The
fundamental principle of the tabu search involves a systematic
traversal of the solution space, shifting between different
solutions to ascertain the optimal one. Distinguishing itself from
conventional local search algorithms, the tabu search
incorporates a memory structure that logs prior moves
executed during the search process. This stored information
guides the search toward unexplored areas within the solution
space [45]. Central to the tabu search is the tabu list, a pivotal
memory structure. This list retains and recalls previous moves
executed during the search, ensuring that revisiting already
explored solutions is avoided. The tabu list effectively restricts
the exploration to untrodden regions, preventing redundant
searches and fostering efficient investigation. Governing the
tabu list is the concept of the tabu tenure, setting the duration
for which a move remains prohibited. This constraint compels
the algorithm to explore diverse solution space regions, eluding
entrapment in local optima. This dynamic approach
continuously explores novel avenues, counteracting fixation on
suboptimal solutions [46]. The tabu search is a versatile
optimization algorithm suitable for both continuous and
discrete optimization challenges. For continuous optimization, a
neighborhood function is commonly used to generate new
solutions by perturbing the current one. In the context of
discrete optimization, the neighborhood function is typically
defined by specific permissible moves, such as element swaps
in a permutation. The efficacy of the tabu search hinges on
factors like neighborhood function choice, tabu tenure, and the
stopping criteria. The algorithm can be augmented through
strategies like diversification and intensification, ensuring a
balance between exploiting and exploring the search space.
In general, the tabu search is a robust and adaptable
optimization technique that has demonstrated its effectiveness
in addressing diverse problem sets. It can be employed
independently or integrated into more intricate optimization
algorithms. Its popularity stems from its versatility and
straightforwardness, making it a favored option for tackling
real-life challenges in various domains.

1.2.6 Differential Evolution

The DE is an optimization algorithm based on populations,

originally created by Storn and Price in 1997 [47]. It fit to the
category of evolutionary algorithms that iteratively grow a
population of potential solutions to find the optimal solution.
The algorithm adheres to the fundamental steps of mutation,
crossover, and selection, which are key elements commonly
shared among numerous evolutionary algorithms [48].

In the process of the differential evolution, a population of

potential solutions undergoes iterative evolution through the
implementation of the following sequential steps:

1. Initialization: A population of N possible solutions is

produced at random.
2. Mutation: Involves randomly selecting three candidate
solutions and modifying them to create a trial vector.
3. Crossover: It is a technique used in optimization algorithms
to create a new candidate solution by combining the trial
vector with the target vector.
4. Selection: If the new candidate solution has a higher fitness,
it will take the place of the target vector.

The success of the differential evolution depends on the

selection of the optimization technique’s adjustable settings,
such as mutation rate, crossover rate, and population size [49,
50]. Several variants of the DE have been proposed, including
the SHADE (success history-based adaptive differential
evolution) and JADE (adaptive differential evolution)
algorithms, which incorporate adaptive control parameters to
improve the algorithm’s performance.

1.2.7 Harmony Search

The harmony search (HS) is an optimization technique

motivated by the musical improvization process. Geem [125]
had put forward the idea in 2001 and has now been used to
solve several optimization issues. The techniques mimic the
process of improvization by a group of musicians, where they
adjust their pitches (or notes) to create harmony. In the HS, the
choice variables of an optimization problem in high school are
comparable to musical notes, and the value of the goal function
reflects harmony [51].

Starting individuals of decision variable vectors (i.e., the notes)

are used in the HS approaches and iteratively search for better
solutions by generating new solutions through the following
steps:

1. Harmony memory: A set of the best candidate solutions (i.e.,

the harmonies) is maintained.
2. Harmony creation: A potential solution is created by chance
selecting values from the harmony memory.
3. Pitch adjustment: The values in the new candidate solution
are adjusted with a probability based on a pitch adjustment
rate.
4. Acceptance: The new candidate solution is accepted if it
improves the objective function value.

The control variables, such as the harmony memory size, pitch

adjustment rate, and number of iterations, affect how well the
HS performs. The method follows the core phases of mutation,
crossover, and selection, and the approach has been utilized to
tackle diverse optimization challenges, such as managing water
resources, designing structures, and operating power systems
[52, 53].

1.2.8 Artificial Bee Colony

The artificial bee colony (ABC) is a population-based

optimization method that draws inspiration from honey bees’
feeding habits. Since its introduction by Karaboga in 2005, the
technique has been used to solve a number of optimization
issues [54]. The ABC mimics the foraging process of bees, where
they search for food sources by visiting the flowers in the
vicinity of the hive [55].

The artificial bee colony technique starts with an arbitrarily

generated population of candidate solutions (i.e., food sources)
and iteratively searches for better solutions by simulating the
foraging process of bees through the following steps:

1. Phase of employed bees: The employed bees develop new

candidate solutions by modifying the values of current
solutions.
2. Phase of the onlooker bees: The onlooker bees choose the
candidate solutions with the highest fitness values and send
this information to the employed bees.
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