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Web Programming

HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, is a markup language used to structure and format web pages using tags to define elements and content. It includes fundamental components such as the <html>, <head>, <title>, <body>, and various tags for headings and paragraphs, allowing for complex layouts and multimedia integration. HTML has evolved from its scientific origins to become the primary language for web development, enabling the creation of interconnected web pages.

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4 views

Web Programming

HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, is a markup language used to structure and format web pages using tags to define elements and content. It includes fundamental components such as the <html>, <head>, <title>, <body>, and various tags for headings and paragraphs, allowing for complex layouts and multimedia integration. HTML has evolved from its scientific origins to become the primary language for web development, enabling the creation of interconnected web pages.

Uploaded by

kiracherub866
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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WEB PROGRAMMING

HYPER TEXT MARK UP LANGUAGE In summary, HTML is a markup language used to


(HTML) structure and format web pages. It utilizes tags to
define the elements and content within a
HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. It document, and hypertext allows for the linking of
is a programming language used to create and web pages together. HTML has evolved from its
structure web pages. When a web page is created scientific origins to become the primary language
using HTML, it consists of a set of elements and for creating and formatting websites.
tags that define the structure and content of the
BASIC HTML DOCUMENT
page.

The term "Hypertext" in HTML refers to the way Doctype: The <!DOCTYPE> declaration is the
web pages are interconnected through links. very first line of an HTML document. It informs
These links allow users to navigate between the web browser about the version of HTML
different web pages by simply clicking on them. being used in the document. The doctype
In HTML, links are represented by the <a> tag, declaration is important because it helps the
which stands for anchor. browser interpret the HTML correctly. The most
common doctype declaration for modern HTML
HTML is considered a markup language because
documents is <!DOCTYPE html>.
it uses tags to mark up or define different
elements within a document. These tags are HTML: The <html> element is the root element
enclosed in angle brackets (< >) and provide of an HTML document. It serves as a container
instructions to web browsers on how to interpret for all the other elements of the page. The
and display the content. For example, the <h1> opening tag <html> is placed at the beginning of
tag is used to mark a heading, the <p> tag the document, and the closing tag </html> is
represents a paragraph, and the <ul> tag defines placed at the end. All other elements are nested
an unordered list. inside the <html> element.

Originally, HTML was developed with the Head: The <head> element is a container for
purpose of structuring scientific documents to metadata and other non-visible elements in an
facilitate the sharing of information among HTML document. It is placed immediately after
researchers. It provided a standardized way to the opening <html> tag. The content inside the
represent headings, paragraphs, lists, and other <head> element is not displayed on the web
elements commonly found in scientific papers. page itself, but it provides important information
to the browser and search engines. This is where
However, over time, HTML has evolved and
you would typically include the document's title,
become the foundation for formatting and
links to CSS stylesheets, scripts, and other meta
presenting content on the World Wide Web. It is
information.
now widely used by web developers to create and
design websites. HTML offers a variety of tags Title: The <title> element is used to define the
and attributes that enable the creation of complex title of an HTML document. It is placed within
layouts, multimedia integration, forms, and the <head> element. The text placed between
interactive elements. the opening <title> and closing </title> tags
appears as the title of the web page in the
Web browsers, such as Chrome, Firefox, and
browser's title bar or tab. Additionally, it is also
Safari, interpret the HTML code and render it as
used by search engines when displaying search
a visual representation of a web page. This
results.
allows users to view and interact with the
content presented on the web.
Body: The <body> element represents the main <h6> the lowest level. The purpose of heading
content area of an HTML document. It is placed tags is to structure the content and provide visual
immediately after the closing </head> tag. All hierarchy to the headings on a webpage.
the visible content of the web page, such as text,
Here are the heading tags along with their usage:
images, links, and other elements, is placed
within the <body> element. The opening 1. <h1>: Represents the highest level of
<body> tag is followed by the content, and the heading. It is typically used for the main
closing </body> tag is placed at the end of the title of a page or section. Example:
content. <h1>Welcome to My Website</h1>

h1: The <h1> element represents the highest 2. <h2>: Represents a level below <h1>
level of heading in HTML. It is used to define the and is used for subheadings. Example:
main heading or title of a section or webpage. <h2>About Me</h2>
The <h1> tag is typically used once per page or
section and is often followed by subheadings of
3. <h3>: Represents a lower level heading,
often used for subheadings under <h2>.
lower hierarchy such as <h2>, <h3>, and so
Example: <h3>Education</h3>
on. The actual text of the heading is placed
between the opening <h1> and closing </h1> 4. <h4>: Represents a lower level heading,
tags. typically used for subheadings under
p: The <p> element is used to define a <h3>. Example: <h4>Work
paragraph in HTML. It represents a block of text Experience</h4>
that is typically separated from other paragraphs. 5. <h5>: Represents a lower level heading,
The <p> tag is used to structure and format text used for subheadings under <h4>.
content, and it automatically adds vertical Example: <h5>Skills</h5>
spacing before and after the paragraph. Text
content placed between the opening <p> and 6. <h6>: Represents the lowest level of
closing </p> tags is treated as a paragraph. heading, used for subheadings under
<h5>. Example: <h6>Contact
In summary, these terms are fundamental
Information</h6>
elements in HTML:
When using these heading tags, it is good
• <!DOCTYPE> declares the HTML version.
practice to follow a hierarchical structure, starting
• <html> is the root element of the HTML
with <h1> as the main heading and descending
document.
down to lower-level headings as needed. This
• <head> contains metadata and non-
helps organize the content and makes it easier for
visible elements.
both humans and search engines to understand
• <title> specifies the title of the
the structure and importance of different sections
document.
on the page.
• <body> represents the visible content
area. THE PARAGRAPH TAG
• <h1> defines the main heading.
The <p> tag in HTML is used to define a
• <p> represents a paragraph of text.
paragraph of text. It represents a block of text
that is typically separated from other paragraphs.
HTML HEADING TAG The <p> tag helps structure and format the
textual content on a webpage, allowing for better
In HTML, heading tags are used to define
readability and visual organization.
different levels of headings or titles within a
document. These tags range from <h1> to Here's an example of using the <p> tag in
<h6>, with <h1> being the highest level and HTML:
Here's an example of using the line breaking tag
in HTML:

In this example, we have various sections on the In this example, we have used the <br> tag to
webpage, and each section is introduced by a insert line breaks within paragraphs. Each time
heading tag. Following each heading, we use the the <br> tag is used, it creates a new line,
<p> tag to define paragraphs that provide more effectively breaking the content onto a new line.
details or information about the respective
For instance, in the first paragraph under the
section.
"Welcome to My Website" section, we have used
For instance, under the "About Me" section, we the <br> tag to separate the text into two lines.
have a paragraph that describes the web Similarly, in the "About Me" and "Contact
developer's passion and expertise. Similarly, the Information" sections, line breaks are introduced
other sections like "Education," "Work to create separate lines of text within each
Experience," "Skills," and "Contact Information" paragraph.
have corresponding paragraphs that provide
Using the <br> tag is particularly useful when
relevant information.
you want to force a line break without starting a
The <p> tag helps separate and structure the new paragraph. It is commonly used for
text content, making it easier to read and addresses, song lyrics, poetry, or other instances
comprehend. It automatically adds vertical where a line break is required without the need
spacing before and after the paragraph, visually for creating a new paragraph.
distinguishing it from other elements on the page.
Remember that the <br> tag doesn't require a
By using the <p> tag, you can organize and closing tag since it is a self-closing tag. You can
present textual content in a clear and structured use it directly within the content, and it will
manner, enhancing the overall readability and create a line break at that point.
user experience of your webpage.
However, it's generally recommended to use line
THE LINE BREAKING TAG breaks sparingly and maintain proper HTML
structure by using appropriate elements like
The line breaking tag in HTML is used to create
paragraphs or headings for better semantic
a line break, forcing text or elements to start on
markup and maintainability of the code.
a new line. The line breaking tag is represented
by the <br> tag. It is a self-closing tag, meaning
it doesn't require a closing tag.
HORIZONTAL LINES

In HTML, you can create horizontal lines using


the <hr> element. The <hr> tag represents a
thematic break or a horizontal rule in an HTML
document. It is commonly used to separate
sections of content.

Here's an example of how to use the <hr> tag in


HTML :-

In the above example, the text within the <pre>


tags will be displayed on the webpage exactly as
it appears in the HTML code. The extra spaces
and line breaks will be maintained.

Using the <pre> element is particularly useful


In the above example, the <hr> tag is placed when displaying code snippets, as it allows you
between the first and second sections of content. to maintain the indentation and spacing of the
When the HTML document is rendered in a web code for readability.
browser, it will display a horizontal line
separating the two sections.

PRESERVE FORMATTING

Preserving formatting in HTML means


maintaining the original appearance of text,
including spaces, line breaks, and other
formatting elements, when displaying it on a
webpage. This is especially useful when you want
to display code snippets, poetry, or any content
that relies on specific formatting.

To preserve formatting in HTML, you can use the


In this example, the <pre> element is combined
<pre> (preformatted) element. The <pre> tag with the <code> element to preserve the
tells the browser to display the enclosed text formatting of the code snippet. The code will be
exactly as it appears in the HTML code, displayed on the webpage with proper indentation
preserving spaces and line breaks. and line breaks :-
HTML TAG VS ELEMENT When an HTML element is nested, it means that
it is placed between the opening and closing tags
HTML Tag: An HTML tag is a special code that of another element. This establishes a parent-
tells a web browser how to display content. Tags child relationship between the elements, where
are written using angle brackets (< and >) and the outer element is the parent and the inner
usually come in pairs, with an opening tag and a element is the child.
closing tag. The opening tag indicates the
Here's an example of nested HTML elements:
beginning of an element, and the closing tag
marks the end of the element. Tags are used to
structure and format content on a webpage.

Example of an HTML tag:

<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
In the above example, the <h1> element and the
<p> element are nested within the <div>
In the above example, <p> is the opening tag,
element. The <div> element acts as the parent
and </p> is the closing tag. They enclose the
element, and the heading and paragraph elements
paragraph content and indicate that it should be
are the child elements. The content inside the
displayed as a paragraph.
child elements is displayed within the context of
HTML Element: An HTML element refers to a the parent element.
complete unit of content within an HTML
Nested elements can be nested further to create
document. It consists of an opening tag, the
deeper levels of hierarchy. For instance:
content, and a closing tag. Elements can be as
simple as a single tag or more complex with
nested elements inside.

Example of an HTML element:

<h1>This is a heading</h1>

In the above example, <h1> is the opening tag,


</h1> is the closing tag, and "This is a heading" In this example, the <ul> element (unordered
is the content of the heading element. The entire list) is nested within the same <div> element.
structure represents a heading on the webpage. The <ul> element serves as a child element of
HTML elements can include text, images, links, the <div> element, and the list items (<li>) are
lists, tables, forms, and more. They provide children of the <ul> element.
structure and define the various parts of a By nesting elements, you can create complex
webpage, allowing the browser to understand structures and layouts on a webpage. The parent-
how to render and display the content. child relationship allows you to group related
elements together and apply styling or formatting

NESTED HTML ELEMENTS to them collectively.

Nested HTML elements are HTML elements that


COMMENTS IN HTML
are placed inside other HTML elements. In other
words, one element is contained within another Comments in HTML are used to add notes or
element. This hierarchical structure allows for explanations within the HTML code that are not
organizing and structuring content on a webpage. displayed on the webpage. They are useful for
providing information to other developers or for
temporarily disabling a portion of the code HTML ATTRIBUTES
without deleting it.

In HTML, comments are written using the <!--


and --> delimiters. Anything between these
delimiters is considered a comment and is
ignored by the web browser when rendering the In the above example, the <a> element
webpage. represents a hyperlink, and the href attribute is
used to specify the destination URL that the
Here's an example of an HTML comment:
hyperlink should point to. The value of the href
attribute is set to "https://www.example.com".
When a user clicks on the link, it will navigate
to the specified URL.

HTML attributes can be used to achieve various


In the above example, the first line is an HTML effects, such as:
comment that provides a note or explanation. The
comment is not displayed on the webpage. The 1. Changing element behavior: Attributes like
second line is a regular HTML element (a href, src, disabled, and required modify
paragraph in this case). The third line is a how elements like links, images, buttons,
commented-out paragraph, indicated by the <!-- and form inputs function.
and --> delimiters. This paragraph is not
2. Styling elements: Attributes like class and
rendered by the browser because it is within the
style are used to apply CSS classes or
comment.
inline styles to elements, allowing for
HTML comments are useful for various purposes, custom styling and presentation.
such as:
3. Providing additional information:
1. Documenting the code: Developers can Attributes like alt, title, and data-*
add comments to describe the purpose or attributes can provide supplementary
functionality of a particular section of information about elements for
code, making it easier for others to accessibility, tooltips, or custom data
understand. storage.

2. Debugging or troubleshooting: Comments It's worth noting that not all HTML elements
can be used to temporarily remove or have attributes, and the available attributes may
disable a portion of the code to identify vary depending on the element. HTML attributes
or isolate an issue. play a crucial role in extending the functionality
and customization of HTML elements within web
3. Leaving reminders or to-do lists:
pages.
Developers can use comments to leave
reminders or notes for themselves or their
team members about pending tasks or ITALIC TEXT
improvements.
In HTML, you can make text appear in italics by
It's important to note that comments should be
using the <em> element or the <i> element.
used judiciously and kept up to date. Excessive or
Both elements are used to indicate emphasis or to
outdated comments can clutter the code and
italicize text.
make it harder to maintain.
Here's an example of using the <em> element:
<p>This is <em>italic</em> text.</p> <p>This is <u>underlined</u> text.</p>

In the above example, the <u> element is used


In the above example, the word "italic" is
to enclose the word "underlined". When rendered
enclosed within the <em> tags. When the HTML
in a web browser, the text "underlined" will
document is rendered in a web browser, the text
appear with a line underneath.
within the <em> tags will appear in italics:
Using CSS styles:
This is italic text.
<p style="text-decoration: underline;">This is
Alternatively, you can use the <i> element to
underlined text.</p>
achieve the same result:

<p>This is <i>italic</i> text.</p> In this example, the style attribute is applied to


the <p> element with the value text-decoration:
Both <em> and <i> elements are typically underline;. This CSS property instructs the
rendered in italics by default. However, it's browser to underline the text within the <p>
important to note that their usage carries element.
different semantic meanings:
Underlining text is a simple and commonly used
• <em> represents emphasized text, which way to add emphasis or indicate links within
typically implies importance or stress HTML content. However, keep in mind that
within the context of the content. Web underlining is often associated with hyperlinks, so
browsers often render it as italicized text it's generally recommended to reserve underlining
by default. for links to avoid confusing users. For non-link
text emphasis, alternative styling techniques like
• <i> represents text in an alternative
bolding or color changes can be considered.
voice or mood, or denotes a technical
term, a phrase in another language, or a
book or magazine title. By default, web SUPERSCRIPT TEXT
browsers render it as italicized text, but it
does not necessarily imply emphasis or Subscript text in HTML refers to text that appears
importance. below the baseline of the surrounding text,
It is recommended to use the <em> element typically used for representing subscripts or
when emphasizing text for semantic purposes. mathematical formulas. It is commonly used for
However, if the purpose is purely visual styling, displaying chemical formulas, mathematical
either <em> or <i> can be used to achieve equations, or footnotes.
italicized text. In HTML, you can create subscript text using the
<sub> (subscript) element. The <sub> tag is an
UNDERLINED TEXT
inline-level element that indicates that the
enclosed text should be displayed in a subscript
To underline text means to add a line below the
style.
text to indicate emphasis or to differentiate it
from the surrounding content. It is a formatting Here's an example of using the <sub> element in
technique used to visually highlight or draw HTML:
attention to specific words or phrases within a
block of text.
<p>H<sub>2</sub>O is the chemical
In HTML, you can underline text using the <u> formula for water.</p>
(underline) element or by applying CSS styles.
In the above example, the <sub> element is
Using the <u> element:
used to enclose the "2" in the chemical formula
for water (H2O). When rendered in a web semantically correct way to represent superscript
browser, the "2" will appear as subscript text, text in HTML.
appearing below the baseline of the surrounding
It's worth noting that you can also apply CSS
text.
styles to achieve superscript-like effects using
It's important to note that the actual rendering properties like vertical-align or by using custom
and appearance of subscript text may vary classes. However, using the <sup> element
depending on the browser and the CSS styles ensures clarity and accessibility for assistive
applied to the element. However, the <sub> technologies and future-proofing the content
element is specifically designed to convey the structure.
intent of displaying text as a subscript.
LARGER TEXT
Additionally, you can also apply CSS styles to
achieve subscript-like effects using properties like In HTML, you can make text appear larger by
vertical-align or by using custom classes. using the <h1> to <h6> elements or by
However, using the <sub> element is the applying CSS styles to increase the font size. Both
recommended and semantically correct way to methods allow you to adjust the size of the text
represent subscript text in HTML. to create visual emphasis or hierarchy within
your HTML content.

SUBSCRIPT TEXT Using heading elements (<h1> to <h6>):

<h1>This is the largest heading</h1>


Superscript text in HTML refers to text that
<h2>This is a smaller heading</h2>
appears above the baseline of the surrounding
text, typically used for representing superscripts,
In the above example, the <h1> element
mathematical exponents, or ordinal indicators. It
represents the largest heading size, while the
is commonly used for displaying mathematical
<h2> element represents a smaller heading size.
formulas, footnotes, or other notations.
The browser will render these headings with
In HTML, you can create superscript text using predefined sizes, where <h1> is the largest and
the <sup> (superscript) element. The <sup> tag <h6> is the smallest.
is an inline-level element that indicates that the
SMALLER TEXT
enclosed text should be displayed in a superscript
style.
In HTML, you can make text appear smaller by
Here's an example of using the <sup> element in using the <small> element or by applying CSS
HTML :- styles to decrease the font size. Both methods
allow you to adjust the size of the text to create
<p>E=mc<sup>2</sup> is the famous equation
by Albert Einstein.</p> visual emphasis or to indicate secondary
information within your HTML content.
In the above example, the <sup> element is
Using the <small> element:
used to enclose the "2" in the equation E=mc^2.
When rendered in a web browser, the "2" will <small>This is smaller text.</small>
appear as superscript text, positioned above the
baseline of the surrounding text. STRONG TEXT
Similarly to subscript text, the actual rendering
In HTML, the <strong> element is used to
and appearance of superscript text may vary
indicate that the enclosed text should be
depending on the browser and the CSS styles
displayed as strong or important content. By
applied to the element. However, using the
default, the text within the <strong> element is
<sup> element is the recommended and
rendered in bold to visually emphasize its for responsive design and mobile devices.
significance. It ensures that the webpage adapts to
different screen sizes and provides a
Here's an example of using the <strong> element
consistent user experience.
in HTML:

<p>This is a <strong>strong</strong>
3. <meta name="description" content="A
statement.</p> brief description of the webpage">:
Provides a concise summary or description
In the above example, the word "strong" is of the webpage's content. This information
enclosed within the <strong> tags. When is often displayed by search engines in
rendered in a web browser, the word "strong" search results.
will appear in bold, indicating its importance or
4. <meta name="keywords"
emphasis within the sentence.
content="keyword1, keyword2,
The <strong> element provides semantic keyword3">: Specifies the keywords or
meaning to the text, indicating to browsers, phrases that describe the content of the
search engines, and assistive technologies that the webpage. While less important for search
enclosed content is of particular importance or engine rankings nowadays, they can still
relevance. It is typically used to highlight provide context to search engines.
keywords, important phrases, or critical
information within the content.
5. <meta name="author" content="Author
Name">: Indicates the author of the
It's worth noting that the visual representation of webpage.
strong text (e.g., bold) can be modified using CSS
styles. However, the <strong> element should be 6. <meta name="robots" content="index,
used to convey the semantic meaning of strong follow">: Instructs search engine robots
content, while the actual styling can be adjusted on how to crawl and index the webpage.
using CSS. The values can include "index" (to include
the webpage in search results) and
"follow" (to follow and index links on the
HTML META TAGS page).

HTML meta tags provide information about an 7. <meta http-equiv="refresh"


HTML document and its characteristics. They are content="5;url=https://example.com/">:
placed within the <head> section of an HTML Automatically redirects the browser to
document and are not displayed on the webpage another URL after a specified time (5
itself. Meta tags are important for search engines, seconds in this example).
social media platforms, and browsers to These are just a few examples of HTML meta
understand and process the content of a webpage tags. There are other meta tags available for
correctly. specific purposes, such as Open Graph tags for
Here are some commonly used HTML meta tags: social media sharing, Twitter cards, or specifying
the language of the document. The choice and
1. <meta charset="UTF-8">: Specifies the use of meta tags depend on the specific
character encoding for the HTML requirements and goals of your webpage.
document. It ensures that the browser
displays the text correctly.

2. <meta name="viewport"
content="width=device-width, initial-
scale=1.0">: Sets the viewport properties
HTML LISTS Unordered lists (<ul>) in HTML support various
attributes to modify their behavior and
In simpler terms, HTML lists are used to organize appearance. Let's explore some commonly used
and present information in a structured manner. attributes:
Lists allow you to group related items or content
together and provide a clear visual hierarchy. type: This attribute specifies the type of bullet or
There are three types of HTML lists: unordered marker used in the list. The default value is
lists, ordered lists, and definition lists. "disc", which displays a filled circle. Other
common values include "square" (square bullet)
HTML UNORDERED LISTS and "circle" (hollow circle).

In simpler terms, an unordered list in HTML is a


way to present a collection of items without any
specific order or sequence. It is often represented
as a bulleted list, where each item is preceded by
a bullet point.

To create an unordered list in HTML, you use the


<ul> element along with the <li> element for
each list item.

Here's an example of an unordered list in HTML:

In the above example, the <ul> element


represents the unordered list, and each list item
is enclosed within an <li> element. The browser
will render this as a bulleted list:
HTML ORDERED LISTS
• Item 1
• Item 2 In simpler terms, an ordered list in HTML is a
• Item 3 way to present a collection of items in a specific
sequence or order. Each item in the list is
Unordered lists are useful when the order of the
automatically numbered or ordered. It is
items is not important, and you want to present
commonly represented as a numbered list.
them as a simple list without any particular
sequence. They are commonly used for features, To create an ordered list in HTML, you use the
options, bullet points, or any situation where the <ol> element along with the <li> element for
items don't need to be numbered or ranked. each list item.

You can customize the appearance of the bullets Here's an example of an ordered list in HTML:
using CSS to change their shape, size, color, or
even remove them completely. The unordered list
structure (<ul> and <li>) remains the same, and
the styling can be adjusted to match the design
and style of your webpage.
In the above example, the <ol> element To create a definition list in HTML, you use the
represents the ordered list, and each list item is <dl> element along with the <dt> element for
enclosed within an <li> element. The browser terms and the <dd> element for definitions.
will render this as a numbered list:
Here's an example of a definition list in HTML:
1. First item
2. Second item
3. Third item

Ordered lists are useful when you want to present


a series of items in a specific order or sequence.
The numbering or ordering of the items provides
a clear structure and indicates the relative In the above example, the <dl> element
importance or flow of information. represents the definition list. Each term is
enclosed within the <dt> element, and each
Similar to unordered lists, you can customize the definition is enclosed within the <dd> element.
appearance of the numbering using CSS to change The browser will render this as a structured list:
the style, format, or alignment. The ordered list
structure (<ol> and <li>) remains the same, and Term 1 Definition 1
the styling can be adjusted to match the design Term 2 Definition 2
and style of your webpage.
The <dt> element is used to mark the beginning
In summary, an ordered list in HTML is a way to of a term or item in the list, while the <dd>
display a list of items in a specific sequence with element represents the corresponding definition or
automatic numbering. It helps to organize explanation. The terms and their definitions are
information and maintain a logical order for the visually associated with each other, creating a
content being presented. clear and organized presentation of information.

Definition lists can be used for various purposes,


such as glossaries, FAQs, or any situation where
you need to pair terms with their meanings. The
structure of the definition list allows for easy
readability and comprehension of the content.

It's worth noting that you can apply CSS styles to


further customize the appearance of definition
lists, including adjusting spacing, font styles, or
alignment. However, the fundamental structure of
the definition list (<dl>, <dt>, and <dd>)
DATA DEFINITION LISTS (DDL) remains the same, and the styling can be
adjusted to match the design and style of your
In HTML, a definition list (<dl>) is a way to webpage.
present a list of terms and their corresponding
definitions. It is often used when you need to
INSERT IMAGE
provide a clear and structured explanation of
concepts, glossary terms, or any other set of
HTML images are used to display visual content,
terms and their meanings.
such as photographs, illustrations, icons, or logos,
A definition list consists of two main components: on a webpage. Images are an essential part of
term and definition. web design and can enhance the visual appeal
and engagement of a webpage.
To insert an image in HTML, you use the <img> size optimization, responsive design, and
element and specify the source (URL) of the alternative text for accessibility to ensure a
image using the src attribute. Here's an example: positive user experience.

<img src="image.jpg" alt="Description of the


image"> HTML TEXT LINKS

In the above example, the src attribute specifies In simpler terms, HTML text links are clickable
the URL or file path of the image file, and the elements on a webpage that allow users to
alt attribute provides alternative text that navigate to other web pages or specific parts of a
describes the image. The alt attribute is important page. These links are commonly known as
for accessibility, as it is displayed by assistive hyperlinks.
technologies and search engines when the image
To create a text link in HTML, you use the <a>
cannot be loaded or is unavailable.
(anchor) tag. The content placed between the
In addition to the src and alt attributes, HTML opening <a> tag and the closing </a> tag
images support various other attributes that can becomes clickable, and when a user clicks on
modify their behavior and appearance. Some that part, they are directed to the linked
commonly used attributes for images include :- document or webpage.
• width and height: These attributes specify Here's a simplified explanation:
the width and height dimensions of the
• Hyperlinks are used to connect different
image in pixels. You can set these
web pages or specific parts of a page.
attributes to control the display size of
• You can create hyperlinks using text or
the image on the webpage.
images on a webpage.
• title: The title attribute provides a tooltip • To create a text link, you use the <a>
or additional information about the image (anchor) tag in HTML.
when a user hovers over it with the • Anything placed between the opening and
cursor. It is displayed as a tooltip text. closing <a> tags becomes clickable.
• class and id: These attributes allow you to • When a user clicks on the clickable part,
assign CSS classes or unique identifiers to they are taken to the linked document or
the image element. This allows you to webpage.
apply custom styles or manipulate the For example, if you want to create a link to a
image using CSS or JavaScript. webpage called "example.html" and display the
• style: The style attribute lets you apply text "Click here" as the clickable part, you can
inline CSS styles to the image element. use the following HTML code :-
You can use it to adjust properties like <a href="example.html">Click here</a>
borders, margins, padding, or positioning.
THE TARGET ATTRIBUTE
These are just a few examples of attributes that
can be used with HTML images. Depending on In HTML, the target attribute is used to specify
your requirements, you may also utilize attributes where a linked document or resource should be
such as srcset for responsive images, loading to opened when a user clicks on a hyperlink. It
control image loading behavior, or usemap to determines the target browsing context or
associate an image with an image map for window in which the linked content will be
clickable regions. displayed.

Remember, when using images on your webpage, The target attribute can take several values :-
it's essential to consider factors such as image
• _blank: Opens the linked document or Step 1: Creating a named anchor: To designate
resource in a new browser tab or the location within the webpage where you want
window. to link to, you first need to create a named
• _self: Opens the linked document or anchor. This is done by using the <a> tag with
resource in the same browsing context or the name attribute.
window (the default behavior if the target
<a name="top"></a>
attribute is not specified).
• _parent: Opens the linked document or In this example, the <a> tag with the name
resource in the parent frame or window, attribute is placed at the top of the desired
if the current page is inside a frameset. section. The value "top" is assigned to the name
• _top: Opens the linked document or attribute, but you can choose any name you
resource in the top-level browsing prefer.
context, discarding any frames if the
Step 2: Creating a hyperlink to the named
current page is inside a frameset.
anchor: After creating the named anchor, you can
• A custom frame or window name: If you
create a hyperlink that will take the user to that
specify a custom name (e.g.,
specific section. To do this, you use the <a> tag
target="myframe"), it opens the linked
again, but with the href attribute containing the
document or resource in a specific named
"#" symbol followed by the name of the anchor.
frame or window.

Here's an example that demonstrates the usage of <a href="#top">Go to the Top</a>
the target attribute:
In this example, the <a> tag with the href
<a href="example.html" target="_blank">Open attribute is used. The value "#top" in the href
in new window</a> attribute specifies that the link should take the
user to the section with the "top" named anchor.
In this example, the linked document
"example.html" will be opened in a new browser When the link is rendered in a web browser, it
tab or window when the user clicks on the link, will display as "Go to the Top." Clicking on this
as the target attribute is set to _blank. link will scroll the page to the section where the
named anchor is placed (in this case, the top of
It's worth noting that the behavior of the target the page).
attribute can be influenced by the user's browser
settings, such as whether they have enabled pop- This technique allows you to create internal page
up blockers or overridden the default behavior. navigation within a webpage, enabling users to
Additionally, it's important to use the target jump directly to specific sections of the content.
attribute responsibly and consider the impact on It is particularly useful for long web pages or
the user experience and accessibility. articles where users may want to navigate easily
to different parts of the page.
When using the target attribute, it is
recommended to provide clear indications to
users that a link will open in a new window or HTML IMAGE LINKS
tab to avoid any confusion or unexpected
behaviors. Here's a breakdown and explanation of the code:

LINKING TO A PAGE SECTION <a href="page1.html"><img src="aa.jpg"></a>

To create a link to a specific section within a <a href="page1.html">: This part creates the
webpage, you can use the name attribute in hyperlink and specifies the destination page or
HTML. This process involves two steps: URL that the user will be directed to when they
click on the image. In this example, "page1.html"
is used as the destination, but you can replace it In this example, the <table> element represents
with the desired URL or page name. the table. Each row is defined using the <tr>
element, and within each row, cells are created
<img src="aa.jpg">: This part inserts the image using the <td> element. The browser will render
within the hyperlink. The src attribute specifies this code as a simple table with two rows and
the image source or file path. In this case, two columns:
"aa.jpg" is used as the image source, but you
Tables can contain more complex structures,
should replace it with the actual source file of
including header cells (<th>) for column
your image.
headings, spanning cells across multiple rows or
When this code is rendered in a web browser, it columns, or nested tables for advanced layouts.
will display In this example, the <table> CSS styles can also be applied to tables to control
element represents the table. Each row is their appearance, such as borders, backgrounds,
defined using the <tr> element, and within and alignment.
each row, cells are created using the <td> HTML tables are versatile and widely used for
element. The browser will render this code as a presenting data in various contexts, such as
simple table with two rows and two columns: an financial reports, schedules, pricing information,
image that is clickable. Clicking on the image and more. They provide an effective way to
will take the user to the specified destination organize and present tabular data in a structured
page (in this case, "page1.html"). and accessible manner

Here's an example with placeholders:


Cell 1,1 Cell 1,2

HTML TABLES Cell 2,1 Cell 2,2

HTML tables are used to organize and display


COLSPAN AND ROWSPAN ATTRIBUTES
tabular data in a structured grid format. They
provide a way to present data in rows and
The colspan and rowspan attributes in HTML are
columns, allowing for easy comprehension and
used to control the spanning or merging of cells
comparison of information. Tables consist of three
across multiple columns or rows within a table.
main components: table, table rows, and table
They allow you to create cells that span across
cells.
multiple columns or rows, effectively merging
To create a table in HTML, you use the <table> them into a larger cell.
element. Within the <table> element, you define
1. colspan attribute: The colspan attribute
rows using the <tr> element, and each cell
specifies the number of columns a cell
within a row is represented by the <td>
should span or occupy horizontally.
element.

Here's an example of a simple HTML table with


two rows and two columns:

In the above example, the first row contains


three cells. The second cell (Cell 2) has a
colspan attribute set to 2, which means it spans
two columns. The third cell (Cell 3) has a
colspan attribute of 3, spanning all three As shown in the table structure above, the Cell 1
columns. The resulting table will look like this: spans two rows, merging with the cells Cell 4
and Cell 6 below it.
Cell 1 Cell 2 spans 2 columns
Cell 3 spans 3 columns The rowspan attribute is useful when you want to
create cells that span multiple rows, such as
Rowspan attribute: The rowspan attribute specifies when you want to create table headers or cells
the number of rows a cell should span or occupy that encompass larger sections of data.
vertically. Note that the table structure is represented with
Example: simple ASCII characters in the example above.
When rendered in a browser, the table will be
displayed with borders around the cells due to
the border="1" attribute set on the <table> tag.

TABLE BACKGROUNDS
Using the bgcolor attribute: This attribute allows
you to set the background color for the entire
table or for individual cells within the table. It
provides a way to add a solid color as the
background.

In the example above, the bgcolor attribute is


In this example, we have a simple table with used to set the background color for the entire
three columns and three rows. The cell in the table to #e6e6e6, which is a light gray color.
first column (Cell 1) spans two rows vertically Additionally, each individual cell is given its own
using the rowspan="2" attribute. This means that background color using the bgcolor attribute.
the cell occupies the space of two rows, merging
Using the background attribute :- This attribute
with the cells below it.
allows you to set a background image for the
Here's a representation of the table structure: entire table or for individual cells within the
table. You can use an image file as the
background, providing more visual customization.
In the above example, the background attribute is height of the table, respectively. You can adjust
used to set an image file called table- these values to fit your desired dimensions.
background.jpg as the background for the entire
The table will occupy a horizontal space of 400
table. The image will be repeated across the table
pixels and a vertical space of 200 pixels. The
if it doesn't cover the entire table area.
cells within the table will adjust their size
To set the border color for the table, you can use accordingly to fit within the specified width and
the bordercolor attribute. This attribute allows height.
you to specify the color of the table border.
Note that the width and height attributes are
optional, and if not provided, the table will
adjust its dimensions based on the content it
contains. However, specifying width and height
can provide more control over the layout and
appearance of the table.

It's important to mention that setting fixed table


dimensions using width and height attributes may
affect the responsiveness of the table on different
In this example, the bordercolor attribute is used screen sizes. For responsive designs, it is often
to set the border color of the table to #ff0000, recommended to use CSS and relative units like
which is red. percentages or viewport units for width and
height, which allows the table to adapt to
TABLE WIDTH AND HEIGHT different screen sizes.

Table width and height in HTML refer to the HTML FRAMES


dimensions of a table element. The width
determines the horizontal space occupied by the HTML frames allow you to divide your web
table, while the height determines the vertical browser window into multiple sections, where
space. each section can display a separate HTML
Here's a simpler example that demonstrates document. The collection of frames in a browser
setting the width and height of a table: window is called a frameset. Similar to how
tables organize content into rows and columns,
frames divide the window into rows and columns.

To create frames in HTML, instead of using the


<body> tag, you use the <frameset> tag. The
<frameset> tag defines how the window should
be divided into frames. The rows attribute of the
<frameset> tag defines horizontal frames (rows),
and the cols attribute defines vertical frames
(columns). Each frame is indicated by the
<frame> tag, which specifies the HTML
document to be displayed within that frame.

Here's an example of creating frames using HTML

In this example, the <table> tag has the width


attribute set to "400" and the height attribute set
to "200". These values determine the width and
navigation menu (menu.htm), and the second
column fills the remaining space with the main
content (main.htm).

The target attribute is not explicitly mentioned in


the given text, but it is commonly used in
conjunction with frames. By specifying the target
attribute in links within the navigation frame,
you can define which frame the linked content
should load into. In the example, the target
In this example, we have a frameset with two
frame is named "main_page," indicating that
rows, each occupying 50% of the window's
when a link in the navigation menu is clicked,
height. The <frame> tags specify the HTML
the linked content will open in the "main" frame.
documents (frame1.html and frame2.html) to
be loaded into each frame. Each frame will Frames allow for the separation of content into
display its respective HTML document within the different sections, such as a persistent navigation
divided window. bar, and dynamic loading of content in another
frame. This approach enables simultaneous
THE FRAMESET TAG ATTRIBUTES
browsing and interaction with different parts of a
webpage.
• cols: Specifies the number of columns in
the frameset and the size of each column. However, it's important to note that the use of
• rows: Works similar to cols but specifies frames has diminished over time due to its
the rows in the frameset. drawbacks and the availability of more modern
• border: Specifies the width of the border techniques for achieving similar results, such as
around each frame. A value of zero using CSS for layout or JavaScript frameworks for
means no border. dynamic content.

Example :-
<frame> Tag Attributes:

• src: Specifies the file name or URL of the


content to be loaded in the frame.
• name: Allows you to assign a name to the
frame, indicating where a document
should be loaded.
• frameborder: Controls the display of
borders around the frame. Use
frameborder="0" to hide the border. In this example, a frameset is created with two
• noresize: Prevents users from resizing the columns specified by cols="200, *". The first
frame. column has a width of 200 pixels, while the
• scrolling: Controls the appearance of second column takes up the remaining space.
scrollbars within the frame. Options are
The frames within the frameset are defined using
"yes", "no", or "auto".
the <frame> tag. The first frame has its content
The example mentions using frames to create a loaded from menu.htm using the src attribute. It
navigation bar in one frame and loading main is assigned the name "navigation" using the name
pages into a separate frame. It demonstrates attribute. The frameborder attribute is set to "0"
creating two columns within the frameset, where to hide the frame border, and scrolling is set to
the first frame, 200 pixels wide, contains a "no" to remove scrollbars.
The second frame loads its content from messages. Created using the <textarea>
main.html and is assigned the name "content". tag.
Similar to the first frame, the frameborder
For single-line and password inputs, you use the
attribute is set to "0" and there are no scrollbars.
<input> tag with the type attribute set to "text"
This example demonstrates the usage of attributes or "password" respectively.
such as cols, src, name, frameborder, and
scrolling within a frameset. It separates the
navigation menu in one frame and the main
content in another frame, allowing for
independent scrolling and targeted loading of
content. In the example above, the first two lines
represent single-line text input and password
Note that the actual content of menu.htm and input fields respectively, while the third line
main.htm will depend on the specific represents a multi-line text input field.
implementation and the desired functionality of
the frameset. These input controls allow users to enter data
into the form, such as their username, password,
or longer messages, which can then be submitted
HTML FORMS to a backend application for processing.

Note: The name attribute is used to identify the


HTML forms are used to collect data from site
input field when the form is submitted, and the
visitors. They are commonly used for tasks like
placeholder attribute provides a hint or example
user registration, where information such as
of the expected input to the user.
name, email address, and credit card details are
collected. The data submitted through a form is
typically processed by a backend application, HTML FORM CONTROLS
which performs the necessary actions based on
the collected data. • Text Input Controls
• Checkboxes Controls
To create an HTML form, you use the <form> • Radio Box Controls
tag. It has attributes that specify the backend • Select Box Controls
script that will process the form data (action) and • File Select boxes
the method used to send the data to the backend • Hidden Controls
(method). • Clickable Buttons
• Submit and Reset Button
There are various types of form controls that can
be used to collect data :- Check Box Controls :- A checkbox control in
Text Input Controls: HTML is used to present a binary choice to the
user. It allows the user to select one or more
options from a list of choices.
• Single-line text input: Used for collecting In simpler terms, a checkbox control is like a
short inputs like names or search queries. small box that can be checked or unchecked by
Created using the <input> tag. the user. When checked, it indicates that a
• Password input: Similar to single-line text particular option is selected, and when
input, but the characters entered are unchecked, it means the option is not selected.
masked for security. Also created using
the <input> tag. Here's a code example that demonstrates the
• Multi-line text input: Used when the user usage of checkbox controls in HTML:
needs to provide longer descriptions or
A radio button control in HTML is used to
present a set of mutually exclusive choices to the
user. It allows the user to select only one option
from a group of options.

Radio buttons are like small circular buttons, and


when one radio button is selected, any previously
selected radio button within the same group is
automatically deselected.
In this example, we have three checkbox controls.
Each checkbox is created using the <input> tag Here's a definition and example of radio button
with the type attribute set to "checkbox". The id, controls, including some common attributes:
name, and value attributes are used to uniquely
identify and handle the checkbox when the form
is submitted.

The associated <label> elements provide a text


label for each checkbox option. The for attribute
of each label is set to the corresponding
checkbox's id, which associates the label with the
checkbox. Clicking on the label will also toggle
the checkbox. In this example, we have a group of radio button
controls. Each radio button is created using the
When the form is submitted, the selected
<input> tag with the type attribute set to
checkbox options will be sent to the server-side
"radio". The id, name, and value attributes are
application for further processing.
used to uniquely identify and handle the radio
Remember that each checkbox should have a buttons when the form is submitted.
unique id and name to ensure proper
The associated <label> elements provide a text
identification and handling of the selected
label for each radio button option. The for
options.
attribute of each label is set to the corresponding
Using checkbox controls in forms allows users to radio button's id, which associates the label with
make multiple selections or indicate their the radio button. Clicking on the label will also
preferences for various options, such as selecting select the corresponding radio button.
multiple items from a shopping list or choosing
To ensure that one option is pre-selected when
preferences for notification settings.
the page loads, you can add the checked
If we want a checkbox to be checked by default attribute to one of the radio buttons within the
when the page loads, you can use the checked group. In the example above, the first radio
attribute in the <input> tag. button (option1) has the checked attribute set,
indicating that it is selected by default.

The name attribute is crucial for radio buttons as


it groups them together. Only one radio button
within the same group can be selected at a time.
Radio Box Controls
By giving them the same name, you ensure that
only one option from the group can be chosen.

Radio buttons are commonly used when users


need to select a single option from a predefined
list, such as choosing a gender or selecting a You can customize the select box further by
payment method. adding attributes like selected to pre-select an
option, disabled to disable the select box, or
Feel free to modify the attributes like id, name,
additional styling using CSS to modify its
value, and checked to suit your specific needs
appearance.
and options.
SELECTING MULTIPLE VALUES
SELECT BOX CONTROL
To select multiple values from a dropdown menu
A select box control in HTML, also known as a
in HTML, you can use the <select> tag with the
dropdown menu, allows the user to choose one
multiple attribute. This creates a select box that
option from a list of predefined options. It
allows users to choose multiple options by
presents a dropdown list that expands when
holding down the Ctrl (or Command on macOS)
clicked, displaying the available options for
key while selecting.
selection.
In simpler terms, it's like a dropdown menu
In simpler terms, a select box is like a menu that
where you can select more than one option by
provides a selection of choices, and the user can
holding down a specific key.
choose one option from the list.
Here's an example of a select box that allows
Here's an example of a select box control:
multiple selections:

In this example, we have a select box created


using the <select> tag. The name attribute is
In this example, the <select> tag has the
used to identify the select box when the form is
multiple attribute, which enables the selection of
submitted.
multiple options. The name attribute identifies
Within the <select> tag, we have multiple the select box when the form is submitted.
<option> tags. Each <option> tag represents an
The <option> tags within the <select> tag
individual choice in the select box. The value
represent the individual choices in the dropdown.
attribute specifies the value associated with each
Each <option> tag has a value attribute that
option, which is sent to the server-side
specifies the value associated with the option.
application when the form is submitted. The text
When multiple options are selected, all the
within the <option> tags is the visible label for
selected values are submitted as an array.
each choice.
When the page is rendered, the select box will
When the page is rendered, the select box will
display a dropdown menu with the available
display a default option. In this case, "Red" will
options. By holding down the Ctrl (or Command)
be the initially displayed option. The user can
key and clicking on the options, the user can
click on the select box to expand the dropdown
select multiple options.
and choose a different option.
The selected options can be accessed on the
Select boxes are commonly used when there is a
server-side when the form is submitted and
list of options from which the user needs to
processed.
select one. For example, selecting a country,
choosing a category, or picking a preferred time Selecting multiple values in a dropdown is useful
slot. when you want to allow users to choose multiple
items from a list, such as selecting multiple
interests, multiple ingredients, or multiple In HTML, there are various ways to create
preferences. clickable buttons. One way is to use the <input>
tag and set its type attribute to "button". This
Note: The appearance and behavior of multiple- allows you to create a button-like element that
select dropdowns may vary across different users can click.
browsers and platforms. Additionally, consider
providing clear instructions to users indicating
that they can select multiple options by holding
down the Ctrl (or Command) key.

FILE UPLOAD BOX In this example, we have an <input> tag with


the type attribute set to "button". The value
File Upload Box: A file upload box, also known attribute specifies the text displayed on the
as a file select box, allows users to select and button.
upload files to a website. It is created using the
When the page is rendered, a clickable button
<input> element with the type attribute set to
labeled "Click Me" will be displayed. You can
"file".
add event handlers or JavaScript functions to
In simpler terms, a file upload box is like a handle actions when the button is clicked.
button that lets users choose a file from their
Clickable buttons are commonly used for form
computer and upload it to a website.
submissions, triggering specific actions, or
Example: navigating to different pages within a website.

HTML – EMBED MULTI MEDIA

Here's a simpler explanation of embedding


In this example, we have an <input> tag with multimedia in HTML using the <embed> tag and
the type attribute set to "file". The name playing background audio using the <bgsound>
attribute is used to identify the file upload tag:
control when the form is submitted. Embedding Multimedia with <embed> Tag: The
When the page is rendered, the file upload box <embed> tag in HTML allows you to add
will be displayed, allowing users to browse their multimedia, such as videos or sound, to your
computer and select a file to upload. Once the web page. It automatically provides browser
form is submitted, the selected file will be sent to controls for multimedia if the browser supports
the server-side application for processing. the <embed> tag and the specified media type.

Additional attributes can be used with the file In simpler terms, the <embed> tag is used to
upload box, such as the accept attribute, which include videos or sound in your webpage, and if
specifies the types of files the server accepts. This the browser supports it, it will display the
attribute can be set to specific file extensions or multimedia content with built-in controls.
MIME types to filter the files that can be Example:
selected.

CLICKABLE BUTTONS
In this example, we use the <embed> tag to CASCADING STYLE SHIT (CSS)
embed a video file named "video.mp4" with the
specified media type of "video/mp4". The width CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a language used
and height attributes define the dimensions of the to describe how HTML elements should look and
video player on the webpage. be displayed on a web page. It allows you to
control the appearance of various elements such
The browser will display the video and provide
as text, images, and layout.
default controls for playing, pausing, and
adjusting the playback. Instead of directly applying styles to HTML
elements, CSS provides a way to separate the
You can use different media types like Flash
presentation (how things look) from the content
movies (.swf), AVI files (.avi), MOV files (.mov),
and structure of a web page (what things are).
or MPEG files (.mpeg) within the <embed> tag
This separation makes it easier to maintain and
depending on the browser's support and the
modify websites, especially when dealing with
multimedia formats you want to embed.
large-scale projects.
Background Audio with <bgsound> Tag :-
By using CSS, you can create a set of rules or
The <bgsound> tag is used to play a soundtrack styles that define the visual aspects of your
in the background of your webpage. However, it website, such as the choice of fonts, colors,
is supported only by Internet Explorer, and most spacing, and positioning of elements. These styles
other browsers ignore this tag. can be saved in external CSS files, which can be
applied to multiple web pages at once. This
In simpler terms, the <bgsound> tag allows you
means that if you want to change the appearance
to play an audio file as background music on
of your entire website, you can simply replace
your webpage, primarily in Internet Explorer.
the style sheet, and all the pages will adopt the
Example: new styles, making it easier to update the design
or layout of your site.

THREE WAYS TO INSERT HTML IN TO A CSS


DOCUMENT

External Style Sheet: An external style sheet is a


In this example, we use the <bgsound> tag to separate CSS file that is linked to the HTML
play an audio file named "background.mp3". The document using the <link> element. This method
loop attribute is set to "infinite" to continuously allows you to define styles in a separate file and
replay the background sound whenever the user then apply them to multiple HTML pages. It
refreshes the browser. promotes re-usability and easier maintenance of
Please note that <bgsound> is only supported by styles.
Internet Explorer and is not recognized by most Example: CSS file (styles.css):
other browsers. Therefore, for cross-browser
compatibility, it is recommended to use
alternative methods, such as the HTML5 <audio>
tag with appropriate fallback options, to play
background audio on your web pages.
Internal Style Sheet: An internal style sheet is represented by the tag name without any
defined within the <style> tags in the <head> additional identifiers.
section of an HTML document. This method
allows you to apply styles specifically to that
HTML page only.

Example:

In the above example, the h1 element selector


targets all <h1> elements and sets their color to
blue. This means that every <h1> heading in the
document will have the specified style applied.

Element selectors are simple and widely used


because they allow you to apply styles to an
entire category of elements. Here are a few more
examples of element selectors :-

Inline Style Sheet: Inline styles are directly


applied to individual HTML elements using the
style attribute. This method allows you to
define styles inline with the HTML elements
themselves. It is useful for applying styles to
specific elements or overriding existing styles.

In the first example, the p selector targets all


<p> elements and sets their font size to 16
pixels. This will affect all paragraphs on the
page.

The second example targets all <a> elements


(links) and removes the default underline by
setting the text-decoration property to none.

The third example targets all <ul> elements


TYPES OF SELECTORS IN CSS
(unordered lists) and changes their bullet style to
a filled disc using the list-style-type property.
In CSS, selectors are used to target specific HTML
elements or groups of elements that you want to Element selectors are a fundamental part of CSS
apply styles to. There are various types of
and are essential for applying styles to specific
selectors available in CSS :-
HTML elements throughout your web page.

1) Element Selectors 2) CLASS SELECTORS

Element selectors in CSS are used to target Class selectors in CSS are used to target HTML
specific HTML elements based on their tag name. elements based on their assigned class attribute.
They apply styles to all instances of that element The class attribute allows you to assign a specific
throughout the document. Element selectors are name to one or multiple elements, and class
selectors are denoted by a dot (.) followed by the Class selectors offer a powerful way to apply
class name. consistent styles to multiple elements across your
web page by grouping them based on common
Class selectors provide a way to group and style
attributes. They provide flexibility and re-
elements that share the same class. This is
usability, allowing you to create more
especially useful when you want to apply the
maintainable and organized CSS code.
same styles to multiple elements without affecting
other elements on the page.

3) ID SELECTORS
In the above example, the .highlight class selector
In CSS, an ID selector is used to target a specific
targets all elements that have the highlight class.
It sets their background color to yellow. To apply HTML element based on its unique ID attribute.
this style, you need to assign the class to the The ID attribute provides a unique identifier for
desired HTML elements using the class attribute. an element within an HTML document. ID
selectors are denoted by a hash symbol (#)
followed by the ID value.

ID selectors are unique to each element and


should only be used once per page. They are
particularly useful when you want to apply
In this case, the paragraph element <p> has the specific styles to a single element or when you
highlight class assigned to it. As a result, the need to target a specific element using
background color of the paragraph will be JavaScript.
yellow. Example :-
You can apply class selectors to various HTML
elements:

In the above example, the #logo ID selector


targets the HTML element with the ID attribute
set to "logo". It applies styles to that specific
element, setting its width to 200 pixels and
height to 150 pixels.

To use an ID selector, you need to assign a


In this example, the first class selector targets all unique ID to the desired HTML element using the
elements with the class button and applies a set id attribute :-
of styles to create a styled button. The second
class selector targets elements with the class
section and applies styles to create a styled
section with a border and margin.
In this HTML example, the <img> element has Example :-
the ID attribute set to "logo". As a result, the
styles defined by the #logo ID selector in the CSS
will be applied specifically to this image element.

It's important to note that ID selectors are


intended for unique identification and should not
be reused for multiple elements on the same
page. An ID should be unique within the entire In this example, the styles defined inside the
document. curly braces will be applied to all <h1>, <h2>,
and <h3> elements. This allows you to apply the
Here's another example of an ID selector :- same color (blue in this case) to all three heading
elements.

2. Class Group Selectors :- You can also


group multiple class selectors to apply the
same styles to elements with different
classes.

Example:

In this case, the #main-heading ID selector


targets the <h1> element with the ID "main-
heading" and applies specific styles such as
changing the text color to red and setting the In this example, any element with either the
font size to 24 pixels. "highlight" class or the "important" class will
have a yellow background color applied to it.
ID selectors are powerful tools to target specific
elements within an HTML document. They 3. ID Group Selectors: Grouping ID selectors
provide a way to apply unique styles or behavior is not common because IDs are unique
to individual elements, making them particularly and should only be used once per page.
useful in cases where you need to differentiate However, you can still group them to
and style elements based on their unique apply shared styles if needed.
characteristics. Example:

GROUP SELECTORS

In CSS, group selectors allow you to apply the


same styles to multiple selectors at once.
Grouping selectors is a way to simplify your CSS
code and avoid repeating the same styles for In this example, the styles specified will be
different selectors. To group selectors, you simply applied to both the element with ID "logo" and
separate them with a comma (,). the element with ID "banner".

Here's a breakdown of different types of group Group selectors offer a convenient way to apply
selectors: shared styles to multiple elements without
duplicating the CSS code. They can be used with
1. Element Group Selectors: You can group
element selectors, class selectors, ID selectors, or
multiple element selectors to apply the
any combination thereof. By grouping selectors,
same styles to multiple elements.
you can make your CSS code more concise and Example :-
maintainable.

In this example, the comment block provides a


In this example, the styles defined inside the more detailed explanation that can span multiple
curly braces will be applied to all <h1> elements, lines.
elements with the "highlight" class, and the
element with the ID "logo". The text color will Comments are not executed or compiled, so they
be blue, and the font weight will be bold for all do not affect the behavior or performance of the
these elements. program. They are solely meant for human
readability and understanding. It is good practice
COMMENT IN CSS
to include comments in your code to enhance its
clarity and facilitate future maintenance and
In C++, comments are used to add explanatory
collaboration.
notes or remarks within the source code. They
are ignored by the compiler and do not affect the
execution of the program. Comments are helpful
for documenting code, providing explanations, JAVASCRIPT
and making the code more readable and
understandable for developers. JavaScript is a high-level, interpreted
programming language primarily used for
There are two types of comments in C++ :-
developing dynamic and interactive web
1. Single-line comments: Single-line applications.
comments begin with two forward slashes
JavaScript is a versatile language that can be
(//) and continue until the end of the
executed on the client side (in a web browser) as
line. They are used to comment on a
well as on the server side (using frameworks like
single line of code or provide a brief
Node.js). It is known for its ability to manipulate
explanation.
the content, structure, and behavior of web pages
Example :- in response to user interactions.

Here are some key features and characteristics of


JavaScript :-

1. Client-Side Scripting: JavaScript is


primarily used for client-side scripting,
In the above example, the first line is a single- meaning it runs in the user's web
line comment that provides a general comment. browser. It enables web developers to
The second line includes a comment at the end create dynamic and interactive web pages
of the line to explain the purpose of the code. by handling events, and modifying the
content and appearance of web elements.
2. Multi-line comments :- Multi-line
comments, also known as block 2. Object-Oriented Programming: JavaScript
comments, begin with /* and end with */. is an object-oriented programming (OOP)
They can span multiple lines and are language, allowing developers to create
useful for adding detailed explanations or and manipulate objects that represent
temporarily disabling blocks of code. real-world entities. It supports concepts
such as encapsulation, inheritance, and window.onload event handler to execute code
polymorphism. once the entire page has finished loading :-

3. Interactivity and Event Handling: This is useful for tasks like initializing the state
JavaScript facilitates user interactions on of a web application, making AJAX requests for
web pages. It can respond to events like data, or attaching event handlers to specific
button clicks, form submissions, mouse elements on the page.
movements, and keyboard input. Through
Things that should be done when the page is
event handling, developers can trigger
closed: JavaScript also provides the ability to
specific actions or execute code in
execute code when a web page is about to be
response to these events.
closed or navigated away from. This can be
4. Cross-Browser Compatibility: JavaScript is useful for performing cleanup tasks or saving user
supported by all major web browsers, data before leaving the page. This event handler
including Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and allows you to prompt the user with a
Edge. This allows developers to write confirmation dialog before they leave the page :-
code that works consistently across
Here, you can include any necessary code to
different browsers and platforms.
handle data saving, clean up resources, or display
5. Integration with HTML and CSS: a confirmation message to the user.
JavaScript can be seamlessly integrated
Action that should be performed when a user
with HTML and CSS, the other core
clicks a button: JavaScript allows you to define
technologies of web development. It
event handlers that respond to user actions, such
enables dynamic modification of HTML
as clicking a button. By attaching an event
elements, manipulation of CSS styles, and
handler function to the button's onclick event,
the creation of interactive user interfaces.
you can specify the code that should run when
6. Extensibility and Libraries: JavaScript has the button is clicked. For example :-
a vast ecosystem of libraries and Here, you can define the desired action or
frameworks that extend its capabilities behavior that should occur when the button is
and simplify common tasks. Popular clicked, such as displaying a message, validating
libraries include jQuery, React.js, input, making AJAX requests, or updating the
AngularJS, and Vue.js, among others. page content.
JavaScript's versatility and widespread adoption Content that should be verified when a user
make it a crucial language for web development. inputs data: JavaScript can also be used to verify
It enables developers to create interactive user and validate user input in real-time. By attaching
experiences, validate form inputs, perform data event handlers to input fields, you can respond to
manipulation, communicate with servers, and user interactions, validate the entered data, and
build complex web applications. provide feedback or error messages. For example,
you can use the on input event to check the
WHAT CAN JAVASCRIPT DO ? validity of an email input field as the user
types :-
Things that should be done every time a page
loads: When a web page loads, JavaScript can be Here, you can write code to validate the entered
used to perform various tasks automatically. This email value against a specific pattern or perform
can include initializing variables, setting up event other checks. You can then update the UI to
listeners, fetching data from a server, indicate whether the input is valid or display
manipulating the page structure or content, and error messages if necessary.
much more. For example, you can use the
By utilizing event handlers in JavaScript, you can a breakdown of the different ways you can
control and respond to various user interactions include JavaScript code in your HTML:
and browser actions, ensuring a dynamic and
Inline JavaScript: You can include JavaScript code
interactive user experience on your web pages or directly within the <script> tags in your HTML
application document. This can be done within the <head>
or <body> section of the HTML.
JavaScript Program Structure: A JavaScript
program consists of variables, objects, and
functions. It is a high-level programming
language that follows an object-oriented
programming (OOP) approach.

Terminating Statements and Blocks: In JavaScript, External JavaScript: JavaScript code can be
each statement is terminated by a semicolon (;). placed in external files with a .js extension. This
Blocks of code are enclosed within curly brackets allows you to separate your JavaScript code from
{} to define their scope and separate them from the HTML, making it easier to manage and reuse.
other code blocks. Example: myScript.js
Functions and Parameters: Functions in JavaScript
are defined using the function keyword, followed
by the function name and a pair of parentheses
(). Parameters (if any) are declared inside the
parentheses. Functions are a way to encapsulate
reusable code blocks. To use an external JavaScript file, include the
<script> tag with the src attribute pointing to
Variables: Variables in JavaScript are declared the file.
using the var keyword. They can hold various
types of values, including numbers, strings, <script src="myScript.js"></script>
booleans, objects, and more. Variables are used
to store and manipulate data within a program. You can place the external script reference in the
<head> or <body> section as per your
Script Placement: JavaScript code can be
preference.
implemented within the <script>...</script>
HTML tags in a web page. The <script> tags are External References: External JavaScript files can
used to alert the browser to interpret the be referenced using a full URL or a relative path
enclosed text as JavaScript code. to the current web page.

Placement Recommendation: It is typically Example using full URL:


recommended to place the <script> tags
containing JavaScript code within the <head>
tags of the HTML document. This allows the
JavaScript code to be loaded and executed before
the body content is rendered, ensuring proper
functionality.
Example using a relative path:
POSITION OF JAVASCRIPT
JavaScript is a programming language used for
adding interactivity and dynamic functionality to
web pages. It can be embedded directly in an
HTML document using the <script> tag. Here's
Including JavaScript in your HTML allows you to • Add reminders or TODO notes for future
add interactivity, manipulate HTML elements, enhancements or fixes.
handle events, and perform various operations on
the client-side. Using external JavaScript files It is good practice to use comments effectively to
promotes code reusability, separates concerns, make your JavaScript code more understandable
and makes the HTML and JavaScript code easier and maintainable.
to read and maintain.
In JavaScript, variables are used to store and
JAVASCRIPT COMMENTS manipulate data. They serve as containers that
hold values, which can be of various types such
In JavaScript, comments are used to add
as numbers, strings, booleans, objects, or
explanatory notes or to disable certain lines of
functions. Variables in JavaScript are dynamically
code. Comments are ignored by the JavaScript
typed, meaning they can hold values of any type,
interpreter and do not affect the execution of the
and the type of a variable can be changed at any
code. They are purely for human readability and
time.
understanding.
To declare a variable in JavaScript, you use the
JavaScript supports two types of comments:
var, let, or const keyword, followed by the
1. Single-line comments: Single-line variable name. Here's the syntax:
comments start with two forward slashes
(//). Everything after the // on the same In JavaScript, variables are used to store and
line is treated as a comment and is manipulate data. They serve as containers that
ignored by the interpreter. hold values, which can be of various types such
Example: as numbers, strings, booleans, objects, or
functions. Variables in JavaScript are dynamically
// This is a single-line comment
typed, meaning they can hold values of any type,
and the type of a variable can be changed at any
Multi-line comments: Multi-line comments are
time.
enclosed between /* and */ delimiters. They can
span across multiple lines and are useful for To declare a variable in JavaScript, you use the
longer explanations or for temporarily disabling var, let, or const keyword, followed by the
blocks of code. variable name. Here's the syntax:

Example:

var is the oldest way to declare a variable. It has


function scope or global scope, meaning it is
accessible within the function or throughout the
entire program.

Comments are commonly used to: • let was introduced in ES6 (ECMAScript
2015) and provides block scope. It is
• Explain the purpose or functionality of a
limited to the block it is declared in, such
particular code segment.
as within a function or loop.
• Provide documentation and improve code
• const also came with ES6 and is used to
readability for other developers.
declare constants. Once assigned a value,
• Disable specific lines or blocks of code
the value cannot be changed.
temporarily during testing or debugging.
Examples of variable declarations and verifying if a date is entered correctly, or
assignments: ensuring that numeric fields only contain numeric
values.

Validation can be performed using different


methods and can be implemented on both the
server side and the client side.

Server-side validation is done on the web server


after the user submits the data. It involves
validating the input data on the server to ensure
Variables can be used in expressions, assigned it meets the specified requirements before
new values, and their values can be retrieved or processing or storing it. This type of validation
modified. Here are some common operations: provides a more secure and reliable approach
since the server has control over the data
processing.

Client-side validation is performed on the user's


web browser before the data is sent to the server.
It offers immediate feedback to the user and can
improve the user experience by preventing
unnecessary server requests. However, client-side
validation should not be solely relied upon, as it
can be bypassed or manipulated by the user.
JavaScript also provides shorthand notations for Server-side validation should always be used in
updating variable values: conjunction with client-side validation to ensure
data integrity.

Example :- In this example, we have a form with


three input fields: "Name," "Email," and
"Password." The JavaScript function
validateForm() is called when the form is
submitted.
It's important to note that JavaScript is case-
sensitive, so myVariable and myvariable are Inside the validateForm() function, we retrieve
treated as separate variables. It's a good practice the values of the name, email, and password
to use meaningful and descriptive names for fields using document.forms["myForm"]
variables to enhance code readability. ["name"].value, document.forms["myForm"]
["email"].value, and document.forms["myForm"]
Overall, variables in JavaScript play a crucial role
["password"].value, respectively.
in storing and manipulating data, allowing you to
create dynamic and interactive web applications. We then perform the following validations:

FORM VALIDATION IN JAVASCRIPT • Check if the name field is empty. If so,


display an alert message saying "Name is
Data validation is the process of checking and required" and return false to prevent form
ensuring that user input is accurate, complete, submission.
and suitable for its intended use. It helps ensure
• Check if the email field is empty and
that the data entered by users is valid and meets
validate its format using a regular
the expected criteria. Common validation tasks
expression. If the email is empty, display
include checking if all required fields are filled,
an alert message saying "Email is
required." If the email format is invalid, If all the validations pass, we display an alert
display an alert message saying "Invalid message saying "Form submitted successfully!"
email format." Return false in both cases and return true to allow the form to be
to prevent form submission. submitted.

• Check if the password field is at least 8 This example covers basic form validation tasks
characters long. If the password is less such as checking for required fields, validating
than 8 characters, display an alert email format, and ensuring a minimum password
message saying "Password must be at length.
least 8 characters long" and return false
to prevent form submission.
PHP
Variables in PHP

In simpler terms, variables in PHP are like


containers that can hold different types of data.
You can give a variable a name and assign a
value to it using the assignment operator (=).

In PHP, you create a variable by starting with


the dollar sign ($) followed by the variable name.
For example, $txt is a variable that can hold a
string, $x can hold an integer, and $y can hold a
floating-point number.

Unlike some other programming languages, you


don't need to explicitly declare a variable in PHP.
It is created automatically when you assign a
value to it.

There are some rules for naming variables in


PHP:

• A variable name must start with a letter


or an underscore.
• A variable name cannot start with a
number.
• A variable name can only contain letters,
numbers, and underscores.
• Variable names are case-sensitive, so $age
and $AGE are considered as two different
variables.

You can output the value of a variable using the


echo statement. It allows you to display text
along with the value of a variable. For example,
echo "I am following $txt!"; will output "I am
following Ethio Programming!".

One important thing to note is that PHP is a


loosely typed language, which means you don't
need to explicitly specify the data type of a • In the second line, we declare a variable
variable. PHP automatically determines the data named $num1 and assign it the value 78.
type based on the value assigned to the variable. This variable holds an integer.
This is different from languages like C, C++, and • In the third line, we declare a variable
Java, where you have to declare the variable's named $num2 and assign it the value
name and type before using it. 67.43. This variable holds a floating-point
number.
• The echo statement is used to output a
message. In this case, we output the
string "Hello all" followed by the value of
$txt. The variable $txt is embedded
within the string using double quotes and
the variable name is preceded by a dollar
In the first line, we declare a variable named sign ($).
$txt and assign it the value "I love Ethiopia!!!". • When the code is executed, it will display
This variable holds a string. the following output: "Hello all I love
Ethiopia!!!". The string "Hello all" is
• In the second line, we declare a variable
displayed first, followed by the value of
named $num1 and assign it the value 78.
$txt.
This variable holds an integer.
• In the third line, we declare a variable
named $num2 and assign it the value PHP VARIABLE SCOPE
67.43. This variable holds a floating-point
number. In PHP, there are three different variable scopes:
• The echo statement is used to output the local, global, and static. Here's an explanation of
value of variables. In this case, we each:
concatenate (join together) the value of
1. Local Scope:
$txt, a space " ", and the value of
$num1. The dot (.) is used for • Variables declared within a function are
concatenation. considered to have a local scope.
• When the code is executed, it will display • Local variables can only be accessed and
the following output: "I love Ethiopia!!! used within the function in which they
78". The value of $txt is displayed first, are declared.
followed by a space, and then the value • They are not accessible outside the
of $num1. function or in other functions unless
explicitly passed as arguments or returned
So, the code assigns values to variables and then
from the function.
outputs a string and an integer value using the
2. Global Scope:
echo statement.
• Variables declared outside of any
function, at the top-level of the script,
have a global scope.
• Global variables can be accessed and used
from anywhere within the script,
including inside functions.
• To use a global variable inside a function,
• In the first line, we declare a variable you need to explicitly declare it as global
named $txt and assign it the value "I love within the function before using it.
Ethiopia!!!". This variable holds a string. 3. Static Scope:
• Static variables are a special type of local
variables that retain their values between
function calls.
• Unlike regular local variables, static
variables do not lose their values when
the function execution ends.
• The variable is initialized only once, on
the first execution of the function, and
retains its value in subsequent calls.
• Static variables are often used when you
need to maintain some information or
state across multiple function calls.

Imagine you have a special type of box called a


"static box." This box is different from regular In this example, we have a function called
boxes because it can remember its contents even printCount() that contains a static variable named
after you close it. Every time you open the box, count. The printCount() function increments the
you will find the same things inside that you put value of count by 1 and prints its current value.
in the first time.
When we call the printCount() function multiple
In programming, static variables work similarly. times from the main() function, the static variable
They are like special boxes that remember their count retains its value between the function calls.
values between different function calls. When a It is initialized only once, on the first execution
function finishes executing, regular variables lose of the printCount() function. In subsequent calls,
their values and are reset. But static variables are the value of count is not reset to 0 but rather
like those special boxes that keep their contents continues from where it left off.
intact even after the function ends.
So, when we run the program, we will see the
When you use a static variable in a function, it is count increasing by 1 each time the printCount()
initialized only once, the first time the function is function is called. The static variable count
called. After that, it retains its value in every remembers its value across different calls to the
subsequent call. This is useful when you want to function.
maintain some information or keep track of a
state that needs to be remembered across
multiple function calls.

So, static variables provide a way to store and


remember values that can be accessed and
modified each time a function is called, ensuring
that the value is retained for future use. Now, let's look at the code you provided and
explain the issue related to variable scoping:
In this code, you have declared two global Overall, both echo and print serve the same
variables $x and $y outside the function. Then, purpose of outputting data to the screen. They
inside the add() function, you are trying to access are interchangeable in most cases, and the choice
and use these variables. However, you will between them often comes down to personal
encounter an error because within the function's preference or specific use cases. If you need to
scope, the variables $x and $y are not recognized output multiple values or variables, echo is more
as global variables automatically. suitable. If you require the return value for
expressions, print can be used.
To fix this, you need to explicitly declare them
as global within the function using the global
keyword:

ECHO AND PRINT STATEMENT

Let's define the differences between the echo and


print statements in more detail:

Return Value:

echo has no return value. It simply outputs the


specified content to the screen. print has a return
value of 1, which allows it to be used in In the above examples, we are using the echo
expressions. This means that you can assign the and print statements to output text to the screen.
value returned by print to a variable or use it Both statements can be used to display text or
within an expression. HTML markup. The main difference between echo
and print is that echo does not have a return
Parameter Handling: value, while print has a return value of 1, which
allows it to be used in expressions.
echo can accept multiple parameters, separated
by commas. This means that you can pass In Example 1, we use the echo statement to
multiple values or variables to echo to be output various lines of text and HTML markup.
displayed. print can only accept a single Each statement is enclosed in double quotes ("")
argument. It does not support multiple and can be concatenated using the dot (.)
parameters. If you try to pass multiple values to operator.
print, you will encounter a syntax error.
In Example 2, we use the print statement to
achieve the same output as Example 1. Similar to
Speed: echo, we can include HTML markup or plain text
within the print statement. However, note that
In terms of performance, echo is marginally faster
print can only accept a single argument.
than print. The difference in speed is usually
negligible, but in large-scale applications with In Example 3, we demonstrate the usage of both
heavy usage of output statements, this slight echo and print statements interchangeably. We
performance advantage of echo can make a show that parentheses are optional for both echo
difference. and print.
When running the code, the text and HTML $y = false;
markup specified in the echo or print statements
will be displayed on the screen, producing the Array: An array is a collection of values stored in
expected output. a single variable. It allows you to store multiple
values of different data types in an ordered or
DATA TYPE IN PHP associative manner. Here's an example:

In PHP, data types specify the type of data that a $cars = array("Volvo", "BMW", "Toyota");
var_dump($cars);
variable can hold. PHP supports several data
types, including strings, integers, floats, booleans,
arrays, objects, NULL, and resources. NULL: NULL is a special data type that represents
Understanding these data types is essential for the absence of a value. It is often used to
working with data and performing various indicate that a variable has no value assigned to
operations in PHP. it. Here's an example:

PHP Data Types: $x = null;


var_dump($x);
String: A string is a sequence of characters
enclosed in quotes. It can be created using single In the examples above, the var_dump() function
quotes ('') or double quotes (""). Strings can is used to display the data type and value of the
contain letters, numbers, symbols, and special variables. It helps in understanding the data type
characters. Here's an example: of a variable and its current value.

By utilizing these different data types, you can


store, manipulate, and process various kinds of
data in PHP, making your code more flexible and
powerful.

STRING IN PHP
Integer: An integer is a non-decimal number GET THE LENGTH OF A STRING
without a decimal point. It can be either positive
or negative. PHP integers can be specified in In PHP, a string is a sequence of characters, such
decimal, hexadecimal, or octal formats. Here's an as "Hello world!". Strings are commonly used to
example: store and manipulate text data in PHP.

$x = 5985; To determine the length of a string, PHP provides


var_dump($x); the strlen() function. The strlen() function counts
the number of characters in a given string and
Float: A float, also known as a floating-point returns that value.
number, is a number with a decimal point or in
For example, if we have the string "Hello
exponential form. It represents fractional values.
Here's an example: world!", we can use the strlen() function to find
its length and display it:
$x = 10.365;
<?php
var_dump($x);
echo strlen("Hello world!"); // outputs 12
?>
Boolean: A boolean represents two possible states:
TRUE or FALSE. It is often used for conditional In this example, the strlen("Hello world!")
statements and logical operations. Here's an
statement returns the value 12 because the string
example:
"Hello world!" consists of 12 characters. The
echo statement then displays the result.
$x = true;
By using the strlen() function, you can easily The strrev() function is useful when you need to
determine the length of a string in PHP, which reverse a string, such as when you want to
can be helpful for various string manipulation display a string in reverse order or perform
tasks. specific operations that require the reversed
string.
COUNT THE NUMBER OF STRINGS IN A STRING

In PHP, you can count the number of words in a SEARCH FOR A SPECIFIC TEXT WITH IN A
string using the str_word_count() function. This STRING
function takes a string as input and returns the
count of words present in that string. In PHP, you can search for a specific text within
a string using the strpos() function. This function
For example, let's consider the string "Hello
takes two parameters: the string to search within
world!". We can use the str_word_count()
and the text you want to find.
function to count the number of words in it:
For example, let's consider the string "Hello
<?php
world!". We can use the strpos() function to
echo str_word_count("Hello world!"); // outputs
2 ?> search for the text "world" within this string:

<?php
In this example, the str_word_count("Hello echo strpos("Hello world!", "world"); // outputs 6
world!") statement returns the value 2 because ?>
the string "Hello world!" contains two words,
"Hello" and "world". The echo statement then In this example, the strpos("Hello world!",
displays the result. "world") statement searches for the text "world"
within the string "Hello world!". Since "world" is
The str_word_count() function is useful when you
found starting at the 6th character of the string,
need to count the number of words in a string,
the function returns the character position 6. The
which can be helpful in tasks such as text
echo statement then displays this result.
analysis, word processing, or word frequency
calculations. If the text you are searching for is not found
within the string, the strpos() function will return
REVERSE A STRING
FALSE. This can be useful for checking if a
specific text exists within a string.
In PHP, you can reverse a string using the
strrev() function. This function takes a string as The strpos() function is commonly used when you
input and returns the reversed version of that need to locate the position of a specific substring
string. within a larger string and perform certain
operations based on its position.
For example, let's consider the string "Hello
world!". We can use the strrev() function to
reverse it: REPLACE TEXT WITH IN A STRING

<?php In PHP, you can replace specific characters or


echo strrev("Hello world!"); // outputs !dlrow
text within a string using the str_replace()
olleH ?>
function. This function takes three parameters:
In this example, the strrev("Hello world!") the characters or text you want to replace, the
statement returns the reversed version of the replacement characters or text, and the original
string "Hello world!", which is "!dlrow olleH". string.
The echo statement then displays the reversed For example, let's consider the string "Hello
string. world!". We can use the str_replace() function to
replace the text "world" with "Ethio" within this • str_replace("world", "Ethio", "Hello
string: world!") replaces the text "world" with
"Ethio" in the string "Hello world!",
<?php
resulting in "Hello Ethio!".
echo str_replace("world", "Ethio", "Hello
world!"); // outputs Hello Ethio!
?>
REQUIRE AND INCLUDE IN PHP
In this example, the str_replace("world", "Ethio",
The PHP include statement is used to include the
"Hello world!") statement replaces the text
content of another file within the current PHP
"world" with "Ethio" within the string "Hello
file. This allows you to reuse common code or
world!". The resulting string becomes "Hello
markup across multiple pages of a website. The
Ethio!". The echo statement then displays this
included file can contain PHP code, HTML, or
modified string.
plain text.
The str_replace() function is useful when you
There are two similar statements in PHP for
need to replace specific characters or text
including files: include and require. The main
patterns within a string with something else. It
difference between them is how they handle
can be handy for tasks like find-and-replace
failures:
operations or modifying the content of a string
based on certain criteria. 1. include: If the included file is not found,
PHP will generate a warning
Example :-
(E_WARNING) but continue executing the
script.
2. require: If the included file is not found,
PHP will generate a fatal error
(E_COMPILE_ERROR) and stop executing
the script.

It is recommended to use require when including


key files that are necessary for the flow of
This block of PHP code is embedded within the execution, as it ensures that the script doesn't
HTML document using the <?php ?> tags. Inside continue if the required file is missing. For less
the PHP code, several functions are used: critical files, such as reusable components like
headers, footers, or menus, you can use include.
• strlen("Hello world!") returns the length
of the string "Hello world!", which is 12. The syntax for including files is as follows:
• str_word_count("Hello world!") counts
include 'filename';
the number of words in the string "Hello
world!", which is 2. require 'filename';
• strrev("Hello world!") reverses the string
"Hello world!", resulting in "!dlrow In the above syntax, 'filename' should be replaced
olleH". with the path and name of the file you want to
• strpos("Hello world!", "world") searches include. This can be a relative or absolute path
for the text "world" within the string depending on the location of the file.
"Hello world!" and returns the position of
Including files can greatly simplify your code and
the first occurrence, which is 6.
make it more maintainable. For example, you can
create a header.php file that contains the header
markup and PHP code, and then include it in all
your web pages. This way, if you need to update
the header, you only need to modify the where a variable is accessible and can be
header.php file, and the changes will be reflected used. When you include a file, the
across all pages that include it. included file inherits the variable scope of
the file that includes it.
Here's an example of including a file named
header.php: 3. Accessing Variables: Once the file is
included, you can access the variables
defined within it using their names. For
example, if the included file defines a
variable named $name, you can use it in
the including file as if it were defined
there directly. Here's an example:

include 'variables.php';

echo "Hello, " . $name . "!"; // Accessing the


$name variable from the included file

In the example above, the header.php, In this example, the $name variable from the
navigation.php, and footer.php files are included variables.php file is accessed and concatenated
within the HTML structure. This allows you to with the string "Hello, " to produce the output.
separate the common elements of your website 4. Modifying Variables: You can also modify
into separate files for easier maintenance and the included variables within the
reusability. including file. Any changes made to the
Remember to use the appropriate include variables will affect their values in the
statement (include or require) based on the included file as well. For example:
importance of the included file to your include 'variables.php';
application's execution flow.
$age += 5; // Modifying the $age variable from
the included file
USING VARIABLES FROM THE INCLUDED FILE
In this example, the $age variable from the
When you include a file in PHP, any variables
variables.php file is incremented by 5 within the
defined within that file become accessible in the
including file.
file that includes it. This allows you to use and
manipulate those variables as if they were It's important to note that including files should
defined directly in the including file. be done with caution to avoid naming conflicts
or unexpected behavior. Ensure that the included
Here's how it works in detail:
file does not redefine variables that are already
1. Including the File: To include a file and in use in the including file to avoid conflicts.
make its variables accessible, you can use
Example: Assume you have an variables.php file
the include or require statement followed
with the following contents :-
by the file path. For example:

include 'variables.php';

This includes the file named variables.php and


makes its variables available in the current file.

2. Variable Scope: PHP follows a concept


called variable scope, which determines
To establish a connection between PHP and
MySQL, you need the following information:

1. Hostname: The server name where the


MySQL database is hosted.
2. Username: The username used to access
the MySQL database.
3. Password: The password associated with
the username.
4. Database Name: The name of the specific
database you want to connect to.

Once you have this information, you can use the


following steps to establish a connection :

1. Open a PHP script: Start by opening a


PHP script where you will write your
PHP DATABASE CONNECTIVITY
code.
MySQL is a popular database management system
2. Establish the connection: Use the
used in web development to store and manage
mysqli_connect() function to establish a
data. It is a server-based database system,
meaning it runs on a server and can be accessed connection between PHP and MySQL. Pass
by multiple clients. in the hostname, username, password,
and database name as parameters. This
MySQL organizes data in tables, which are function returns a connection object that
structured collections of related data. Each table you can use to interact with the database.
consists of columns (fields) and rows (records).
For example, in a company's database, there may 3. Check the connection: After establishing
be tables for employees, products, customers, and the connection, it is essential to verify if
orders. The tables allow for efficient storage, the connection was successful. You can
retrieval, and manipulation of data in a use the mysqli_connect_error() function to
structured manner. check for any connection errors. If there
are no errors, you can proceed with
Using MySQL, developers can create databases, executing your database queries.
define tables with appropriate columns and data
types, perform queries to retrieve specific data, 4. Perform database operations: Once the
insert new records, update existing records, and connection is established and validated,
delete unwanted data. It provides a robust and you can execute SQL queries using the
reliable foundation for managing data in web connection object. You can use functions
applications. like mysqli_query() to execute queries and
retrieve results from the database.
CREATING A CONNECTION
5. Close the connection: After completing
When developing web applications, it is common your database operations, it is good
to interact with a MySQL database to store and practice to close the connection using the
retrieve data. PHP provides built-in functions and mysqli_close() function. This helps free up
extensions to establish a connection between PHP system resources and ensures proper
and MySQL, allowing you to perform database termination of the connection.
operations seamlessly.

Establishing a Connection with PHP and MySQL:


In this example, the code establishes a connection
to the MySQL database using the provided server
name, username, password, and database name.
If the connection is successful, it displays the
message "Connected successfully." If there is an
error connecting to the database, it will display In the above code, replace "your_username" and
the specific error message using the "your_password" with your actual MySQL
mysqli_connect_error() function. credentials. The code establishes a connection to
the MySQL server using the mysqli_connect
Remember to replace "your_username",
function. If the connection is successful, it
"your_password", and "your_database" with your
executes an SQL query to create a new database
actual MySQL credentials and database name for
with the name specified in the $databaseName
the code to work correctly.
variable.
CREATE A DATABASE If the database creation is successful, it displays
the message "Database created successfully."
In PHP, you can use the MySQLi extension to
Otherwise, it outputs an error message with the
create a new database on a MySQL server. The
specific error details.
MySQLi extension provides a set of functions
specifically designed for interacting with MySQL Remember to close the connection using
databases. To create a database, you need to mysqli_close($conn) to free up resources after
establish a connection to the MySQL server and you're done with the database operations.
execute an SQL query to create the database.
CREATE A TABLE
Here's an example code snippet that demonstrates
how to create a MySQL database using PHP :- When working with a MySQL database, you often
need to create tables to store your data. Tables
consist of columns (fields) and rows (records).
Each column represents a specific attribute, and
each row represents a set of values for those
attributes.

To create a table in MySQL, you can use the


CREATE TABLE statement. This statement allows
you to define the table's structure, including the
column names, data types, constraints, and more.

Here's an example code snippet that demonstrates


how to create a table named "employee" with
four columns: "id", "firstname", "lastname", • The SQL query must be quoted in PHP.
"email", and "reg_date". The "id" column is set • String values inside the SQL query must
as the primary key, and the "reg_date" column be quoted using single quotes ('') or
has the data type of TIMESTAMP: double quotes ("").
• Numeric values should not be quoted.
• The keyword NULL (for inserting NULL
values) should not be quoted.

Now let's see an example code snippet that


demonstrates how to insert a new record into the
"employee" table:

In the above code, replace "your_username",


"your_password", and "your_database" with your
actual MySQL credentials and the name of your
database.
In the above code, replace "your_username",
The code establishes a connection to the MySQL
"your_password", and "your_database" with your
server using mysqli_connect, and if the
actual MySQL credentials and the name of your
connection is successful, it executes the SQL
database.
query to create the "employee" table. The result
is then checked, and appropriate success or error The code establishes a connection to the MySQL
messages are displayed. server using mysqli_connect, and if the
connection is successful, it executes the SQL
Finally, remember to close the connection using
query to insert a new record into the "employee"
mysqli_close to free up resources after you're
table. The result is then checked, and appropriate
done with the database operations.
success or error messages are displayed.
INSERT IN TO A TABLE
Remember to adjust the column names and the
Once you have created a database and a table
corresponding values in the VALUES clause
with the desired structure, you can start adding
according to your table structure and the data
data to the table. The INSERT INTO statement is
you want to insert.
used to insert new records into a MySQL table.
Finally, don't forget to close the connection using
Here are some important points to keep in mind
mysqli_close to free up resources after you're
when inserting data:
done with the database operations.
Note that if a column is set as
AUTO_INCREMENT (like the "id" column in our
example) or TIMESTAMP, you don't need to
include it in the column list or specify a value in
the SQL query. MySQL will automatically handle
it for you.

SELECT STATEMENT

Once you have established a connection to the


MySQL database, you can use the SELECT
statement to retrieve data from one or more
tables. The SELECT statement allows you to
specify the columns you want to fetch from the
table.

Here are the key points to understand:

• The SELECT statement is structured as


follows: SELECT column_name(s) FROM
table_name.
• You can use the asterisk (*) character to In the above code, replace "your_username",
select all columns from a table. "your_password", and "your_database" with your
• After executing the SELECT statement, actual MySQL credentials and the name of your
you can fetch the result using functions database.
like mysqli_query() and The code establishes a connection to the MySQL
mysqli_fetch_assoc(). server using mysqli_connect, and if the
Now let's see an example code snippet that connection is successful, it executes the SQL
demonstrates how to select data from the query to select the "id", "firstname", and
"employee" table and display the results: "lastname" columns from the "employee" table.
The result is stored in the $result variable.

We then check if any rows are returned using


mysqli_num_rows, and if there are results, we
iterate over each row using mysqli_fetch_assoc
and display the desired information.

If no rows are returned, the message "0 results"


is displayed. Finally, don't forget to close the
connection using mysqli_close to free up
resources after you're done with the database
operations.

UPDATE STATEMENT

Once you have established a connection to the


MySQL database, you can use the UPDATE
statement to modify existing records in a table.
The UPDATE statement allows you to specify the
columns you want to update and the new values
for those columns. You can also use the WHERE
clause to specify which records should be updated "Employee" table. It specifies the new value for
based on certain conditions. the "lastname" column as "Astegnachew" for the
record with an "id" of 11.
Here are the key points to understand:
If the update is successful, it displays the
• The UPDATE statement is structured as
message "Record updated successfully".
follows: UPDATE table_name SET
Otherwise, it displays an error message along
column1=value1, column2=value2, ...
with the MySQL error information. Finally, don't
WHERE some_column=some_value.
forget to close the connection using mysqli_close
• The SET keyword is used to assign new
to free up resources after you're done with the
values to the specified columns.
database operations.
• The WHERE clause specifies the condition
that determines which records should be DELETE STATEMENT
updated. If you omit the WHERE clause,
all records in the table will be updated. Once you have established a connection to the
MySQL database, you can use the DELETE
Now let's see an example code snippet that statement to remove records from a table. The
demonstrates how to update a record in the DELETE statement allows you to specify a
"Employee" table: condition using the WHERE clause to determine
which records should be deleted. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be
deleted.

Here are the key points to understand:

• The DELETE statement is structured as


follows: DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column = some_value.
• The FROM keyword specifies the table
from which records should be deleted.
• The WHERE clause specifies the condition
that determines which records should be
deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause,
all records in the table will be deleted.

Now let's see an example code snippet that


demonstrates how to delete a record from the
"Employee" table:

In the above code, replace "your_username",


"your_password", and "your_database" with your
actual MySQL credentials and the name of your
database.

The code establishes a connection to the MySQL


server using mysqli_connect, and if the
connection is successful, it executes the SQL
query to update the "lastname" column in the
• The form data is visible in the URL,
which means it can be bookmarked and
shared.
• GET requests are limited in the amount of
data they can send. URLs have a
maximum length, and the data should be
kept within that limit.
• This method is suitable for forms that
retrieve data or perform read operations.
• In PHP, the form data submitted via the
GET method can be accessed using the
$_GET superglobal array.

POST Method:

• When the method attribute of a form is


set to "POST", the form data is sent as
In the above code, replace "your_username", part of the HTTP request body.
"your_password", and "your_database" with your • The form data is not visible in the URL,
actual MySQL credentials and the name of your making it more secure and suitable for
database. sending sensitive information like
passwords.
The code establishes a connection to the MySQL
• POST requests can handle large amounts
server using mysqli_connect, and if the
of data as they are not limited by URL
connection is successful, it executes the SQL
length restrictions.
query to delete the record from the "Employee"
• This method is suitable for forms that
table where the "id" is 6.
submit data and perform write operations.
If the deletion is successful, it displays the • In PHP, the form data submitted via the
message "Record deleted successfully". Otherwise, POST method can be accessed using the
it displays an error message along with the $_POST superglobal array.
MySQL error information. Finally, don't forget to
• In both cases, the form data can be
close the connection using mysqli_close to free
accessed in PHP by referring to the name
up resources after you're done with the database
attribute of the form fields. For example,
operations.
$_GET['fieldname'] or $_POST['fieldname'].
DEALING WITH FORMS IN PHP
It's important to consider the nature of the data
being transmitted and the security requirements
In HTML forms, the method attribute specifies
when choosing between the GET and POST
how the form data will be sent to the server.
methods in HTML forms. GET is commonly used
There are two commonly used methods: GET and
for simple and non-sensitive data retrieval, while
POST.
POST is suitable for transmitting larger data or
GET Method: sensitive information.
• When the method attribute of a form is Dealing with forms in PHP involves handling user
set to "GET", the form data is appended input from HTML forms and processing that data
to the URL as query parameters. on the server side. PHP provides various
functions and techniques to handle form data,
validate inputs, and perform necessary actions
based on the submitted form data. • Validate and sanitize the form data to
ensure it meets your desired criteria and
Here is a step-by-step explanation of how to deal
is secure for further processing.
with forms in PHP :-

HTML Form :- • Perform necessary actions based on the


form data, such as storing it in a
• Start by creating an HTML form using the
database, sending an email, generating a
<form> element.
response, etc.
• Specify the form's method attribute as
either "GET" or "POST" to determine how
• You can also redirect the user to another
the form data will be sent to the server.
page or display a success/failure message
• Set the form's action attribute to specify
after processing the form.
the URL or PHP file that will process the
form data. Now, let's see an example of a simple HTML
form and its corresponding PHP form processing
Input Fields: code:

• Inside the <form> element, add input Now, let's see an example of a simple HTML
fields such as text fields, checkboxes, form and its corresponding PHP form processing
radio buttons, dropdown menus, etc., code:
using appropriate HTML input elements
HTML Form (index.html):
like <input>, <textarea>, <select>, etc.
• Assign a unique name attribute to each
input field. This name will be used to
identify the form field when processing
the form data in PHP.

Submit Button:

• Include a submit button inside the form


using the <input> element with the type
attribute set to "submit".
• The submit button allows the user to
submit the form data to the server.
PHP Form Processing:
PHP Form Processing (process.php):
• Create a separate PHP file that will
handle the form data once it is submitted.

• In the PHP file, you can access the form


data using the $_POST or $_GET
superglobal array, depending on the
form's method attribute.

• Retrieve the values of form fields using


the $_POST['fieldname'] or
$_GET['fieldname'] syntax, where In the above example, when the user submits the
'fieldname' is the name attribute of the form, the form data is sent to the "process.php"
file using the POST method. In "process.php", the
input field.
form data is retrieved using the $_POST Here's a brief overview of how it works:
superglobal array.
1. Create an HTML form: Build an HTML
Get the id of the last record item and insert form with input fields that allow users to
multiple records enter their search criteria. For example,
you can have text fields, dropdown
To get the ID of the last inserted record in PHP, menus, checkboxes, or radio buttons.
you can use the mysqli_insert_id() function. This
function retrieves the automatically generated ID 2. Submit the form: When the user submits
that was used in the last query. the form by clicking a submit button, the
form data is sent to a PHP script for
Here's an example that demonstrates inserting processing.
multiple records into a MySQL database using
PHP and obtaining the ID of the last inserted 3. Process the form data: In the PHP script,
record :- retrieve the form data using the $_GET or
$_POST superglobal arrays, depending on
the method used in the form (GET or
POST). Store the form data in variables
for further use.

4. Construct the SELECT query: Use the form


data stored in variables to construct a
dynamic SELECT query that retrieves data
from the database based on the user's
input. You can use conditions, filters, and
placeholders in the query to ensure proper
data retrieval.

5. Execute the SELECT query: Execute the


SELECT query using a database connection
and fetch the results.

6. Display the results: Use PHP to process


and display the retrieved data on the
webpage. This can be done by iterating
over the result set and formatting the
In this example, we establish a connection to the data in a suitable way, such as in a table
MySQL database and then execute an INSERT or list.
query to insert multiple records into the
Here's an example that demonstrates a simple
"employees" table. After the query is executed
successfully, we retrieve the last inserted ID using HTML form with a SELECT statement in PHP:
the mysqli_insert_id() function and display it as
output.

SELECT STATEMENT WITH HTML FORM

Using a SELECT statement with an HTML form


allows users to input values and retrieve data
from a database based on those inputs. It enables
dynamic filtering and retrieval of specific data
based on user preferences or search criteria.
The form above contains two input fields:
"Name" (a text field) and "Category" (a dropdown
menu). The form's action is set to "search.php",
which is the PHP script that will process the
form data and execute the SELECT query.

In the "search.php" file, you would handle the


form submission and construct the SELECT query
based on the submitted values. You can access
the form data using $_POST['name'] and
$_POST['category'] to retrieve the user's inputs.
Then, you can use these values in your SELECT
query to filter and retrieve data from the
database accordingly.

Here's an example of a PHP script that handles


the form submission and performs a SELECT
query based on the user's input:

In this example, we assume that you have a table


named "products" in your database with columns
"name", "category", and "price". Adjust the table
and column names according to your database
structure.

When the form is submitted, the PHP script


retrieves the form data ($name and $category),
validates and sanitizes the inputs (not shown in
this example), creates a database connection,
constructs the SELECT query with the user's
inputs, executes the query, and displays the
results in an HTML table.

DELETE STATEMENT WITH HTML FORM

Here's an example of an HTML form (delete.html)


that allows the user to input the ID of the record
they want to delete :-
In this HTML form, we have a text input field
where the user can enter the ID of the record
In this example, we assume that you have a table
they want to delete. The form has an action
named "products" in your database with a
attribute set to delete.php, which is the PHP
column named "id" as the primary key. Adjust
script that will handle the form submission and
the table and column names according to your
perform the delete operation.
database structure.
Make sure to save this HTML code in a file
When the form is submitted, the PHP script
named delete.html. When the form is submitted,
retrieves the form data ($productID), validates
it will send the entered product ID to the
and sanitizes the input (not shown in this
delete.php script for further processing.
example), creates a database connection,
Here's an example of a PHP script that handles constructs the DELETE query using the user's
the form submission and performs a DELETE input, executes the query, and displays the
query based on the user's input :- success message or the error message, if any.

UPDATE STATEMENT WITH HTML


FORM

Here's an example of an HTML form


(update.html) that allows the user to update a
record by entering the product ID and the new
quantity:

In this HTML form, we have two input fields.


The first one is for the product ID, which is used
to identify the record to update. The second field Finally, we close the database connection using
is for the new quantity that will be updated. mysqli_close().

The form has an action attribute set to Make sure to save this PHP code in a file named
update.php, which is the PHP script that will update.php and ensure that you have the correct
handle the form submission and perform the database credentials and table structure in place.
update operation.

Make sure to save this HTML code in a file SESSIONS IN PHP ?


named update.html. When the form is submitted,
it will send the entered product ID and new Sessions in PHP allow you to store and retrieve
quantity to the update.php script for further data across multiple requests from the same user.
processing. A session is a way to keep track of user
information as they navigate through your
website or web application. It enables you to
store user-specific data, such as login credentials,
shopping cart contents, or user preferences.

In this PHP script, we first establish a connection


to the database using the provided credentials.
Then, we check if the form is submitted using
$_SERVER["REQUEST_METHOD"]. If it is, we
retrieve the values of product_id and quantity
from the $_POST superglobal.

Next, we construct an SQL query to update the


products table with the new quantity for the
specified product ID. We use the mysqli_query()
function to execute the query. If the update is
successful, we display a success message. In this example, the delete.html file contains an
Otherwise, we display an error message along HTML form that submits the ID to the delete.php
with the error details. script. The ID value is then retrieved from the
session in delete.php. The script establishes a
database connection and constructs the DELETE
query using the retrieved ID. Finally, the script
executes the DELETE query to delete the record
from the database.

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