Water Transportation

UNIT 12 WATER TRANSPORTATION

Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Water Transport in India Today
12.2.1 Current Status
12.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Transport
12.2.3 Forms of Water Transport
12.3 Planning of Water Transport Facilities
12.3.1 Definition of Terms
12.3.2 Guiding Considerations in Planning
12.3.3 Trends in Ship Dimensions

12.4 Harbours
12.4.1 Types of Harbours
12.4.2 Harbour Layout
12.4.3 Breakwaters
12.5 Docks
12.5.1 Types of Docks
12.5.2 Lock Entrance
12.5.3 Dock Wall
12.5.4 Dry Dock
12.5.5 Floating Dry Dock
12.6 Transit Sheds and Warehouses
12.7 Jetties
12.8 Landing Stages
12.9 Wharves
12.10 Inland Water Transport
12.11 Cargo Handling Facilities
12.12 Summary
12.13 Key Words
12.14 Answers to SAQs

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Water transport, in its various forms, is one of the most efficient forms of transport,
because of low fuel consumption, low environmental pollution and high record of safety.
Its main disadvantage is its low speed. It is ideally suited for international trade and
transport and along coastline and rivers. In this Unit, you will learn about the civil
engineering facilities needed to operate water transport.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• familiarise with the various civil engineering structures that are part of water
transportation,
• have a knowledge of the water transport sector in India, the various
structures like docks, harbours, jetties, transit shed and wharves, Inland
Water Transport, and
• understand the cargo handling facilities needed for water transport systems. 137
Transportation
Engineering
12.2 WATER TRANSPORT IN INDIA TODAY
12.2.1 Current Status
India is advantageously located as regards international sea trade route, surrounded by
the Arabian sea, the Indian ocean and the Bay of Bengal. It has a long coast line of
5660 km. India owns about 900 ocean going ships with a total tonnage of 10.4 million.
The international cargo handled is 170 mil. tonnes. There are 11 major ports, which
handle a traffic of about 250 mil. tonnes. There are 36 minor ports, handling a traffic of
36 mil. tonnes. The length of navigable waterways suitable for Inland Water Transport is
14,500 km. But there is a great scope for further expansion of water transport.
12.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Transport
The following are the advantages of water transport :
(a) Since the vessels travel on water, no investment is needed on the path of
travel (such as roads, railway track, etc.).
(b) Water transport is lightly energy efficient.
(c) Water transport is pollution free.
(d) Water transport is safe.
The disadvantages are :
(a) It is slow.
(b) It requires the support of other modes, like roads and railings.
(c) It is feasible only where there is perennial depth of water.
12.2.3 Forms of Water Transport
In India, the following forms of water transport exist :
(a) Oceanic shipping
(b) Coastal Shipping
(c) Inland Water Transport (IWT)

12.3 PLANNING OF WATER TRANSPORT

FACILITIES
12.3.1 Definition of Terms
In water transport system, a number of terms are used. It is necessary for a civil engineer
to know the precise meaning of these terms.
Port
It is a facility where ships can berth and transfer cargo and sometimes passengers
(only rarely in modern times).
Harbour
Harbour is a place where ships can be moored and sheltered from wind and waves.
Dock
Dock is an artificial enclosure for reception of ships.
Dry Dock
A dock which can be rendered dry after a ship enters for repairs.
Jettty
A structure projecting into the sea from the shore.
Wharf
A continuous structure, generally acting as a retaining wall, along the shore line of
a sea or banks of a canal or river.
138
Transit Shed Water Transportation
A shed for temporarily storing cargo discharged from ships awaiting further
transport by land, or cargo received from land transport and awaiting loading into
ships.
Warehouse
A shed for storing cargo for longer period.
12.3.2 Guiding Considerations in Planning
The following factors have a bearing on planning water transport facilities :
(a) Availability adequate land to accommodate the facilities now required and
in the future.
(b) Availability of good port connectivity by rain and road to the hinter land.
(c) Adequacy of channel depth to allow ships of the size expected to enter and
exit.
(d) Protection from wind and waves.
(e) Availability of stone materials nearby for building breakwaters.
(f) Assured traffic potential.
(g) Nature of cargo to be handled, whether oil, bulk dry cargo (lime cement,
coal, ores), general cargo and containers.
(h) Environmental impact on marine life.
12.3.3 Trends in Ship Dimensions
The current trend in ship dimensions and weight for oceanic transport is summarised in
Table below.
Table 12.1 : Current Trends in Ship Size for Oceanic Transport
Dead Weight Length Width Draft
Type of Ship
Tonnage* (DWT) (m) (m) (m)
General cargo ships Upto 50,000 150-200 20-30 8-10
Container ships Upto 50,000 150-275 20-35 8-12
Bulk carriers 60,000–100,000 200-250 30-40 12-15
Tankers Upto 500,000 Upto 450 Upto 65 Upto 30
* DWT is the carrying capacity of ships in metric tonnes

SAQ 1
(a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of water transport?
(b) What are the various forms of water transport?
(c) Define the following terms :
(i) Port
(ii) Harbour
(iii) Dock
(iv) Dry Dock
(v) Jetty
(vi) Wharf
(vii) Transit Shed
(viii) Warehouse
(d) What are the guiding considerations in planning a water transport facility?
(e) What are the current trends in dimensions and weight of ships for oceanic
transport? 139
Transportation
Engineering
12.4 HARBOURS
12.4.1 Types of Harbours
There are two types of harbours, viz :
(a) Natural harbour, which is protected from storms and waves by the natural
configuration of the land and water.
(b) Artificial harbour, where artificial engineering structures like breakwaters
are needed for protecting the vessels from storms and waves.
Cochin and Mumbai ports are good examples of a natural harbour, whereas Chennai is an
example of an artificial harbour.
Figures 12.1 and 12.2 give configurations of a natural harbour and an artificial harbour,
respectively.

LAND SHELTERED SEA

BASIN

Figure 12.1 : Natural Harbour

SEA

BREAK WATER

BREAK WATER

LAND

PORT CONFIGURATION

Figure 12.2 : Artificial Harbour

12.4.2 Harbour Layout

A harbour has the following constituent parts :
(a) An entrance channel, 100-300 m wide
(b) A turning basin, dia 400-600 m
(c) A breakwater, which protects the harbour from waves
(d) Docks, where ships berth
140 Figure 12.3 gives a typical layout of a harbour.
 Water Transportation

BREAK WATER
ENTRANCE
CHANNEL SEA

TURNING
CIRCLE

BERTH
BERTH

BREAK WATER
DOCK

LAND BERTH BERTH BERTH BERTH LAND

Figure 12.3 : Harbour Layout

12.4.3 Breakwaters
A breakwater is an artificial structure constructed in the sea to protect ships from the
effect of waves and storms.
Three types of breakwaters are common :
(a) Vertical sided.
(b) Rubble mound.
(c) Composite, with rubble mound as foundation and a vertical sided wall
above it.
Figures 12.4, 12.5 and 12.6 give the details.
1.0m

2.75m 1.5m

7.0m

MHW

MASONRY
OR
MASS CONCRETE
6.5m

MLW

MASS CONCRETE
7.0m RCC CAISSON

8.0m

Figure 12.4 : Vertical Sided Breakwater

3.0m

ARMOUR STONES (5-10T)

HIGH WATER LEVEL

2:1
2 :1
FIRST UNDER-LAYER (5-10T)
12.0m
CORE

: 1 11 STONES (0.25-1.5T)
/2
11
/2 :1

40.0m

Figure 12.5 : Rubble Mound Breakwater 141

Transportation STONE MASONRY

Engineering

RCC CAISSON, SUNK AND

FILLED WITH CONCRETE

3:1
3:1
RUBBLE STONE MOUND

Figure 12.6 : Composite Breakwaters

SAQ 2
(a) What are the two types of harbours? Give sketches to illustrate.
(b) What are the constituent parts of a harbour? Give a sketch to illustrate.
(c) What is the function of a breakwater?
(d) What are the three types of breakwaters? Give sketches to illustrate.

12.5 DOCKS
12.5.1 Types of Docks
Docks are artificial enclosures for the reception of ships. Three types of docks are found :
(a) Harbour Docks, or Wet Docks, which are enclosed and are sheltered basins.
(b) Repair Docks, or Dry Docks where ships are repaired.
(c) Floating Dry Docks, which are structures which can be depressed and lifted
and rendered dry for repair of ships in the open ocean.
12.5.2 Lock Entrance
Wet docks have lock entrances to overcome the high fluctuations in water level in the
sea. Figure 12.7 gives a layout of a lock entrance. It consists of a lock chamber which has
one gate at its entrance from the open sea, and another on the dock side. The first gate is
opened and the lock chamber is flooded with water from the open sea. The ship then
enters the lock chamber. The entrance gate is closed and the water level in the chamber is
adjusted to the water level in the docks by pumping. The dock side gate is opened and the
ship enters the docks.
RECESS CHAMBER FOR
SLIDING GATE

LOCK CHAMBER WET DOCK

SEA SIDE GATE

DOCK SIDE GATE

Figure 12.7 : Plan of Lock Entrance

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12.5.3 Dock Wall Water Transportation

Figure 12.8 gives the diagram of a dock wall.

GRANITE COPING
2.0m PAVED AREA

GRANULAR
BACKFILL

13.0m

MASS
CONCRETE

ROCK
6.0m

Figure 12.8 : Mass Concrete Dock Wall

12.5.4 Dry Dock

Figure 12.9 gives the details of a dry dock. The entrance gate is opened and the water
level in the dry dock is made equal to the level in the dock basin. The ship enters the dry
dock and is made to settle on keel blocks provided in the dock floor. The water is then
pumped out and the ship is made to sit in a proper position by stays. After repairs, the
reverse operations are done and the ship moves out.
25m

PAVING PAVING

10m 10m

CHAMBER FOR
PUMPING WATER

RECESS CHAMBER FOR

SLIDING GATE

200m

25m DRY DOCK

STEPS
DOCK WALL SLIDING GATE

Figure 12.9 : Plan of Dry Dock

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Transportation 12.5.5 Floating Dry Dock
Engineering
Figure 12.10 gives a sketch of a floating dry dock.

SHIP FLOATING INTO

POSITION

SHORING

FLOATING DRY DOCK

BLOCKS

Figure 12.10 : Floating Dry Dock

12.6 TRANSIT SHEDS AND WAREHOUSES

These are sheds constructed as steel frames or RCC frames with a steel truss, with
galvanised iron or asbestos cement sheets. Transit sheds may be single or two storied.
They are constructed about 8-25 m away from the dock wall to house a rail track, roads,
and gantry cranes.
Warehouses are constructed at a distance of 10-25 m away from the transit sheds.
The whole area between the dock wall and the transit shed, and between the transit shed
and warehouse is paved. A cement concrete pavement or concrete block pavement is
long-lasting and maintenance-free.
Good lighting and fire lighting arrangements are needed inside transit sheds and
warehouses.
Figure 12.11 gives the layout of a transit shed and warehouse.

25m TRANSIT SHED 7m WARE HOUSE

25m 25m 25m

SPACE FOR ROAD, RAIL SPACE FOR ROAD AND

AND GANTRY CRANES RAIL

ROCK

Figure 12.11 : Transit Shed and Warehouse Location

12.7 JETTIES
A jetty is a structure projecting into the sea from the shore line for receiving ships. They
are made of RCC trestles with a deck to accommodate railway track and road. The
trestles are prevented from being hit by a ship by fenders. Figure 12.12 gives details of a
jetty.
144
 DECK WITH SPACE FOR Water Transportation
ROAD AND RAIL FENDER

RCC FRAME

X X

SHIP

SHIP

OPEN JETTY

PILES

PLAN ROCK
SECTION X-X

Figure 12.12 : RCC Trestle Jetty

12.8 LANDING STAGES

A landing stage is a floating structure, usually a pontoon or a barge, which is secured to
the shore by mooring chains. Small ships can dock against the landing stage. The landing
stage is connected to the shore by a bridge.

12.9 WHARVES
A wharf is a wall built along a shoreline to receive ships from the sea directly, for
facilitating loading and unloading. Since sea can have tidal variation, the wharf can be
suitable only where the tidal variation is small. It is ideal for river transport.

12.10 INLAND WATER TRANSPORT

Another form of water transport which is popular in several countries like USA,
Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and France is Inland Water Transport (IWT). This
transport deals with the movement of men and materials in barges and boats along canals,
rivers, lakes, backwaters and bays. In India, it has been developed to some extent in the
backwaters of Kerala and along rivers like the Brahmaputra and Ganges. Its advantages
are :
(a) Very economical
(b) Very fuel efficient
(c) Labour-intensive
(d) Least polluting
(e) Makes least demand on land
Its disadvantages are :
(a) Requires perennial flow, and hence unsuitable for the majority of Indian
rivers which have seasonal flow. Requires dredging of channels frequently.
(b) Slow speed.
(c) Involves transhipment from other modes of transport and hence has low
accessibility.
The barges are mechanically propelled. Channels should have a depth of 2-5 m. Facilities
for handling of cargo include landing stages and jetties, and small cranes. 145
Transportation SAQ 3
Engineering
(a) Give a sketch of a lock entrance and explain its working.
(b) What are the three types of docks?
(c) Give a sketch of a dock wall.
(d) Explain how a dry dock works with a sketch.

12.11 CARGO HANDLING FACILITIES

All water transport terminals require cargo handling facilities. Cranes of various sizes are
used. In docks, traveling cranes are popular (Figure 12.13).

TRANSIT SHED

SHIP

Figure 12.13 : Dock Crane

For handling containers, large capacity cranes are used.

For dry bulk handling (like coal, iron ore, food grains, food grains fertilizers, etc.),
conveyor belts or bucket conveyors are used.
Liquid bulk material (oil) is handled by using special pumps.

SAQ 4
(a) Give the sketch of a floating dry dock.
(b) Give a sketch showing the relative positions of a dock wall, transit shed and
warehouse.
(c) What is a jetty? Give a sketch.
(d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Inland Water Transport?

12.12 SUMMARY
In this Unit you have learnt about the various forms of water transport and the civil
engineering structures needed to support them. In particular, you have learnt about
harbours, breakwaters, wet docks, dry docks, transit sheds, warehouses, jetties, landing
146 stages, wharves, inland water transport and cargo handling facilities.
 Water Transportation
12.13 KEY WORDS
Oceanic Shipping : Shipping taking place in the oceans.
Coastal Shipping : Shipping taking place along the coast line.
Inland Water Transport : Water transport along rivers, canals, backwaters
and bays.
Port : A facility where ships can berth and handle cargo
and passengers.
Harbour : A place where ships can be moored and sheltered
from the wind and waves.
Dock : An enclosure for the reception of ships.
Dry Dock : A dock which can be rendered dry for repair of
ships.
Jetty : A structure projecting into the sea from the shore.
Wharf : A continuous structure like a retaining wall along
a shore line to allow ships to berth.
Transit Shed : A shed for temporarily storing cargo discharged
from ships and cargo received for loading to ships.
Warehouse : A shed for storing cargo for longer period.
Entrance Channel : A channel for ships to enter a sheltered harbour.
Turning Basin : An area where ships can turn.
Breakwater : Artificial structure constructed in the sea to protect
ships from the effect of waves and storms.
Lock Entrance : An entrance to a dock with facilitating for closing
and opening gates at either end.
Dock Wall : A retaining wall at the edge of a dock.

12.14 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Refer to Section 12.2.2
(b) Refer to Section 12.2.3
(c) Refer to Section 12.3.1
(d) Refer to Section 12.3.2
(e) Refer to Table 12.1
SAQ 2
(a) Refer to Section 12.4.1 and Figures 12.1 and 12.2
(b) Refer to Section 12.4.2 and Figure 12.3
(c) Refer to Section 12.4.3
(d) Refer to Figures 12.4, 12.5 and 12.6 and Section 12.4.3
SAQ 3
(a) Refer to Section 12.5.2 and Figure 12.7
(b) Refer to Section 12.5.1
(c) Refer to Figure 12.8 and Section 12.5.3
(d) Refer to Section 12.5.4 and Figure 12.9 147
Transportation SAQ 4
Engineering
(a) Refer to Figure 12.10 and Section 12.5.5
(b) Refer to Figure 12.11
(c) Refer to Section 12.7 and Figure 12.12
(d) Refer to Section 12.10

148