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Q1 Explain the rise of NGOs and their relevance and role in International Relations.

Ans. Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) is a term that has become widely accepted

as referring to a legally constituted, Non-governmental organization created by natural

or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases

in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its
Nongovernmental status and excludes government representatives from membership in

the organization. Unlike the term intergovernmental organization, "non-governmental

organization" is a term in general use but is not a legal definition. In many jurisdictions

these types of organization are defined as "Civil Society Organizations” or referred to by

other names.

Transnational relations are those that do not involve activities between

governments only. Trans-governmental relations are those that involve connections

between one branch of government in one state and a branch of government is another

country and which do not go through the normal foreign policy-making channels.
International relations today cover all these relationships-inter-governmental, trans-

national and Trans - governmental.

International organizations are those which formalize relations whether between

governments, groups or individuals. International institutions are forms of organizations

that express, as Maurice Duverger states, “the collective forms or basic structures of

social organizations as established by law or by human tradition".

An international organization represents a form of institution which refers to a formal

system of rules and objectives a "rationalized administrative instrument and has a formal

technical and material organization, Constitutions, local chapters, physical equipments,

machines, emblems-an administrative hierarchy, and so forth".

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The terms organization' and 'institution' are used interchangeably by many writers.

However, an institution, in Duverger definition, has a wider use that encompasses the
nation of a system of relationships that may not manifest themselves in formal

organizations of bricks and mortar and an international staff, etc. An institutional

framework adds-'stability, durability and cohesiveness' to individual relationships which

might otherwise be 'sporadic, ephemeral, and unstable'.

At an international level, relations may be organized by the practice of diplomatic

method or adherence to the tenets of international law or by regular trading, thus giving

'stability, durability and cohesiveness' to such relations. Today there is a variety of

international organizations ranging from organizations such as the World Council of

Churches, International Labour Organisation, World Trade Organization and Amnesty

International, etc. A brief history of international organizations may begin with the

League of Nations.

First World War and International Organizations the First World War generated
awareness among the European powers of the problems of state's coexistence and the

recognition of the need for peaceful means to regulate relationships. The changed

political situation post-1815, European expansion and economic and social

developments provided a fertile ground for the rise of international organizations in
Europe.

The creation of a relatively stable system of sovereign state in Europe was necessary for
the rise of international organizations. The peace of Westphalia ending the thirty years

war in 1648, the treaty of Utrechsin 1713) laid the basis later extended to the
geographically define the right to conduct 259 the basis for the sovereign state system

in Europe, a system tended to the rest of the world.

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This system established states as physically defined entities with their own forms of

government and to conduct relations on the basis of sovereign equality. The uous
growth of contact between European states and their nation of the need for creation of

institutional devices and systematic method for regulating relations with each other, the
gradual integration of the rest of the world-through wars, colonization, imperialism into

the European style system, created conditions necessary for truly international
organizations.

Thus, the Versailles Peace conference in 1919 gathered together the representatives of

the victorious power willing to write a peace treaty and many national interest groups,
International Non Governmental organizations (INGOs) committed to the cause of

public health, the rights of workers, the cause of peace or the laws of war, etc. However,
the gathering at Versailles in 1919 was primarily an intergovernmental meeting of heads

of State and government, foreign ministers and their advisors and concerned mostly
with the question of international peace and security. Economic and social questions

were secondary.

The peace conference established two leading organizations. The League of Nations and

the International Labour Organization. It must be noted that prior to the Versailles
peace conference, the Vienna Congress of 1814-15 lified the rules of diplomacy thereby,
standardizing and codifying the rules of diplomatic practice and pronouncing on other
problems in the national system such as slavery.

The Hague Conferences (1899-1907) ided by non-European states produced some

modest achievements also pointed the way for the institutional development of
organized rational relations such as Convention for the Pacific Settlement of the national

Disputes that were later to inspire the Permanent Court of national Justice and the
International Court of Justice.

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The wide membership of the two conferences was a precursor of the League of 1on's

Assembly. Yet, it was more a demonstration that the European state system, with
European-based law, had been extended to include outsiders”. However, the Hague

Conferences indicated the limits reached in the institutionalization of international

relations by the end of the 19th Century mainly due to the primacy of the needs of

individual governments and ruthless advancement of state interest over riding collective
interests and action.

The Paris Conference of 1919 following the First World War prompted individuals,

groups and governments to search for the establishment of a functioning international

system and organizing Post-War international relations. The League of Nations was the

outcome of these efforts and had, as its aim, the promotion of international co-
operation and peace and security.

The 19th Century was also a period of growth in international co operation in the field

of economic and social issues. The spread of democratic ideas and institutions, the
belief that all human beings were equal, fostered the notion of participation of all states

in international organizations for ensuring peace and progress. The French and the

American Revolutions that promoted the idea of the modern democratic state also
made the state more responsive to the needs of a wider section of the population.

Despite the notions of limited government' or 'night watchman government, European

governments were increasingly intervening in the economies of their countries and were
becoming more involved in the welfare of their citizens-thus giving rise to the welfare

state which was to be reflected in their international relationships.

This internationalization of economic life and commerce was reflected in the activities of
the public international unions or international agencies bringing together the

representatives of states to manage various aspects of public life such as travel,

communications, commerce or welfare. For example, the opening up of the international
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waterways to all traders by the Congress of Vienna was followed by the international

commission for the Elbe (1821), for the Rhine (1831) and the European Danube
Commission. In 1868, the International Telegraphic Bureau (later named International

Telegraphic Union, ITU) and the General Postal Union (later Universal Postal Union) in
1874 were established.

In the latter half of the 19th Century, one witnesses the rise of private international

associations, INGOS, for promoting and organizing humanitarian A, religious, economic,

educational, scientific and political causes. International gatherings were organized such

as the World Anti-Slavery Convention of 1840.

These associations became permanent organizations with secretariats, boards and

assemblies. The International Non-governmental Organizations (INGOs) grew faster

than the inter-governmental organizations (IGOs).

The international public and private associations were not always independent of each

other and usually had a symbiotic relationship due to the need for governmental activity
and co-operation across frontiers. The International Committee of the Red Cross, a

private international union, promoted the intergovernmental Geneva conventions of

1864, 1906, 1929 and 1949.

A private union, the International Association of Legal Protection of Labour led to the

establishment of International Labour Organisation in 1919. Despite the distinction

between private and public associations, a number of organizations had mixed

memberships with representatives of government bodies sitting together with individual

members.

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The events following the First World War, the Russian Revolution, the rise of Nazism,

and fascism in Germany and Italy and the isolationism of the US, put to test the League
of Nations and international organization created to further international co-operation.

Even if the whole League system collapsed, it became a stepping stone towards the
more enduring United Nations Organization.

Post-Second War and International Organizations The war time experience, the

emergence of a bi-polar world and the threat of atomic weapons created conditions for
the rise of a plethora of international organizations for the promotion of peace and

security, for prevention of war and for disarmament and arms control, for the protection
of human rights, etc. for restructuring of international economic order and for

commonly agreed upon rules of trade and commerce. For the establishment of an
international monetary system, the Breton Woods system was given shape.

The United Nations Organization was established with its specialized institutions

covering a whole range of issues from peace and security to environment and ecology.
A variety of international lisations with limited membership came into existence. Some

are moraphically and ideologically such as NATO or Warsaw Pact. of inter-governmental

organizations reflecting various ac fisheries, health, etc. also came into existence. The
IMF, A IFC provided the organized basis of the post-war liberal system. Regional
identities developed and consolidated market economic system of European
Community, Caribbean Community, themselves in the form of European Community

Nordic Council, etc.

With the tremendous growth in communication and transport, contacts between

peoples, groups and governments increased rapidly resulting in the growth of the

number of inter-governmental, technical, economic and social organizations and the

spread of organizations between individuals and non-governmental groups. This rise of
international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) resulting from the growth of

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global interactions has been one of the noticeable developments in international

relations since the Second World War.

The importance of these organizations is acknowledged by the UN Charter in its Article

71 that authorizes the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to make suitable

agreements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned

with matters within its competence.

NGOs, by nature, are concerned with economic, social, educational, scientific and

cultural questions and we witness their growth in other areas as well. They have a
symbiotic relationship with the UN's specialized agencies. For example, the International

Labor Organization (ILO) has relationships with the trade unions and employee
organizations, while scientific and specialist associations have consultative status with

the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and UNESCO.

Organizations such as Friends of the Earth, the International Union for consideration of

Nature and Natural Resources and the World Wild Life Fund have since acted as
shadows to UNESCO and the United Nations Environment Programmed (UNEP). The

growth of INGOs clearly indicates their importance in international life. They are a
potential power in the mobilization of social forces as approved from the agents of

government.

The post-Second World War has seen the gradual growth of international economic
integration creating a global economy by the 1990s. Non-governmental activity across

frontiers has been a part of these processes of internationalization and globalization of

world economy.

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The multinational or transnational corporations/firms have played a key role in this

process as INGOs through transfer of capital investments and technology to different

parts of the world-more particularly from the developed to the developing countries,

thus contributing to the internationalizing of economic factors and creating a global

market economy.

The Cold War divide in the post-Second World War period, the rise of the decolonized

countries as the Third World gave rise to debates over Neo-colonialism and the
hegemonic control of the industrialized countries on the world economy. Thus, the

North-South divide was reflected in demand for a New International Economic Order
and coming together of the group of 77 (G-77)-Third World states that attended the

first United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Regional

organizations for purposes of economic and political co-operation came into existence

from out of these groups, such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN),
the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the South Asian Association for Regional

Co-operation (SAARC).

Q2. Discuss the formation of Regional Economic Group in recent years

Ans. The major economic groupings currently functional in the world are the following:

The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA: It is an agreement signed by

the governments of the United States, Canada, and Mexico creating a trilateral trade
bloc in North America.

The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. It superseded the Canada-United
States Free Trade Agreement between the US and Canada. In terms of combined

purchasing power parity GDP of its members, as of 2007 the trade block is the largest in
the world and second largest by nominal GDP comparison.

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The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has two supplements, the North

American Agreement on Environmental Co-operation (NAAEC) and the North American

Agreement on Labour Cooperation (NAALC). In 1988 Canada and the United States

signed the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement.

The American government then entered into negotiations with the Mexican government
for a similar treaty, and Canada asked to join the negotiations in order to preserve its

perceived gains under the 1988 deal. The international climate at the time favored
expanding trade blocs, and the Maastricht Treaty which created the European Union was

signed in 1992.

The NAFTA provides for virtually all tariffs to be eliminated on trade in originating goods
between Canada and Mexico by January 1, 2003. A third round of "accelerated” tariff

reductions was implemented in January Mexican tariffs were eliminated on certain

Pharma euticals, Chemical Batteries, representing close to US $207 million in bilateral

trade. Under the NAFTA, Canadian producers are better able to read full potential by
operating in a larger, more integrated and efficient American economy.

Canadian manufacturers are able to access the highest-quality intermediate goods from
across North American production of final goods for export. Consumers benefit from

this heightened competition and integrated marketplace with better prices, greater
choice of products and higher-quality goods and services.

Improved access to NAFTA markets, together with the existence of clear rules on trade

and investment, has increased Canada's attractiveness to foreign and domestic

investors.

Total foreign direct investment into Canada reached US $292 billion in 2000, more than
64 per cent of which comes from NAFTA partners. Foreign direct investment into

Canada from the United States increased to US $186 billion in 2000, while investment
from Mexico reached US $132 million. Canadian direct investment in the NAFTA
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countries has also increased, reaching US$ 154 billion into the Mexico, more than six

times the pre-NAFTA level.

European Economic Community: With almost 500 million citizens, the EU combined
generates an estimated 30 per cent share of the nominal gross world product. The EU

has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws which apply in all
member states, ensuring the freedom of movement of people, goods, services, and

capital. It maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional

development.

A Common currency, the Euro, has been adopted by sixteen member states those

known as the Euro zone. The EU has developed a limited role .. foreign policy, having
representation at the WTO, G8 summits and at UN It enacts legislation in justice and

home affairs, including the abolition of passport controls between many member states
which form part of the Scheme Area.

An international organization sui generis, the EU operates through a hybrid system of

supra-nationalism and inter governmentalism. In certain reas, it depends upon

agreement between the member of states; in others, supra-national bodies are able to
make decisions without unanimity. Important institutions and bodies of the EU include

the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council,
the European Court of Justice, and the European Central Bank.

The European Parliament is elected every five years by member states' citizens, to whom

the citizenship of the European Union is guaranteed. The EU traces its origins to the
European Coal and Steel Community formed among six countries in 1951 and the Treaty

of Rome in 1957. Since then the union has grown in size through the accession of new
countries, and new policy areas have been added to the remit of the EU's institutions.

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The Association of South-East Asian Nations, commonly abbreviated ASEAN is a geo-

political and economic organization of 10 countries located in South-East Asia, which

was formed on August 8 in 1967, by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and

Thailand. Since then, membership has expanded to include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar),
Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Its aims include the acceleration of economic growth,

social progress, cultural development among its members, the protection of the peace
and stability of the region, and to provide opportunities for member countries to discuss

differences peacefully.

2005, the bloc spanned over an area of 4.46 million square km. with ned GDP
(Nominal/PPP) of about USD$896.5 billion $2,728 billion at an average rate of around

5.6 per cent per annum. Nominal had grown to USD $1.4 trillion in 2008.

location of LAN was preceded by an organization called the AS Asia, commonly called

ASA an alliance consisting of the Malaysia and Thailand that was formed in 1961. The
bloc Itself however, was established on august 8 1967, when foreign minister of five

minister countries Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand - met at
the Thai Department of Foreign Affairs building in Bangkok and signed the ASEAN

Declaration, more commonly known as the Bangkok Declaration. The five foreign
ministers Adam Malik of Indonesia, Narciso Ramos of the Philippines, Abdul Razak of

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Malaysia, S. Rajaratnam of Singapore, and Thanat Khoman of Thailand - are

considered as the organization's Founding Fathers.

The motivations for the birth of ASEAN were the desire for a stable external
environment, the common fear of communism, reduced faith in or mistrust of external

powers in the 1960s, as well as the aspiration for national economic development; not to
mention Indonesia's ambition to become a regional hegemon through regional co-

operation and the hope on the part of Malaysia and Singapore to constrain Indonesia
and bring it into a more cooperative framework. Unlike the European Union, ASEAN was

designed to serve nationalism.

The leaders of each country, particularly Mahathir Mohammad of Malaysia, also felt
the need to further integrate the region. Beginning in 1997, the block began creating

organizations within its framework with the intention of achieving this goal. ASEAN Plus
Three was the first of these and was created to improve existing ties with the People's

Republic of China, Japan, and South Korea.

This was followed by the even la East Asia Summit, which included these countries as

well as India Australia, and New Zealand. This new grouping acted as a prerequisite for
the planned East Asia Community, which was supposedly patterned after the now-

defunct European Community. The ASEAN Eminent Persons Group was created to study
the possible successes and failures of this policy as well as the possibility of drafting an

ASEAN Charter.

In 2006, ASEAN was given observer status at the United Nations General Assembly. As
a response, the organization awarded the status of "dialogue partner" to the United

Nations. Furthermore, on 23 July that year, José Ramos- Horta, then Prime Minister of
East Timor, signed a formal request for membership and expected the accession process

to last at least five years before the then-observer state became a full member.

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In 2007, ASEAN celebrated its 40th anniversary since its inception, and 30 years of

diplomatic relations with the United States. On August 26, 2007, ASEAN stated that it
aims to complete all its free trade agreements with China, Japan, South Korea, India,

Australia and New Zealand by 2013, in line with the establishment of the ASEAN
Economic Community by 2015.

In November 2007 the ASEAN members signed the ASEAN Charter, a Constitution

governing relations among the ASEAN members and establishing ASEAN itself as an
international legal entity. During the same year, the Cebu Declaration on East Asian

Energy Security in Cebu on 15 January 2007, by ASEAN and the other members of the
EAS, this promotes security by finding energy alternatives to conventional fuels.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21 Pacific countries to co-

operate on regional trade and investment liberalization facilitation. APEC's objective is

to enhance economic growth and prosperity in the region and to strengthen the Asia-

Pacific community Members account for approximately 40 per cent of the world's
population proximately 54 per cent of world GDP and about 44 per cent of world trade.

APEC consists of three occasionally overlapping processes.

The first is economic and technical cooperation promoting economic and human

resource development, or "Eco-Tech." Second is trade and investment liberalization, an

agenda that emerged at its 1993 meeting when US President Clinton invited the 18

APEC leaders to Blake Islands, Washington, for the first-ever APEC Economic Leaders
Meeting.

The Bogor Declaration, adopted in 1994, proclaimed the elimination of all trade and

investment barriers by 2010 for APEC's wealthiest countries and by 2020 for its poorest
ones. Subsequent meetings led to a refinement of these goals in terms of individual and

Collective Action Plans that were to provide the actual liberalization commitments.

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At the 1997, Vancouver meeting, APEC leaders agreed to negotiate specific,

mandatory trade liberalization targets in nine sectors on a fast track basis covering $1.5
trillion in trade. Those sectors included: Chemicals, Fisheries, forestry, energy goods and

services, Environmental goods and services, Gems and jewelry, medical equipment, toys,
and a telecommunications mutual recognition agreement. While the last was approved

in June, 1998, Japan's opposition to liberalization in fisheries and forestry effectively

torpedoed the broader initiative.

At the 1998 Kuala Lumpur Meeting, leaders agreed to bring the proposals to the

World Trade Organization's next round of negotiations in 2000, largely as a face-saving

initiative. The third-and weakest-process is sustainable development agenda, which also

emerged within APEC in To date, this process has been characterized by a flurry of
small-scale, city-building projects and little else beyond statements of principles

meeting on marine resources earlier this year.

Weakness of the sustainable development agenda has five major poor leadership by
the wealthier countries; most prominently the tats, popular opposition to APEC's free

trade agenda; the failure ct the trade, investment, and environmental tracks.

The weakness Stainable development forces within negotiating governments ability of

pro-sustainable development forces from civil society to penetrate the national and
regional process of formulation. The challenge of working with diverse economies and

varying perspectives on trade and investment regulation gives APEC a certain

informality and lack of cohesiveness.

Although the APEC forum has declared its support for free trade, many members

oppose mandatory implementation schedules for comprehensive tariff and quota

reduction. Indeed, some countries-principally Malaysia and Japan-have insisted that the

liberalization goals be non-binding and have opposed the US demand that all economic
sectors be opened to foreign trade and investment.
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Countries that oppose the US in its drive to convert APEC into another free trade area

would prefer that APEC remain a consultative organization that facilitates technical co-
operation on economic matters.

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and

political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia In terms of population; its

sphere of influence is the largest of any regional organization: almost 1.5 billion people,

the combined popular member states.

It was established on December 8, 1985 by Band Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,

India and Sri Lanka. In April the Association's 14th summit, Afghanistan became its

eighth SAARC functions on the basis of the following formal institutions.

(i) The Council of Ministers, responsible for formulating policies and deciding on new

areas of co-operation.

(ii) Star Jing Committee comprising foreign secretaries of member states with the task
of monitoring and coordination. The Programming Committee consisting of senior

officials scrutinizing the secretarial budget assists the Standing committee.

(iii) The Technical Committee formulates specialized programmers in their respective

fields under the SAARC Integrated Program of Action (SIPA). SIPA is the core of SAARC's
work programmer reflected in the technical committee. The seven technical committees

under the SIPA cover are:

a) agricultural and rural development;

b) communications and transport:

c) social development;

d) environment, meteorology and forestry;

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e) science and technology;

f) human resources development: and

g) energy

(iv) Specialized Ministerial Meetings which focus on specific areas of international

economic issues, children, women issues, environment, poverty alleviation, you

agriculture, trade, tourism and culture.

SAARC has identified certain areas on which collective be projected and promoted in
international for economic growth, social progress and culture Charter, acceleration of

economic growth, social promotion of active collaboration and mutual developments in

the region, promotion of active collaboration and mutual Assistance in the economic,

social, cultural, technical and scientific fields and strengthening of cooperation among
the member states in international on matters of common interest are some of its main

objectives.

While social issues are one of the main areas of co-operation focusing on issues of child

development, health, and women, SAARC's accent is on economic co-operation and

growth among development countries. With this in view, SAARC initiated since 1991

several measures such as an extensive study on Trade Manufactures and Services (TMS);

setting up the Committee on Economic Co-operation (CEC) to oversee implementation

of measures and policies to enhance trade and economic relations between member

states; the adoption of the SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangements (SAPTA)-signed on

April 11, 1993 which came into force on December 7, 1995-leading to trade

negotiations, depending tariff concessions and steps towards evolving the South Asia
Free Trade Area (SAFTA) to further liberalize trade within the region.

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 18

These apart, SAARC has initiated a few unprecedented initiatives to devise common

strategies in the international such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), for ensuring
a non-discriminatory world regime. Also SAARC members have renewed their

commitment to encourage participation of private sector and to organize trade-fairs to

promote intra SAARC trade and organized tourism.

Notwithstanding these positive developments, the SAARC is riddled with problems,

which are somewhat typical to this regional setting. For one, the long-drawn political-
diplomatic wrangle between India and Pakistan over an array of issues has slowed the

pace of the SAARC integration process. Furthermore, the disparate levels, of the region's
economies also have considerably affected priorities of these countries in the global

trade regime.

Q3. Discuss Nation-State and Human Security in International Relations.

Ans. State security and human security are mutually supportive. However, given the
nature and sources of threats to international peace and security, the question of

individual freedom and safety cannot any more be dealt with in the statist framework?
Truth is that states alone cannot meet the challenges forced by the international

system.

Sovereignty

He agenda of human security does not limit or circumscribe the sovereignty of state.

Certainly, it stands for retooling the state in terms of its various capacities. Building a
democratic state that values its own people and protects its minorities is a central

strategy for promoting human security.

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 19

Principles of human security are not new: what however, is important is the

renewed focus on these principles in the context of an evolving international order.

Principles advancing human security in the contemporary International humanitarian

organization, importantly the international Committee of Red Cross.

The process had since continued getting institutional expressions in various

international agreements conventions; for instance, those codifying laws of war, in the

universe principles that are enshrined in the UN Charter and the UN Declared Human
Rights, and the recently-established Statute of Internet Criminal Court. Therefore,

principles of human security were all present in the modern international system, which
has, as its basis notion of sovereign states. These trends explain the emergence of now

described as the 'humanitarian international law'.

From the perspective of the theories of International Relations important aspect is that
the postulate of human security is calling for a re examination of the philosophical and

legal basis of states sovereignty and thereby, of the international system.

Liberalism, upon which modern international system is based, has been concerned

primarily with state its external sovereignty and 'domestic jurisdiction'. It is however
undeniable that the superior ethical goal of liberalism has always been individual

freedom. Individual liberty had to be realized within the nation state but, admittedly, it
did not mean that the international system could not deal with it. It has dealt with it in

the past like, for instance, through the UN Charter.

The point therefore is whether the system of sovereign states can reform itself towards
the goal of promoting and protecting individual freedom in view of the intensified

threats to safety of the individual and security of the state. Today, freedom and safety of
the individual is no more possible within the statist framework, and the liberal theories

of International Relations admit this. Admittedly, states are not so sovereign, nor so
immutable.
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Besides, states are not any more the only member-entities of the international system.

The decade of the 1990s saw the emergence of an international civil society.
International non-governmental organizations championing various causes ranging

from human rights, collective rights of the indigenous communities, gender equality to
population and environmental problems are shaping international public opinion, polis

making processes, and development of alternative policies. Government have also come
to rely upon the INGOs for the delivery and disburse for instance paid programmers.

Even international organizations including the UN have sponsored a number of

conferences involving the participant of the NGOs.

Human security does not seek to displace the sovereignty and less the security of the

state. Undeniably, however, in the changed of contemporary International Relations,

both state sovereignty, role needs a redefinition and a reconstitution. Human security,

substitute for the security of the state. Rather, human security within and through the
state. States remain the basic unit of the international system.

They alone have the authority and coercive power to regulate, enforce and distribute.

The classical issues of politics-who governs and on what terms-are as relevant to cyber

space as to the real world. In fact, states today are even more essential to enforce the
human security agenda that requires large resources; and entails international efforts to
deal with the 'rogue' states and groups.

States command not only a vast array of instruments and resources, but also they
alone command the allegiance of the citizens. In short, the continuity of norms,

persistence of institutions, and strategic resources and options available to the wielders
of state power to shape or distort the patterns of global interdependence all make

states central to any change in the international system.

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 21

What human security entails is not the displacement of state but refurbishing its various

capacities along the principles of democracy and pluralism. Besides, it is also realized
that states alone cannot meet the king of the threats facing the world today, even if

some of the events are taking place within the national borders of a country.

Q 4. What is Realism? Discuss the Classical Realism and Contemporary Realism

(Neo-Realism)

Ans. Realism in international relations theory is one of the dominant schools of thinking

in the international relations discipline. Realism or political realism prioritizes national

interest and security over ideology, moral concerns and social reconstructions. This term

is often synonymous with power politics.

The theories of Realism tend to uphold that:

• The international system is in a constant state of antagonism.

• There is no actor above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must

arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to
them by some higher controlling entity.

• In pursuit of national security, states strive to attain as many resources as possible.

• States are unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. There is a
general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.

• The overriding national interest of each state is its national security and survival.

• Relations between states are determined by their levels of power derived primarily
from their military and economic capabilities.

• The interjection of morality and values into international relations causes reckless

commitments, diplomatic rigidity, and the escalation of conflict.

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• Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system and special

attention is afforded to large powers as they have the most influence on the
international stage.

• International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational

corporations, individuals and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as

having little independent influence.

In summary, the proponents of realists believe that mankind is not inherently

benevolent but rather self-centered and competitive. This perspective, which is shared
by theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, views human nature as egocentric (not necessarily

selfish) and conflictual unless there exist conditions under which humans may coexist.
This view contrasts with the approach of liberalism to international relations.

Realists believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism) and/or obsessed
with security (defensive realism), and that territorial expansion is only constrained by

opposing power. This aggressive buildup, however, leads to a security dilemma whereby
increasing one's security may bring along even greater instability as an opposing power

builds up its own arms in response (an arms race).

Thus, security becomes a zero sum game where only relative gains can be made. Realists
believe that there are no universal principles with which all states may guide their

actions. Instead, a state must always be aware of the actions of the states around it and
must use a pragmatic approach to resolve problems as they arise.

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Classical Realism

Classical Realism represents a whole worldview of international politics encompassing

several generations of theorists ranging from Thucydides, Machiavelli, and E.H. Carr to
Hns J. Morgenthau, the most famous high priest of post-war Realism.

The central argument of classical Realism rests on the assumption that international
politics is driven by an endless struggle for power, which has its root in human nature. In

this framework, justice, law, and society have either no place or are circumscribed.
Classical Realism recognizes that principles are subordinated to policies and that the
ultimate test of the state leader lies in accepting and adapt changing power political
configurations in world politics.

Classical Realism, as a school of thought, became fashionable more particularly

during the interwar period when a new generation of scholars got actively engaged in
explaining new developments in international relations. Classical Realists, a term

retrospectively used by later band of Realists, is thus often attributed to those theorists
who were actively writing on international relations immediately before and after the

Second World War.

What distinguishes this genre of scholars from others is their shared belief in an
essentially, pessimistic view of human nature. Some of the key figures in this tradition of

Realist school like Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), Nicholas Spykman (1893-1943), Hans
Morgenthau (1904-1980), and others believe that the struggle for power is inherent in

human nature.

In other words, the drive for power and the will to dominate are treated as the

fundamental traits of human nature. Following from this, the behavior of the state as a
self-seeking egoist is thus understood to be merely a reflection of the characteristics of

the people that comprise the state. It is human nature that explains why international
politics is necessarily power politics.
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Convinced of the unchanging human nature, classical Realists are highly pessimistic

with regard to the possibility of any qualitative transformation of world politics. As a

result, they tend to rely much more upon conventional principles of diplomacy and

mechanisms-such as balance of power, international morality and world public opinion,

and international law - for regulating and restraining the inevitable clashes of interests

between states, than on the human nature.

Contemporary Realism (Neo-Realism)

Contemporary Realism, also called Neo-realism and structured Realism is a theory of

International Relations, outlined by Kenneth Waltz in his book Theory of International

Politics published in 1979. Waltz argues in favor of a systematic approach: the

international structure acts as a constraint on state behavior, so that only states whose

outcomes fall within an expected range be survived.

This system is similar to a micro-economic model in which firms set prices and

quantity based on the market. Neorealist, developed largely within the American
political science tradition, seeks to reformulate the Classical Realist tradition of E.H. Carr,

Hans Morgenthau, and Reinhold Niebuhr into a rigorous and positivistic social science.

Neo-realism shuns Classical Realism uses of often essential concepts such as "human
nature" to explain International Politics. Instead, Neo-realist thinkers developed a theory

that privileges structural constraints over agents' strategies and motivations. Neo-
realism holds that the international structure is defined by its ordering principle, which is

anarchy, and by the distribution of capabilities, measured by the number of great

powers within the international system.

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The anarchic ordering principle of the international structure is decentralized, having

no formal central authority, and is composed of formally equal Sovereign States. These
states acted according to the logic of self-help-states seek their own interest and will

not subordinate their interest to another. States are assumed at a minimum want to
ensure their own survival as this is a prerequisite to pursue other goals.

This driving force of survival is the primary factor influencing their behavior and in

turn ensures states develop offensive military capabilities, for foreign interventionism
and as a means to increase their relative power. Because states can never be certain of

other states' future intentions, there is a lack of trust between states which requires
them to be guarded against relative losses of power which could enable other states to

threaten their survival.

This lack of trust, based on uncertainty, is called the security dilemma. States are
deemed similar in terms of needs but not in capabilities for achieving them. The

positional placement of states in terms of abilities determines the distribution of

capabilities. The structural distribution of capabilities then limits co-operation among

states through fears of relative gains made by other states, and the possibility of

dependence on other states.

The desire and relative abilities of each state to maximize relative power constrain
each other, resulting in a 'balance of power', which shapes International Relations. It also

gives rise to the 'security dilemma' that all nations face.

There are two ways in which states balance power: internal balancing and external
balancing. Internal balance occurs as states grow their own capabilities by increasing

economic growth and/or increasing military expansion. External balancing occurs as

states enter into alliances to check the power of more powerful states or alliances.

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 26

Neo-realists contend that there are essentially possible systems according to changes

in the distribution of capabilities, defined by the number of great powers within the
international system.

A unipolar system contains only one great power; bi-polar system contains two great

powers, and a multipolar system contains more than two great powers. Neo-realists
conclude that a bi-polar system is more stable than a multipolar system because

balancing can only occur through internal balancing as there are no extra great powers
with which to form alliances Because there is only internal balancing in a bi-polar

system, rather than external balancing and internal balancing, there is less opportunity
for miscalculations and therefore less chance of great power war.

Neo-realists conclude that because war is an effect of the anarchic structure of the

International System, it is likely to continue in the future The view that long-lasting
peace is not likely to be achieved is described by other theorists as a largely pessimistic

view of International Relations One of the main challenges to Neo-realist theory is the
democratic peace theory and supporting research such as the book Never at War.

Neo-realists answer this challenge by arguing that democratic peace theorists tend to
pick and choose the definition of democracy to get the desired empirical result. For

example, Germany of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the Dominican Republic of Juan Bosch, or Chile
of Salvador Aliened are not considered to be democratic or the conflicts do not qualify

as wars according to these theorists. Furthermore they claim several wars between
democratic states have been averted only by causes other than ones covered by

democratic peace theory.

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 27

Q5. What is Sustainable Development?

Ans. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human

needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the
present, but also for future generations. The term was used by the Brundtland

Commission which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of
sustainable development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising

the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural
systems with the social challenges facing humanity. As early as the 1970s “sustainability"

was employed to describe an economy "in equilibrium with basic ecological support
systems."

In order to address environmental concerns, ecologists have pointed to the "limits of

growth" and presented the alternative of a "steady state economy". The field of

sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts:

environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and socio-political sustainability.

The concept has included notions of weak sustainability, strong sustainability and deep
technology.

Sustainable development does not focus solely on environmental issues. The United

Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the "interdependent and
mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development

social development, and environmental protection.

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 28

Sustainable development

Indigenous people have argued, through various international forums such as the
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and the Convention on

Biological Diversity, that there are four pillars of sustainable development, the fourth
being cultural. The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity further elaborates the

concept by stating that "cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity

is for nature"; it becomes "one of the roots of development understood not simply in
terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory

intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence”. In this vision, cultural diversity is
the fourth policy area of sustainable development. Economic Sustainability:

Agenda 21 clearly identified information integration, and participation as key building

blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent

pillars.

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 29

It emphasizes that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of

information. It stresses the need to change from old se centered ways of doing business
to new approaches that involve sectoral co-ordination and the integration of

environmental and concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agen

emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental

prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.

According to Hasna, sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all

aspects of human life affecting sustenance. It means resolving the conflict between the

various competing goals, and involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity,
environmental quality and social equity famously known as three dimensions with is the

resultant vector being technology, hence it is a continually evolving process; the journey'
is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting to the destination.

However, the 'destination' of sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense

that understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future

system. Green development is generally differentiated from sustainable development in

that Green development prioritizes what its proponents consider to be environmental

sustainability over economic and cultural considerations. Proponents of Sustainable

Development argue that it provides a context in which to improve overall sustainability
where cutting edge Green development is unattainable.

For example, a cutting edge treatment plant with extremely high maintenance costs
may not be sustainable in regions of the world with fewer financial resources. An

environmentally ideal plant that is shut down due to bankruptcy is obviously less
sustainable than one that is maintainable by the community, even if it is somewhat less

effective from an environmental standpoint.

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 30

Some research activities start from this definition to argue that the environment is a

combination of nature and culture. The Network of Excellence "Sustainable

Development in a Diverse World", sponsored by the European Union, integrates

multi-disciplinary capacities and interprets cultural diversity as a key element of a new

strategy for sustainable development. Still other researchers view environmental and

social challenges as opportunities for development action. It is true in the concept of

sustainable enterprise that frames these global needs as opportunities for private

enterprise to provide innovative and entrepreneurial solutions.

His view is now being taught at many business schools including the center for
Sustainable Global Enterprise at Cornell University and the Institute for Global

Sustainable Enterprise at the University of Michigan. The United Nations Division for
Sustainable Development lists following areas as coming within the scope of sustainable

development: finable development is an eclectic concept, as a wide array of views under

its umbrella. The concept has included notions of weak amenability, strong sustainability

and deep ecology. Different conceptions reveal a strong tension between egocentrism
and anthropocentrism.

Concept remains weakly defined and contains a large amount of debate its precise
definition. During the last ten years, different organizations have tried to measure and
monitor the proximity to what they consider sustainability by implementing what has
been called sustainability metrics and indices. Sustainable development is said to set

limits on the developing world. Some consider that the implementation of sustainable
development would mean a reversion to pre-modern lifestyles.

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Q6. Write a short note on the role of World Trade Organization (WTO) in

International Relation.

Ans. The WTO was established on January 1, 1995 replacing the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO is the result of many rounds of multilateral trade

negotiations. The Marrakesh agreement was negotiated as a climax of the Uruguay

round of trade negotiations under the umbrella of GATT. The last round of negotiations

was concluded on December 15, 1993 and the participating governments signed the
Final Act, which included over 22,000 pages, at a meeting in Marrakesh, Morocco, on

April 15, 1994. The "Marrakesh Declaration” affirmed that the new trade law would
"strengthen the world economy and lead to more trade, investment, employment and

income growth throughout the world."

The Marrakesh agreement was the most comprehensive trade deal in world history,
covering everything from paper clips to jet aircraft. The bulk of the document

symbolized its breadth.

The WTO has a much broader scope in terms of the commercial activity and trade

policies to which it applied. GATT applied only to trade in merchandise goods; the WTO
covers trade in goods, services and "trade in ideas" or intellectual property. The

functions of the WTO include:

i. monitoring the implementation of multilateral trade agreements, which together

make up the WTO;

ii. acting as a forum for multilateral trade negotiations;

iii. seeking to resolve trade disputes among trading partners;

iv. overseeing national trade policies; and

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 32

v. co-operating with other international institutions involved in global economic policy-

making.

The principles governing international trade system outlined in the WTO Agreements
are worth nothing. There are four significant principles

a. Trade should be conducted without discrimination among members and between

imported and domestically produced merchandise.

b. The WTO agreements seek to ensure that conditions of investment and trade are

more predictable by making it difficult for member governments to change the rules
of the game at will. The key to predictable trading conditions is often the

transparency of domestic laws, regulations and practices. WTO agreements contain

transparency provisions, which require disclosure of these rules at the national level

or at the multilateral level through formal notifications to the WTO.

c. The WTO promoters open and fair competition in international trade. It is not the
"free trade" institution as it permits tariffs and limited forms of protection.

d. The WTO agreements encourage development and economic reform. Many of the

underdeveloped countries have been following the policies of economic reforms or

liberalization during the last one decade.

Q7 Give reasons for the rise in ethnic violence in a relatively short span of time
after the Second World War.

Ans. The upsurge in ethno-nationalism in recent decades the world over, producing

conflict and violence within the states and across the borders, is a fact which mankind
can ignore at the cost of its own peril.

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 33

The problems of ethnic upsurge, conflict and violence on an unprecedented scale in so

short a period since the Second World War is, perhaps, partly due to the accelerated
process of modernisation which mankind has undergone since then.

The ethnic violence is only an expression of disapproval and is an armed recourse to

change the state of things as desirable from the point of view of the perpetrator of

violence. It is some deep-rooted malnise which creates conditions of ethnic upsurge and
conflict. It is imperative to understand the malaise in its depth only so as to grasp its

manifestations properly.

In the operational sense, modernisation means the attainment of relatively higher levels
of the variables, such as education, per capita income, urbanisation, political

participation, industrial employment and media participation. As the process of

modernisation unfolds itself, it creates conditions of ethnic social mobilisation--both

territorial as well as nonterritorial.

However, this contention is in direct opposition to sociological theories of

modernisation and the Marxist theories. There was a kind of consensus amongst the

sociological theorists of modernisation and the Marxists that ethnic competition

belongs to the pre-modern era: in so far: as it persists, it is an irrational form of

behaviour or a form of false consciousness.

The political theorists of nation-building also view ethnic ties as transitory in nature and
argued that forces of modernisation and social mobilisation would lead to assimilation

of distinct identities in the process of nation-building.

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 34

Even liberal thinking in political science hinges upon the argument that as mankind

moved from a primitive, tribal stage of social organisation to a complex industrial and
post-industrial structure, the primordial ties of religion, language, ethnicity and race

would gradually but inexorably lose their hold and disappear.

Scholars like Anthony D. Smith gave a different line of reasoning that the modern

scientific state will lead to frequent ethnic revivals. The modern means of audio-visual
mass media and communications have created parochial political consciousness on

ethnic lines which is far ahead of forces of trade, commerce and industry.

Modernisation and social mobilisation have not led to a transfer to primary allegiance
from the ethnic group to the state. The available evidence about the pattern of ethnic

dissonance in the world, at various levels of modernisation, is indicative of the fact that
material increases in social communication and mobilisation tend to increase cultural

awareness and to exacerbate inter-ethnic conflict.

According to Walter S. Jones, the available empirical evidence has borne out that
"ethnic consciousness is definitely in the ascendancy as a political force, and that state

borders, as presently delimited, is being increasingly challenged by this trend. And what
is of greater significance, multi-ethnic states at all levels of modernity have been

afflicted. Particularly instructive in this regard is the large proportion of states within the
technologically and economically advanced region of Western Europe that have recently

been troubled by ethnic conflict”.

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 35

The agents of modernisation forge ahead mechanically by multiplication, whereas

human thinking and the primordial loyalties change, if at all they do, at a snail's pace. In
terms of technological and material growth and development, in a short span of less

than half a century since the Second World War, mankind has achieved many a times
more than it could achieve during the entire period of human existence prior to the War.

However, on the socio-political and psychological levels there is hardly any evidence
of any change or transformation. Paul-Henry Spaak thus observed the dichotomy

created by the technological achievements and socio-political backwardness: "Truly, our

imagination is not in step with our era."

This dichotomy in terms of material achievements and relative socio political

primordialism produces and reinforces fundamentalism forces hinging on primordial

ties. The religious fundamentalism, ethnic revivalism and consequent terrosism are the

outcome of this disequilibrium of what we are.

Modernisation produces alienation which the ethnic groups are ill-prepared to

withstand. The challenge of modernication to socio-cultural and political ties, values,

orientations, institutions and hierarchical social order is often viewed or perceived by the
elite of these groups as threats to identity.

Social mobilisation and technological revolution in transport and communications

rather than mitigating socio-cultural peculiarities, wanting a hybrid culture and a

composite society have gonerated increased particularist cultural awareness and identity

consciousness.

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 36

The Technological revolution in communication permits previously isolated ethnic

groups to become more visible, and in certain cases interact across national boundaries.
Moreover, the intra-ethnic as well as inter-ethnic communications play a major role in

the creation of ethnic consciousness. Modernisation creates identity consciousness in an

ethnic group which the ethnic elite mobilise for political purposes against the states.

Simultaneously, within the ethnic groups, the forces of modernisation create convulsions
whereby the traditional elite find its authority increasingly challenged by new socio-

economic forces which are thrown up by the process of modernisation. In this intra-
ethnic competition for dominance, the traditional forces are pitted against the new

ones.

Consequently, the competition or rivalry for leadership within the group leads to
"one-up-manship". Threat perception being the guiding principle. the existing and the

added ethnic grievances are articulated normally around extremist demands, new
strategies for their realisation are forged and invariably, in most of the cases, separatist

movements are launched.

Modernisation and social mobilisation reinforce group identity on ethnic lines and
produce awareness for differentiation from other ethnic groups. The process of

modernisation has also produced political and economic competition on an

unprecedented scale.

This competition is not only essentially the product of conditions of scarcity but also of

plenty which the modernisation has created. The ethnic differentiations lead to
intensification of competition among groups, making the ascriptive basis of ethnicity a

functional and effective vehicle for advancing group interests.

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 37

The intensive and extensive competition created by modernisation generates social

frustration and ire leading to social conflict and violence.

Q8 Can the phenomenon of Globalization is explained on the basis of the

traditional theories of international Relations?

Ans. The term "Globalization” but some even point to the futility of stocking

contemporary international relations without reference to the ramifications of the

phenomenon of "Globalization”. Any attempt to survey the massive literature on the

phenomenon of globalization suggests that there is no simple or agreed definition of

what constitutes the phenomenon, nor any consensus about how far the process has

advanced, and in which areas.

About all that can be said is that it represents a major site of contestation. The
contestation over it covers a whole range - its definitions and meanings, its historical

novelty; its benefits and deficits; the extent to which it reveals a single coherent logic or
multiple dissonant tendencies; and above all its impact on the efficacy and viability of

the nation-state. Admittedly, it is difficult to reduce the multi-faceted phenomenon to a

functional and analytical concept in the study of international relations. Yet, some order

needs to be imposed to make intelligible the connections between globalization and

International Relations (IR) theory.

As a preliminary towards this task, what is required is to recognize that underlying the
many specific areas of debate so far considered, globalization is contested along some

more general fault-lines. By their very nature, these fault-lines have a marked bearing on
issues that| traditionally have been debated throughout in IR theory.

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 38

One of these relates to whether the phenomenon of globalization is to be distinguished

merely as an idea or it represents a cognitive material factor. In other words, whether

globalization is triggered by material forces such as technology, Communications and

Economic systems and is identifiable and quantifiable in that realm alone. Or, is it
identified on the basis of the human understanding of these material changes. Some are

of the view that such a differentiation is not possible.

If that be so, i.e. that globalization impinges both on the material and cognitive forces,
then any theoretical account of it must incorporate both aspects. Based on such an

approach, the Constructivist School of IR suggests that neither of these aspects can be
discounted in the analysis of globalization and international relations.

Another concern while discussing the phenomenon of globalization in respect of IR

theory is the relationship between the economic and political spheres.

That is, whether the two are causally related, i.e. either of them follow the other or vice

versa. Because some are the view that the ongoing economic globalization in its wake
has unleashed political transformation whereas others view that political system should

and does change preceding the economic process.

A third view is that both are related oppositionally in so far as politics is thought
to serve as a check to the potential economic globalization. These characterization are

very relevant while relating globalization to the IR theory.

However, since both the protagonists and the critics of globalization do little more than

interpret the phenomenon within their preferred perception without arriving at a

consensus, it makes any attempt to develop an integrated approach to studying the

relationship between globalization and the IR theory difficult.

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 39

Besides, there are other general issues regarding globalization that makes it less useful

in respect of IR theory. For, there are profound divergences of opinion even among the
protagonists of globalization about its relevance to the key developments within

international relations itself.

This is evident, for instance, in the competing understandings of its relationship to the
end of super power Cold War. While some are of the view that globalization is the

consequence of the end of the Cold War, others view it is the advent of globalization
that has caused the end of the Cold War.

Such causal connections are appealing and even plausible because in one sense it is the

termination of the Cold War that allowed the globalizing forces to penetrate the
hitherto closed societies. But at the same time, it is possible to reverse the proposition

and argue that it was the penetration of the globalizing forces that hastened and
eroded the basis of Cold War.

To resolve the dilemma some theorists take the view that globalization that is both the
cause and effect of the Cold War. It is a cause to the extent that it has led to the

abridgement of the role of the nation-state in the post-Cold War international order. It
is an effect to the extent that it was the devise of the Cold War that Le paved the way for

the rapid pace of globalization. In their view, is globalization was taking place
simultaneously at the level of the nation the state and of the international system.

So they argue that if the focus on the latter tends to emphasize post-Cold War

discontinuity, the focus on the former underlines its continuity. Since both are realities
of the post-Cold War. Globalization in their line argument, accommodates both

continuity and change provided that its location in both the nation-state and the
international system is borne in mind.

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Q9. Briefly describe the role and functions of WTO.

Ans: What is the WTO?

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only international organization dealing with
the global rules of trade. Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly,

predictably and freely as possible.

The World Trade Organization came into being in 1995. One of the youngest of the
international organizations, the WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in the wake of the Second World War.

Structure

The WTO has 164 members, accounting for 98% of world trade. A total of 25 countries

are negotiating membership. Decisions are made by the entire membership. This is
typically by consensus. A majority vote is also possible but it has never been used in the

WTO, and was extremely rare under the WTO’s predecessor, the GATT. The WTO’s
agreements have been ratified in all members’ parliaments

The WTO
LOCATION: Geneva, Switzerland

ESTABLISHED: 1 January 1995

CREATED BY: Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-94)

MEMBERSHIP: 164 members representing 98% of world trade

BUDGET: 197 million Swiss francs for 2020

SECRETARIAT STAFF: 624

HEAD: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala (Director-General)

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THE FOUR ROLES OF THE WTO

Progressive opening and regulation of markets

The WTO's mission is to open markets gradually while ensuring that rules are respected.

The origin of the organization dates back to the end of World War II when the idea of
peaceful cooperation among peoples was emerging. In 1947, a number of countries

decided to open up their markets on the basis of common principles, and founded the

WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). In the current
round of trade negotiations, the WTO is seeking to make further advances in equitable
trade.

1. The WTO acts as conductor, tribunal, monitor and trainer

Orchestra conductor

International trade is governed by very precise rules developed by the WTO's members.

Countries must apply these rules when trading with one another. The WTO acts as the
orchestra conductor, ensuring that rules are respected. The WTO was founded in 1995,

but its origins date back to 1947 and the creation of the GATT. Since then, WTO
members have adapted these rules to keep up with new developments. For example,

services have developed considerably since the 1980s, and have now become one of the
most important economic sectors.

As a result, WTO members established rules governing international trade in services.

Adapting or changing the principles of international trade means reaching consensus

among WTO members through a round of negotiations. The latest round the ninth

since 1947 was launched in 2001 (see "How do trade negotiations work?" above).

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2. Tribunal

One of the main roles of the WTO is to settle disputes between its members. The WTO
plays the role of trade tribunal, where members may file complaints against other

members who fail to abide by the principles of international trade. There are three
stages to dispute settlement. To begin with, the disputing countries try to settle their

differences by themselves.

If that fails, the case is decided by a panel made up of three experts, which issues a
ruling. That ruling may be appealed. Once a definitive ruling has been issued, the losing

party must comply. If it does not, it is liable to sanctions. Since 1995, over 400
complaints have been filed by WTO members.

3. Monitor

The WTO regularly reviews the trade policies of its members. These reviews assess
whether WTO members are abiding by WTO rules and measure the impact of their

domestic policies on international trade. The purpose of these reviews is not so much to
solve problems as to prevent them from occurring in the first place.

4, Trainer

The WTO provides training programmes for government officials from developing
countries for example, ministry staff or customs officials. The WTO currently spends
about 35 million Swiss francs annually on these programmes. Africa is the main

beneficiary, followed by Asia and Latin America. In 2011, approximately 26 per cent of
training activities took place in Africa.

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Functions of WTO.

The main functions of WTO are discussed below:

1. To implement rules and provisions related to trade policy review mechanism.

2. To provide a platform to member countries to decide future strategies related to trade and
tariff.

3. To provide facilities for implementation, administration and operation of multilateral and

bilateral agreements of the world trade.

4. To administer the rules and processes related to dispute settlement.

5. To ensure the optimum use of world resources.

6. To assist international organizations such as, IMF and IBRD for establishing coherence in
Universal Economic Policy determination.

Q 10. Do you think will emerge as a super power in the future? Give reasons.

China's economy has enjoyed 30 years of explosive growth, making it the world's
largest. Its success was based on a mixed economy that incorporated limited capitalism

within a command economy. The Chinese government's spending has been a significant
driver of its growth.

China's economy is measured by its gross domestic product. In 2019, growth totaled
$22.5 trillion, the largest in the world.

Future Growth

Chinese leaders have taken steps to boost domestic demand from its 1.4 billion

population, the world's largest.10 A strong consumer market allows China to rely less on
exports and it is diversifying into a more market-based economy. This means relying less

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 44

on state-owned and more on privately-owned companies to reap the rewards of a

competitive environment.

To boost growth, China needs more innovative companies. These only come from

entrepreneurship. State-owned companies make up 25% to 30% of total industrial

output, down from 78% in 1978.1112 But China must do even better.

China's leaders realize they must reform the economy. To that end, President Xi

Jinping authorized the “Made in China 2025” plan. It recommends advances in

technology, specifically big data, aircraft engines, and clean cars. China has become a

world leader in solar technology. It is cutting back on exports, including steel and coal
production.

The worst risk is the ticking time bomb within the nation's financial system. Banks

are state-funded and owned. This means the government sets interest rates and
approves loans. They pay low-interest rates on deposits so they can lend cheaply to

state-owned businesses. As a result, banks have channeled government funds into an

unknown number of projects that may not be profitable.

China's leaders now walk a fine line. They must reform to remove asset bubbles. On

the other hand, as growth slows, the standard of living may fall. This could cause
another revolution. People have only been willing to turn over personal power to the

state in return for rapid increases in personal wealth.

One way to boost wealth is by encouraging investment in China's stock market. That

allows companies to rely less on debt, and more on selling stocks, to fund growth. It
also helps the tech companies that are listed on the Shenzhen exchanges. China recently

installed the Connect program between the mainland exchanges and the Hong Kong
stock market.

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 45

Reasons Why China is Superpower?

1. Authoritarian Government

The Chinese government has remained committed to focusing on economic growth,

and has quickly and effectively implemented good policy decisions. Beginning from the

time Deng Xiaoping set the tone, nothing has disrupted the flow, including changes in
leadership, ideology, and community politics.

2. High Rate of Savings

The country concentrates the salary paid to workers in four big state banks. This money
is used by the leadership to focus on key projects. In fact, almost 85% of China’s

infrastructure has been sustainably funded by this capital.

3. Investment in Models and Showcasing

China believes in showcasing its strengths and presenting itself as a model to visiting
dignitaries. This helped funnel foreign direct investment into the country and develop

the local economy. Shenzhen and Zhangjiagang were developed into amazing models
so that the surrounding area could be sold as an investment property to foreign

investors.

4. Consistent and Thoughtful Marketing

China had consistently pushed its one big selling point, which is its large market.

Chinese leaders have billed the country’s 1.3 billion population as a place to conduct
business with ripe possibilities.

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 46

5. Creation of Zones and Infrastructure for Businesses

China has successfully created several flexible investment zones, free trade zones, high
tech zones, and export processing zones, along with tax incentives and proper

infrastructure. They score over other countries in factors like speedy approval of
investment proposals and building of solid infrastructure.

6. A “business-above-all” Attitude

China has not allowed differences in ideology, culture, political views or local sentiments
to affect its business prospects. The channels of export, investment and technology have
always been given primary importance over all other considerations.

7. Committed and Passionate Diaspora

China has made committed overtures towards its non-resident citizens who are
economically positioned to invest heavily on the country. As a result of this, the 60

million people of Chinese origin who live outside contribute to the country’s economy in
the form of investments and remittances.

8. Strong Manufacturing Base

There’s a reason why everything is “Made in China.” The country has positioned itself as

a manufacturing hub, in turn providing employment to its people.

9. Ability to Respond Quickly

China has been able to make quick turns in strategy and redirect its resources into

computer science, biotechnological engineering, law, economics, management, and

higher education.

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 47

10. Placing Chinese Interests Above All Else

The Chinese leadership has been set in promoting foreign investment and business
opportunities for China, without interference from any quarter.

Q 11 Trace the origin and evolution of the Cold War.

Ans. Nobody could say for certain as to when the Cold War began. Blame was put on

the US by the Soviet Union for having started the conflict by not opening the second
front against Germany till mid-1944, leaving USSR alone to fight the enemy. The West

was also suspected of hidden agenda to seek destruction of both Nazi-Fascist dictators
and the Soviet Union so that the Western countries could alone enjoy the fruits of

victory.

The Soviet Union felt strongly upset at the secret development of atom bomb by the

United States, and its use against Japan when the USSR was just about to declare war
against it. After the war, the United States created anti-Soviet front through Truman

Doctrine and Marshall Plan. The Fulton speech of Winston Churchill in March, 1946
signalled hate campaign against the Soviet Union. Churchill had condemned the USSR

for violation of Yalta Agreement to hold democratic elections in liberated countries, and
for having erected an “iron curtain" at the East-West dividing line. He called for a

campaign to protect freedom, Christian civilization and democracy, and to contain

communism.

The Western countries, on the other hand, blamed the USSR for violation of pledge

to allow liberated countries to elect governments of their choice and for installing
puppet communist regimes in Eastern Europe.

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 48

The USSR tried to impose its system even in Greece and Turkey. It did not keep the

promise to withdraw its troops from Iran soon after the end of the war. The USSR had
launched a "hate-West” campaign and set up the COM inform.

The conflict was basically ideological. A US diplomat posted in its ambassy in Moscow,

George Kennan had sent his famous "Tong telegramme" to the State Department in
Washington. He had argued: “

In summary, we have here (USSR) a political force committed fanatically to the belief

that with US there can be no permanent modus vivendi, that it is desirable and
necessary that the internal harmony of our society be disrupted, our traditional way of

life be destroyed: the international authority of our state be broken, if Soviet Power is to
be secure." Later this communication was published in the US under the signature of

“X”.

The US policy was guided by the principle of containment of communism, while the

USSR was hopeful of destruction of capitalism and imperialism. The Cold War evolved
through many areas of conflict, and some of co-operation. The two sides (USSR and US)

supported communist North Korea and capitalist South Korea respectively in early
1950s. For some time USSR boycotted the United Nations for getting representation to

the People's Republic of China.

The West condemned Soviet military intervention in Hungary in 1956. Earlier, the

question of German division (West and East) into pro-West and pro-Soviet States had
raised the level of conflict. This was complicated when Soviet Union blockaded West

Berlin (1948-49), and the US airlifted all supplies to the people of West Berlin. Later, in
1961, a wall was erected to divide East and West Berlins.

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 49

Q12 Comment on the rights of the tribal people.

Ans. It is estimated that there are more than 370 million indigenous people spread
across 70 countries worldwide. The term indigenous peoples can be used to describe

any ethnic group of people who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the
earliest known historical connection, alongside more recent immigrants who have

populated the region and may be greater in number.

However, several widely accepted formulations, which define the term indigenous
peoples in stricter terms, have been put forward by prominent and internationally

recognised organisations, such as the United Nations, the International Labour

Organisation and the World Bank. Indigenous peoples are used in such a narrower

sense. Other

Related terms for indigenous people include aborigine’s aboriginal people, native
people, first people, first nations, Amerigine, and autochthonous. Indigenous people,

may often be used in preference to these or other terms as a neutral replacement,

where such terms may have taken on negative or pejorative connotations by their prior

association and use. It is the preferred term in use by United Nations its subsidiary
organizations.

The International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention 107 first introduced the term

“'indigenous” wherein the “tribal and semi-tribal populations were considered as a

broad socio category and indigenous populations as a sub-category of the former who

are descendents of the original populations of the countries which were taken over by
colonizers”. ILO Convention 169, adopted in June, 1989 de-linking the concept of "tribe"

from the “indigenous” included a reference to self-identification as a fundamental

criterion in

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 50

determining who the indigenous peoples are. It laid down that national governments

should allow indigenous peoples to participate in the decision-making that affects them,
set their own development priorities and given back the lands they traditionally

occupied. Internationally, the word "Indigenous” has been used by the United Nation
system as well as by the peoples themselves.

To be “indigenous" or a "peoples” confers a psychological strength over being merely

deemed as a minority population. That ruling elite recognises this is illustrated in the

debates of both the ILO and the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations on the
use of the words such as "peoples" or "population". While the ILO decided to use both

terms, the Working Group uses the term "population". The debate suggests that the
reason to use "population" rather than "peoples” is possibly to deny the basis for a claim

to self-determination and territorial independence within nationstates in which they are

located.

Both the termis"indigenous" and "native" are subjects of much debate. While "native"

has a colonial connotation for many, the capitalised "Native" is an acceptable label in
North America, indicating perhaps that they are a nation. In fact, the term "First Nations"

is often used as an alternative designation in Canada and the United States of America.

The internationally acceptable term "indigenous" is preferred. The names by wich

indigenous peoples are called are also changing according to their preferrea names. The

Lapps of Europe are now known as Saami, the Eskimos of Canada as Inuit and the
Bushmen of Africa as San.

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It must be emphasized that indigenous peoples are distinct from one another, and that

these distinctions are not dependent upon national boundaries. In Europe, the following
may be considered as indigenous populations: the Celtic peoples of the British Isles,

Brittany in France and Galicia in Spain; the Basque peoples of France, Portugal and
Spain; the Saami people of Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the former Soviet

Union. In Asia, there are various tribal or hill peoples in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and
China and the Ainu people in Japan. In addition there are numerous indigenous groups

in Siberia, some of who are considered as part of the Inuit peoples also present in
Alaska, Canada and Western Greenland.

In Africa, the Berbers and the San may be considered as indigenous peoples. Most
Asian and African states deny that there are any indigenous peoples within their

territories. The ILO subjected Bangladesh to considerable pressure in the UN before it

would address the issue of the

'indigenous group'. In Oceania there are indigenous groups in the Philippines,

Indonesia, Borneo and Papua New Guinea. Generally, these peoples live in the forests.
The Native Hawaiians also fit within Oceania.

In Australia are the Aboriginal peoples and in New Zealand are the Maori people. The

displacement of indigenous peoples is usually the result of an invasion of their territory

by an ethnically and culturally different group, which then attempts to convert the native

population to the conquerors' cultural norms and suppresses the indigenous people's
culture, identity and history.

Usually, the colonizing country believes its culture is materially and spiritually superior to

that of the indigenous group. In most cases, the invader is able to establish sufficient
control over the territory and society to force the indigenous population to deal with the

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 52

imposed legal system in attempting to redress the injustice inherent in the process of

conquest.

Needless to say, the indigenous people lose most legal rights until the dominant society

accepts its responsibility to make amends. An example of this acceptance process is the
creation and operation of the Waitangi tribunal in New Zealand, which deals with land

title cases between the Maori and the European settlers. In the Waitangi tribunal, the
Maori have the majority vote.

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