Revision on Phonetics and Phonology

1.How does phonology differ from phonetics?

- Phonetics: is the linguistic science that studies speech sounds: the way in which
they are produced, the way in which they are perceived, their physical
characteristics, etc.
- Phonology: is the study or description of the distinctive phonemes of a language
and their relationship to one another. It involves studying a language to determine
its distinctive sounds and to establish a set of rules that describe the set of changes
that take place in these sounds when they occur in different relationships with other
sounds.
2.Is phonology the same as phonemics?
3+9. What is a phoneme and how are phonemes classified?
- Phoneme is the smallest segment of sound which can distinguish two words.
Eg: “pit” and “bit”
+ Differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/. This is the smallest amount by
which these 2 words could differ and still remain distinct forms.
-There are 44 phonemes in English. They can be divided into 2 types: consonants
(24) and vowels (20). Each phoneme is meaningless in isolation.
4. What is a consonant and how are consonants classified?
- Consonants are the sounds in the production of which one articulator moves
towards another or two articulators come together, obstructing the air-stream and
the air-stream can’t get out freely.
- English consonants can be classified according to:
+ The place of articulation (the place where the air-stream is obstructed)
+ The manner of articulation (the way in which the air-stream is obstructed)
+ The voicing
 The most important places of articulation for the production of
English consonants are listed as follows:
1. Bilabials: are the sounds made with the two lips pressed together oe
coming together.
 Eg: /m,b,p,w/
2. Labio-dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the lower lip
touching the upper front teeth.
Eg: /f,v/
3. Dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the tip or blade of the
tongue touching the upper front teeth.
Eg: /θ,ð/
4. Alveolars: are the sounds which are produced with the tip
or blade of the tongue touching or approaching the
alveolar ridge.
Eg: /t,d,s,z,n,l/
5. Palato-alveolars: are the sounds which are produced with
the tongue tip or blade coming close to the are between
the back of the alveolar ridge and the front of the hard
palate.
Eg: / ʃ/, /t ʃ /, / ʒ /, /d ʒ /
6. Petroflex: is the sound which is produced with the tip of the tongue
curling back towards the back of the alveolar ridge.
Eg: /r/
7. Palatal: is the sound which is produced with the front of the tongue
coming close to the hard palate.
Eg: /j/
8. Velars: are the sounds which are produced with the back of the tongue
touching the soft palate.
Eg: /k,g,ŋ/
9. Glottal: is the sound which is produced without the active use of the
tongue and other parts of the mouth
Eg: /h/
 According to manner of articulation:
- Manner of articulation is the way in which the air-stream is obstructed
or altered in the production of speech sounds
- It describes the types of obstruction caused by the narrowing or
closure of the articulators
1. Stops:
 - Are the sounds in the production of which there is a complete closure
of the articulators involved so that the air-stream can’t escape through
the mouth. There are 2 kinds of stops:
+ Oral stops (Plosives): are the sounds which are produced with the
air-stream being stopped in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised
blocking off the nasal cavity. Then the two articulators come apart
quickly and the air escapes through the oral tract.
Eg: /p,b,t,d,k,g/
+ Nasal stops: they are produced with the air-stream being stopped in
the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that the air can go out
through the nose.
Eg: /m,n ŋ/
2. Fricatives:
- Fricatives are the sounds in the production of which two articulators
come close together, but there is still a small opening between them,
so the air-stream is partially obstructed and an audible friction noise is
produced.
Eg: /f,v,s,z,f,h, θ,ð, ʒ/
3. Afficates
- Are the sounds which are produced when a stop is immediately
followed by a fricate.
Eg: /t ʃ, d ʒ/
4. Lateral
- Is the sound which is made when the air-stream is obstructed at a
point along the centre of the oral tract, with incomplete closure
between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.
Eg: /l/
5. Approximant (semi-vowels)
- Are the sounds in the production of which 2 articulators come close
together but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent
that a friction noise is produced.
Eg: /w,r,j/
  According to voicing:
- Voiced consonants: are produced when the vocal cords are vibrating
Eg: /b,d,g,v,z,h,m,n,l,r,j,w, d ʒ, ð, ʒ/
- Voiceless consonants: are produced when the vocal cords are not
vibrating.
Eg: /p,t,k,f,s, t ʃ, ʃ, θ/

5.What is a vowel and how are vowels classified?

- A vowel is a speech sound in which the air-stream from the
lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat and which
is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords.
- Vowels are classified according to these 5 standards:
+ Tongue height
+ Tongue position
+ Lip rounding
+ Muscle tension
+ Vowel length
1. Tongue height
- It is the vertical distance between the upper surface of
the tongue and the palate (=degree of opening of the
mouth)
- The tongue may be raised high, mid or low
+ High vowels: are those in the production of which the
tongue is high in the mouth. It is raised above its rest
position.
Eg: /i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/ and /u:/
+ Low vowels: are those made with the tongue below
its rest position.
 Eg: /æ/, /ɑ:/, /ɒ/ and /ʌ/
+ Mid vowels: are those made with the tongue neither high nor low in
the mouth.
Eg: /e/, /ə/, /з:/ and /ɔ:/
2. Tongue position
- This means the front, central or back of the tongue is raised or
lowered
- Front vowels are those in the production of which the front of the
tongue is the highest point.
+ eg: /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/
- Back vowels: are those in the production of which the back of the
tongue is the highest point.
+ Eg: /u:/ /ʊ/ /ɑ:/ /ɒ/ /ɔ:/
- Central vowels: are those made with neither the front
nor the back of the tongue. The tongue is neither high
nor low in the mouth when central vowels are
produced.
+ Eg: /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/
3. Lip rounding
- Different shapes and positions of the lips. They may be rounded,
unrounded or neutral.
+ Rounded vowels: are those made with rounded lips.
Eg: /ʊ/, /u:/, /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, and /ɑ:/
+ Unrounded / spread vowels: are those made with the lips spread.
Eg: /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/ and /æ/
+ Neutral vowels: are those made with the lips neither rounded nor
spread.
+ Eg: /ə/, /ʌ/, /з:/
4. Muscle tension
- Short vowels are often lax vowels while tense vowels are often long
vowels
5. Vowel length
/i:/, /ɪ/,/ʊ/, /u:/, /e/,/ə/, /ʌ/, /з:/, /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, and /ɑ:/, /æ/
6+7: What is a syllabic consonant? In what cases are consonants syllabic? Give
illustrative examples.
8.What are the differences between a vowel and a consonant?
- A vowel is produced without any stoppage of the air-stream in the oral cavity
meanwhile there is obstruction in the production of a consonant.
- A vowel is syllabic, i.e, it forms the center or nuclear of a syllable meanwhile a
consonant is not except some syllabic consonants.
Eg: are /a:/ (3 letters, 1 sound, 1 syllable)
Car /ka:/ (2 sounds, 1 syllable)
Cart /ka:t/ (3 sounds, 1 syllable)
10.What is an allophone? Give examples to illustrate.
- An allophone is any of the different forms of a phoneme.
- Eg: In English, when the phoneme /p/ occur at the beginning of words like
PUT /put/, it is aspirated.
But when /p/ occurs in word like SPEND /spend/ and SPELL /spel/ it is
unaspirated.
Both the aspirated in PEN and the unaspirated in SPELL have the same phoneme
function. That is, they are both heard and identified as [p]. They are both
allophones of the phoneme [p]
11.How does a phoneme differ from an allophone? Give examples.
- A phoneme is a meaning-distinguish sound in a language. If we substitute one
sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then 2 sounds
represent different phonemes.
Ex: TIE and DIE. They are not allophones
- Otherwise, if we substitute allophones, we have different pronunciation of the
same word
- Phonemes are transcribed phonemically in slant bars // and allophones are
transcribed in square brackets []
- As a result of this, we have 2 kinds of transcription: narrow transcription
(phonetic transcription) and broad transcription (phonemic transcription)
12. What is assimilation and types of assimilation?
A, Definition
- Assimilation is the influence of one phoneme upon another neighboring phoneme
so that they become more alike
- Assimilation may occur across word boundaries or between words, across
morpheme boundaries within a morpheme or a word
Eg: light/p/blue - cats /s/ - beds /z/ - bank /ŋ/
B, kinds of assimilation across word boundaries
* In terms of the direction of change:
- Regressive assimilation: Cf (final) => Ci (initial)
- Progressive assimilation: Ci => Cf
* In terms of the way in which phonemes change:
- Assimilation of place: Cf => Ci
- Assimilation of manner: Cf => Ci
- Assimilation of voice: Cf => Ci

 Assimilation of place of articulation:

1. Aveolar + bilabial => Bilabial
A, /t/ becomes [p] before bilabials
Right place
Might put
Might make
B, /d/ becomes [b] before bilabials
Hard path
Good boy
Should win
C, /n/ becomes [m] before bilabials
Gone past
Ten men
Seen Peter
2. Alveolar + velar => Velar
A, /t/ becomes [k] before /k/ and /g/
White coat
Might come
That girl
B, /d/ becomes [g] before /k/ and /g/
Bad cold
Bad gate
Should go
C, /n/ becomes /ŋ/ before /k/ and /g/
One cup
Seen Karen
Main gate
3. Alveolar + Dental => Dentalized
Get there
Bad thing
4. Alveolar + Palato-alveolar / Palatal => Palato-alveolar
A, /s/ becomes [ʃ ] before /ʃ/ or /j/
Nice shoes
This year
B, /z/ becomes /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or /j/
Those shops
Where’s yours?
 Assimilation of manner of articulation:
1. Plosives /t,d/ + fricative /s,z/ => fricative
/t/ + /s/ => /s/: that side
/t/ + /z/ => /z/: that zoo
/d/ + /s/ => /s/: good song
/d/ + /z/ => /z/: bad zone
2. Plosive + Nasal => Nasal
/t/ + /n/ => /n/: that night
/d/ + /n/ => /n/: good night
 Assimilation of voicing:
a, Lenis /b,d,g/ + Fortis /p,t,k/ => Fortis
Rob Peter
Bad tongue
Big car
B, Fortis + Lenis => No assimilation (because fortis becomes unaspirated)
Sit down
Black dog
13+16.What is elision? What is linking?Examples
I. Elision
1. Definition
- Elision is the disappearance of sounds in speech. Under certain circumstances,
sounds disappear.
2. Rules for elision
A, loss of weak vowel /ə/ after /p,t,k/
Tomatoes perhaps tomorrow tonight
B, weak vowel /ə/ disappears before syllable consonants /n,l,r/
Canal correct connect interest
C, /t,d/ may be elided if they occur in the middle of a sequence of three consonants
sounds
Looked back
Just now
Acts
- Fricative + (plosive) + fricative
Crisps guests desks
D, loss of final /v/ in OF + consonant
Lots of them
Watse of money
E, /h/ may be elided from he,him,her,has,have,had when these words are
unstressed and do not begin a sentence
Eg: He seems to /tu/ have /əv/ finished.
II. Linking
- Linking happens when we link words together, usually for ease of pronunciation
Eg: thousands /z/ of people
A, Linking final consonant to initial vowel
Drink a cup of tea
Put it on
B, linking identical consonants
Bad dog stop pushing good deal big girl
C, Linking /r/ and intrusive /e/
For ever
Your eyes
- Letter a + initial vowel:
+ Many RP speakers insert /r/ at the end of vowels like idea, saw, etc,… before a
vowel at the end of the next word.
Eg: media /r/ events
The idea /r/ of it
Raw /r/ egg

D, Intrusive /j/: when a word ending in /i:/,/ɪ/,/eɪ/,/aɪ/ ,/ɔɪ/ is followed by a word

beginning with a vowel

The other

My aunt

See us

E, Intrusive /w/: when a word ending in /ʊ/,/u:/,/aʊ/,/əʊ/ is followed by a word

beginning with a vowel

Go in two others

13. What is stress and what are different types of stress.

 Definition:

- Stress is an extra force exerted / put on a particular syllable or a particular

word in spoken language

- Stress is a suprasegmental feature of utterances. It applies not to individual

vowels and consonants, but to whole syllables. A stressed syllable is
pronounced with a greater amount of energy than an unstressed syllable and is
more prominent in the flow of speech

- The stressed syllable or word is said with greater energy and stands out in a
word, phrase or sentence

Eg: father /ˈfɑː.ðər/ information /ˌɪn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/

 Types of stress:
- Word stress:

+ It is an extra force put on a particular syllable of the word. It is usually fixed.

Ex: in’vite enter’tain

- Sentence stress:

+ Is an extra force put on a particular word in a sentence

+ is not fixed. It depends on the speaker’s feelings and attitudes and the message
that he wants to get across to the listener

14. What are strong forms and weak forms of functional words?
17. State the basic uses of intonation patterns in English language.