Moi University

School of Sciences and Aerospace Studies

(Department of Mathematics, Physics & Computing)

PHY 317: CLASSICAL MECHANICS

LECTURE NOTES

BY

DR. KOECH
149RICHARD
PHY 317: CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Pre-requisites: PHY 110
Purpose
To introduce students to curvilinear motion, dynamic of systems of particle, conservation of
energy
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
i) Describe the dynamics of a systems of particles
ii) Solve Euler’s equations
iii) Explain moments and conservations of energy

Course outline
Frames of reference: inertial and non-inertial, relative velocity and the Galilean transformations.
Work-energy theorem: conservative force and potential energy, example viz conservation of linear
momentum.
Centre of mass (c): Centre of mass frame of reference, torque and conservation of angular
momentum, collision of two particles, rocket, etc.
Rigid body dynamic: moment of inertia (MI) and related theorems, calculation of (MI) for a few
cases. Rotational Kinetic energy, fly-wheel. Gravitational potential and Field: Brief review of
Newton's law of gravitation: Potential energy of two or more masses. Cases of thin spherical shell
and spheres, central forces, two-body force problem reduction to one - body problem. The
equations of motion. Differential equation for the orbit. Inverse square law of force and Kepler's
laws. Limitations of Newton's laws.
Lagrangian Mechanics: generalized coordinates, holonomic systems Hamilton's principle and
Lagrange's equations.
Course Assessment:
Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessments (Exercises and Tests) - 30%; Total - 100%

References
1. Goldstein, H., Charles, P. P. and Safko, J. L. (2013). Classical mechanics.
2. Cohen, M. (2012). Classical mechanics: A critical Introduction. University of
Pensylvania.
3. Morin, D. (2008). Introduction to Classical Mechanics: With Problems and
Solutions. 1st ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
87622-3.
4. Thornton, S. T., Marion, J. B. (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems.
5th ed. Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40896-6.
5. Kibble, T. W.B., Berkshire, F. H. (2004). Classical Mechanics (5th ed.). Imperial
College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-424-6.
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151
1.0 RELATIVITY AND FRAMES OF REFERENCE

1.1 Frames of reference

A “frame of reference” is a standard relative to which motion and rest may be measured;

any set of points or objects that are at rest relative to one another enables us, in principle,

to describe the relative motions of bodies. A frame of reference is therefore a purely

kinematical device, for the geometrical description of motion without regard to the

masses or forces involved. A dynamical account of motion leads to the idea of an

“inertial frame,” or a reference frame relative to which motions have distinguished

dynamical properties. For that reason an inertial frame has to be understood as a spatial

reference frame together with some means of measuring time, so that uniform motions

can be distinguished from accelerated motions. The laws of Newtonian dynamics

provide a simple definition: an inertial frame is a reference-frame with a time-scale,

relative to which the motion of a body not subject to forces is always rectilinear and

uniform, accelerations are always proportional to and in the direction of applied forces,

and applied forces are always met with equal and opposite reactions. It follows that, in

an inertial frame, the center of mass of a system of bodies is always at rest or in uniform

motion. It also follows that any other frame of reference moving uniformly relative to an

inertial frame is also an inertial frame. For example, in Newtonian celestial mechanics,

taking the “fixed stars” as a frame of reference, we can determine an (approximately)

inertial frame whose center is the center of mass of the solar system; relative to this

frame, every acceleration of every planet can be accounted for (approximately) as a

gravitational interaction with some other planet in accord with Newton's laws of motion.
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Non-inertial frame of reference, which is not fixed in space, is a moving coordinate

system such as the one attached to a falling body or one that is rotating and therefore

accelerating.

1.2 Introduction to relativity

Relativity is the study of how different observers describe the same phenomena.

According to the theory of special relativity, measurements of physical quantities are

affected by relative motion between an observer, and what he/she is observing. In this

course, we will focus on classical relativity, a good approximation for speeds much less

than that of light.

At the end of 19th century, physicists were satisfied with the Newtonian mechanics as it

could explain almost all the phenomena observed from the earth and universe, such as

fluids, wave motion and sound. For light, Maxwell unified the theory of electricity and

magnetism, founding the theory of electromagnetic field. At the same time, Maxwell’s

theory predicted a constant which should be the speed of electromagnetic field traveling

in free space. Everything was fine except for asking which inertia frame of reference is

the right one for the speed of light. A lot of experiments were made in order to find out

the “special inertia frame of reference” at that time and no positive results were

obtained.

The above problem is one of so-called two patches of clouds in the physics sky.

Another patch of cloud is the blackbody radiation which could not be explained either by

the well-known “perfect” classical theory of statistics and thermodynamics. It is worth

153
pointing out that the clearance of the two patches of clouds leads to the foundation of

two modern physics theories, one is special relativity and the other is quantum theory.

Generally speaking, relativity contains two parts, one is called special relativity and

the other is called general relativity. The former describes the phenomena of objects

moving at a very high velocity and the latter explains the behavior of objects moving

closely to a strong gravitational field.

1.2.1 Galileo transformation

Two inertial frames with coordinates (x, y, z, t) and (x′, y′ z′ t′) are related by the

Galilean transformations,

x′ = x − vt

y′ = y (1)

z′ = z

t′ = t

(assuming that the x axis is defined to be the direction of their relative motion). These

transformations clearly preserve the invariant quantities of Newtonian mechanics, i.e.

acceleration, force, and mass (and therefore time, length, and simultaneity). As far as

Newtonian mechanics was concerned, then, the problem of absolute motion was

completely solved; all that remained was to express the equivalence of inertial frames in

a simpler geometrical structure.

• The absolute outlook of space-time of classical mechanics and the classical

relative principle
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 • Galileo transformation

 x  = x − ut
 y = y


 z = z
(2)
 t  = t

A frame of reference S  moves with velocity u relative to a frame S shown in the figure.

Speed and acceleration of the particles can be obtained by the differentiation to the

equation of motion.

vx = vx − u  ax = ax
 dv 
 vy = v y  a ay = a y (3)
 v = v dt  a = a
 z z  z z

This explains that Newton’s mechanical laws are identical in all inertia reference frames.
  
F = ma = ma (Newton’s second law)

1.2.3 Lorentz transformation

(i) Two postulates:

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 1. The relativity principle: All the laws of physics have the same form in al inertial

reference frames

2. Constancy of the speed of light: Light propagates through empty space with a

definite speed c independent of the speed of the source or observer.

Generally, from the principle of relativity, any quantity in the direction of motion

u2
changes by a factor of 1− . The shortening of length/distances in the direction of
c2

motion (i.e Length contraction) is by the factor identified above. Thus

u2
L = Lo  1 − . Only lengths in the direction of motion must undergo contraction.
c2

Similarly, the apparent increase in time intervals due to relative motion, referred to as

To
the time dilation, is given by T =
u2
1−
c2

(ii) Lorentz transformation

  x − ut
x = =  ( x − ut)
 1− u 2 c2
 y = y
 z = z (4)
 u
 t− 2 x
t  = c u
=  (t − 2 x)
 u 2 c
 1− 2
 c

where

1
=
u2
1−
c2
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Time and space are no longer independent. The reversal relations between the two

frames of reference are given below:

 x =  ( x  + ut )
 y = y

 z = z (5)
 u
t =  (t  + 2 x )
 c

The speed of an object after Lorentz transformation can be found by differentiation with

respect to time. Note that

dx dx
vx = vx =
dt  dt

The following relations are obtained:

vx − u vy u2
vx = , vy = 1− 2 ,
u u c
1 − 2 vx 1 − 2 vx
c c
(6)
vz u2
vz = 1− 2
u c
1 − 2 vx
c

Example: A spaceship moving away from earth with a speed 0.9c fires a missile in the

same direction as its motion, with a speed of 0.9c relative to the spaceship. What is the

missile’s speed relative to earth?

Solution: Let the earth’s frame of reference be S, the spaceship’s S´. Then vx´=0.9c and

u = 0.9c

The non-relativistic velocity addition formula would give a velocity relative to the earth

of 1.8c. The correct relativistic result can be obtained from:

157
 vx − u v + u 0.9c + 0.9c
vx =  vx = x = = 0.994c
u
1 − 2 vx
u
1 + 2 vx  1 + ( 0.9c )(0.9c ) / c 2

c c

When u is less than c, a body moving with a speed less than c in one frame of reference

also has a speed less than c in every other frame of reference. This is one reason of

thinking that no material body may travel with speed greater than that of light., relative

to any frame of reference.

Question

The reference frame S moves at a constant speed u with respect to reference frame S

along x-axis. Write the relations of coordinates and speed between S and S frame in

non-relativistic case, i. e. Galilean transformation equations, and in relativistic case, i. e.

Lorentz transformation equations

158
2.0 CENTER OF MASS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

(a) Center of mass

The center of mass of an object is a position or point in space, about which all of the

particles in the object are evenly distributed. It is an “average” position of all of the

particles in an object.

Frequently in physics we use the center of mass of an object to represent the whole

object, because it simplifies the analysis of the problem. Rather than following the twists

and turns of the limbs of a student as it flies through the air, we can just examine the

path of the center of mass to determine where it is going to land, how long it will be in

the air, and so on. Since the whole body is moving with the center of mass the behavior

of the whole object will ultimately follow whatever path the center of mass followed.

For the most part, assuming the center of mass is at the center of the object is fine,

because most of our problems deal with uniform density and symmetrically shaped

objects. However, most of the real world doesn’t function that way. The center of mass

of a hammer, for example, is not at the center of the hammer but is located closer to the

head.

The center of mass is the “average position of the system of particles, weighted by their

masses.”

159
 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
That is, 𝑟𝐺 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 (7)
𝑚𝑖

Suppose we have three particles of masses m1, m2 and m3 with their positions defined as

r1=x1 i+x1 j, r2=x2 i+x2 j and r3=x3 i+x3 j respectively, then the centre of mass is defined

as:

𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3
𝑟𝐺 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3

In components form rG=xG i +yG j, where

1
𝑥𝐺 = (𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3 )
𝑚𝑇 1 1

1
𝑦𝐺 = (𝑚 𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3 )
𝑚𝑇 1 1

Where 𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 is the total mass

The centre of mass is the ‘weighted average, of the positions of the particles

In 3-D, rG=xG i +yG j+zG k, where

1
𝑧𝐺 = (𝑚 𝑧 + 𝑚2 𝑧2 + 𝑚3 𝑧3 )
𝑚𝑇 1 1

(i) Systems of particles

Let’s start by examining the simplest case--the center of mass of point masses (A

point mass is a mass that exist at some point in space, even though it has no

dimensions) in one dimension where none of the masses are moving. It is probably

easiest to see what to do by following an example. Take a look at the three masses on

a number line below. We’ll define their positions as 0, 3, and 5 meters. To find the

position of the center of mass you’ll take the product of each mass times its position,

160
add them together, and divide by the total mass. The calculation would go as

follows:

A two or three dimensional set of point masses would follow the same method of

calculation as this, only using the y and z positions for the corresponding

dimensions. Therefore, the equations for all three dimensions look like that shown

below:

Solid objects

Most things are not point masses. In fact, the only time you’ll use point masses

exclusively is in a physics or math class. However, we’ll shortly see that they can

serve to help us find the center of mass of a solid object.

Suppose you have a sledge hammer whose head is 5 kg and handle is 0.5 kg. Both

161
the head and handle have uniform densities (though different). The 0.92 m long

handle is positioned in the center of the head that is 20 cm wide by 8 cm thick. So a

rough sketch of the hammer might look like that below.

The trick to finding the center of mass of the sledge hammer is to replace the handle

and head by point masses at the position of their center of mass. In this case the

handle would be replaced by a point mass of 0.5 kg, 10 cm from the left side and 54

cm up. The head would be replaced by a 5 kg point mass, 10 cm from the left side, 4

cm up.

Since both point masses have the same horizontal position, we can conclude that the

x position if the overall center of mass is 10 cm without performing any calculation.

All that remains is the y position. For this, we just perform the calculation as

described by the point mass section.

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 So the center of mass of the sledge hammer is centered horizontally, and 8.2 cm

from the bottom or 0.2 cm above the head in the handle.

(ii)The calculus approach

Sometimes the shape of an object makes guessing the location of its center of mass a

little tricky. Suppose you want to find the center of mass of a isosceles triangles of

uniform density. It is fairly obvious that it is going to be along a line that bisects the base

(as drawn). However, how high above the base is it?

Well, we could find the vertical position of every molecule in the triangle, multiply that

by the mass of the molecule, add them together, and divide by the total mass to find the

center of mass. Personally that sounds way too difficult and time consuming to me.

Instead of using that approach we can employ integration (since integration is a

technique that adds an infinite number of infinitely small points together). The basic

integration equation for finding the center of mass is:

(8)

In this equation r is the distance along the axis of consideration (y in our case), dm is a

really small chuck of mass (essentially a point mass), and M is the total mass. The

equation tells us to add up an infinite number163

of point mass along the axis we are
considering, then divide by the total mass.

But how are you going to integrate this sucker? Integrating along a distance is the

standard practice, how do you integrate with respect to mass? The answer is, you don’t.

You need to develop an expression for dm in terms of the position along the y axis.

Since the triangle has uniform density that means the point mass, dm, has a density of:

The area of the point mass dm, is the area of the line in the drawing (essentially a

rectangle). Looking closely at the piece dm, we can see that its area will be:

Since we are calling the distance along the axis, y. the integration part of the problem

becomes:

164
We can’t integrate this just yet because x changes as y changes. However, using similar

triangles we can find an expression to substitute for x.

But we can get a cleaner expression by substituting for M, by looking at density once

again.

Substituting for M and canceling, we find that the position of the center of mass is

165
Momentum and the center of mass reference frame

A reference frame is a viewpoint or perspective where the viewer sees themselves as

stationary and views other objects accordingly.

✓ Laboratory frame

✓ Centre of mass frame

In most cases, the reference frame we use is the laboratory frame where the floor is

stationary and the objects moving across the floor are considered to be moving.

The main point is to illustrate that different points of view see things moving at different

velocities. However, within any reference frame (point of view) the laws of physics must

hold.

Consider two particles are moving along a line such that they are both moving to the

right and the one farthest right has a mass of 10 kg and a speed of 4 m/s, while the other

has a mass of 6 kg and a speed of 6 m/s. The center of mass is going to exist somewhere

between these two objects. Why? If it didn’t, it wouldn’t be centered. It’s velocity can be

computed in a similar fashion to the technique used to find the position of the center of

mass. That is,

(9)

So, from the laboratory perspective we can compute the velocity of the center of mass as

being:

166
Thus, it is closing in on the mass on the right at a rate of 0.75 m/s, while the mass on the

left is catching up to it at a rate of 1.25 m/s.

But, things change when we go to the center of mass reference frame. There, the center

of mass is stationary. From its perspective both objects are moving toward it. The mass

to the right of the center of mass has a velocity of 0.75 m/s to the left, while the mass to

the left of the center of mass has a velocity of 1.25 m/s to the right.

What then is the momentum of the center of mass?

Zero, in fact, is always the total momentum of a closed system from the center of mass

point of view.

Example

Show that for any system of particles P=MVcm, where P is the total momentum, M is the

total mass and Vcm is the velocity of centre of mass point

solution

167
 The C.O.M position X =
1
(m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ... + m N x N )
M
dX 1  dx1 dx dx dx 
Hence the velocity of the center of mass, Vcm = =  m1 + m2 2 + m3 3 + ... + N 
dt M  dt dt dt dt 

Vcm =
1
(m1v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + ... + m N x N )
M
Vcm =
1
(P1 + P2 + P3 + ... + PN ) = 1 ( P) = P
M M M
 P = MVcm

(b) Moment of inertia

Moment of inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to changes to its rotation. It is

also defined as the capacity of a cross-section to resist bending. You ought to realize

that it is the rotational analog of mass and the way it differs from mass is in that the

distance from the axis of rotation affects the size of the moment of inertia.

(i) Point masses

To calculate moment of inertia using the point mass method you follow similar

strategies as you did in finding center of mass by the point mass method.

When turning something, the difficulty you encounter as you turn the object depends on:

✓ the mass of the object

✓ the distance of the mass from the axis of rotation.

The significant thing about the distance’s contribution to the moment of inertia is that

moment of inertia varies with the square of the distance. Consequently, as the mass gets

farther away from the axis of rotation, it becomes much harder to turn the object. The

units of moment of inertia are kg m-2. The point mass equation looks like this:
168
 To calculate the

moment of inertia of the particles at then right. You would calculate the moment of

inertia for each particle individually.

Notice how much greater the moments of inertia were for the 5 kg particles than the 3 kg

particles.

Example 1

Calculate the moment of inertia of the gadget shown in the figure below. The small

masses are attached by a light rigid rod and pivot about the left end of the rod. Use a

value of m = 1.5 kg and d = 0.2 m. If the assembly were to pivot about its midpoint, find

the moment of inertia about this axis as well.

Solution:

We simply add up the individual contributions to the moment of inertia. With the pivot

point at the left end, we find and with the pivot point at the middle of the assembly, we

find

𝐼 = 𝑚(2𝑑)2 + 2𝑚(3𝑑)2 + 3𝑚(5𝑑)2 = 97𝑚𝑑 2 = 5.8 𝑘𝑔𝑚2

And with the pivot point in the midle of the assenbly, we find that
169
 𝑑 2 𝑑 2
𝐼 = 𝑚 ( ) + 2𝑚 ( ) + 3𝑚(2.5𝑑)2 = 19.5𝑚𝑑 2 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2 2

It should make intuitive sense, after a moment’s thought that I should be smaller in the

second case, because the masses are traveling in smaller radii circles. Also, for the same

angular velocity in both situations, we expect to have less kinetic energy in the second

case, in agreement with the smaller I.

Example 2

Find the moment of inertia of the object shown below when pivoted about its symmetry

axis. The cylinder has a mass M, radius r, and length L, whereas the hoop has a mass

𝑀/10 and radius 3r. Use M = 0.1 kg, r = 5 cm and L = 25 cm.

Solution:

The moment of inertia of the hoop is simply the product of its mass and the square of its

radius since all its mass lies at the same radius. The moment of inertia of the cylinder

cannot be found so simply because its mass is distributed over varying distances from
1
the axis of rotation. Its moment of inertia (by calculus) is 𝑀𝑟 2 and then write the total
2

moment of inertia as the sum of the hoop’s and the cylinder’s as

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 1 𝑀
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑟 2 + (3𝑟)2 = 1.4𝑀𝑟 2 = 3.5 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2 10

Note that the length L of the cylinder is not in the answer, only its total mass and radius.

(ii) The calculus method

Most objects are not point masses. Solid objects have a nearly infinite number of “point”

masses that make them up. You could find the mass and position of each atom and

follow the previous technique to find the moment of inertia. As with center of mass

calculations, this would be idiotic because you’d spend the rest of your life on that

calculation. Calculus provides us with a technique that will shorten the calculation

considerably.

Whenever you find moment of inertia you are adding the products of all the masses

times distance squared. Calculus would look at really puny masses--point masses. We’ll

call these dm. So, the calculus equation for moment of inertia is:

(10)

Once again, dm is not something you are going to integrate. Rather you are going to find

a distance dependent expression for dm and substitute before solving for I.

When computing moment of inertia calculus style, you need to select dm carefully. Be

sure that all the mass in dm is nearly equidistant to the axis of rotation (± dr--the

thickness of the piece).

Examples :
171
1. Find the moment of inertia of a stick (length L and mass M) of uniform density,

rotating about an axis through its center of mass.

Solution

The illustration shows a picture of this stick. The chunk

of mass, dm is exaggerated in size for clarity. Notice

that the center of the chunk is a distance x away from

the axis and is dx wide. Because the drawing is

exaggerated, dx looks pretty wide. However, it is

actually infinitely thin.

Naturally, we’ll start with the equation:

The limits exist as shown because half the stick is on

either side of the axis.

Before we can integrate we need to substitute for dm. We can arrive at an

expression for dm by using density.

Since r is x according to our illustration, then the integral becomes:

172
 Finally, using the density relationship,

we can substitute and express I in terms of mass and length.

2. Calculate the moment of inertia about the y-axis of the square lamina of mass
M and width b, shown below. (The moment of inertia about the y-axis is a
measure of the resistance to rotation around this axis.)

Let the mass per unit area of the lamina be ρ. Then, because its total area is b2, its total

mass M is b2ρ.Imagine that the lamina has been divided into a large number of thin

vertical strips as shown by the shaded region.

(a) Referring to Figure above write down the width of each strip:
173
 δx

(b) Write down the area of the strip

𝑏𝛿𝑥

(c) With ρ as the mass per unit area write down the mass of the strip

𝜌𝑏𝛿𝑥

(d) The distance of the strip from the y-axis is x. Write down its moment of inertia

𝜌𝑏𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥

(e) Adding contributions from all strips gives the expression ρbx2δx where the sum

must be such that the entire lamina is included. As δx → 0 the sum defines an integral.

Write down this integral. Note that the limits on the integral have been chosen so that the

whole lamina is included.

𝑏⁄
2

𝐼 = ∫ 𝜌𝑏𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
−𝑏/2

(f) Obtain the value of this integral.

𝜌𝑏 4
12
𝑀𝑏 2
Noting that M = b2ρ then 𝐼 = .
12

3. Find the moment of inertia of a circular disc of mass M and radius a about an axis

passing through its centre and perpendicular to the disc.

174
The figure shows the disc lying in the plane of the paper. Imagine that the axis of

rotation is coming out of the paper through the centre O and is perpendicular to the disc.

The disc can be considered to be spinning in the plane of the paper. Because of the

circular symmetry the disc is divided into concentric rings of width δr as shown below.

Note that each point on the ring is approximately the same distance from the axis of

rotation. The ring has radius r and inner circumference 2πr. Imagine cutting the ring and

opening it up. Its area will be approximately that of a long thin rectangle of length 2πr

and width δr.

(a) If ρ is the mass per unit area write down an expression for the mass of the ring. The

moment of inertia of the ring about O is its mass multiplied by the square of its

distance from the axis of rotation. This is (2πrρδr) × r2 = 2πr3ρδr.

The contribution from all rings must be summed. This gives rise to the sum

175
Note the way that the limits have been chosen so that all rings are included in the sum.

As δr → 0 the limit of the sum defines the integral

(b) Evaluate this integral to give the moment of inertia I.

(c) Write down the radius and area of the whole disc.

(d) With ρ as the mass per unit area, write down the mass of the disc.

𝜋𝑎2 𝜌

𝑀𝑎2
But this total mass is M. Hence 𝐼 = 2

The table below gives the moment of inertia of some shapes

176
2. Calculate the mass moment of inertia about the y-axis of the triangular plate shown
below. Assume the plate is made of a uniform material and has a mass of m.

Solution:

The mass moment of inertia about the y-axis is given by

I zz =  r 2 dm =  r 2  dA
B A
177
The element of area in rectangular coordinate system is given by

dA = dxdy = dydx

The domain of the triangle is defined by

a
a 0  y  h

y  a
h 0  x  z
h h
z y

The distance from the y-axis is x. Therefore, r=x. The mass moment of inertia about the
y-axis can be written as

a
x= y
y =h h
I zz =  r 2  dA =  x
2
 dxdy
A y =0 x =0
y =h
a3 3
=  3h 3
y  dy
y =0

a 3h
=
12

For a uniform plate the density can be calculated using the total mass and total area of
the plate so that

178
 m m
= =
A 1 ah
2

Therefore, the moment of inertia in terms of the total mass of the cone can be written as

a 3h a 2m
I zz = =
12 6

Moment of Inertia Theorems

There are two key theorems that you will frequently need to use in order to calculate

moments of inertia namely the Parallel and Perpendicular Axis Theorems:

(a) The Perpendicular Axes Theorem

The perpendicular axes theorem applies to a lamina S, i.e., a flat, perfectly thin body

lying without loss of generality in the (x, y)-plane. The moment of inertia of a plane area

about an axis normal to the plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any

two mutually perpendicular axes lying in the plane and passing through the given axis.

This means that if Ix and Iy are the moments of inertia about the x- and y-axes

respectively then the moment of inertia about the z-axis is:

Iz = Ix + Iy. (11)

Proof:

𝑰𝒛 = ∬𝒔 𝝆𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒔 and 𝑰𝒚 = ∬𝒔 𝝆𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒔 but 𝑰𝒛 = ∬𝒔 𝝆(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝒅𝒔 by definition.

The result follows

179
Example: what is the moment of inertia of a flat circular wire loop of radius a and total

mass M about a diameter?

Taking axes about the centre of the circle, we have Iz = Ma2 because every part of the

loop is a distance, a, from the origin. Clearly Ix = Iy by symmetry; so the moment of

inertia about a diameter is:

1
Ix = 2 Iz = Ma2

The Parallel Axis Theorem

The moment of inertia of an object about any axis parallel to the centre of mass

(centroidal) axis is the sum of moment of inertia about its centroidal axis and the product

of mass with the square of distance of from the reference axis i.e

I = Icm + mh2 (12)

where h is the distance between the two axis.

• The added piece (mh2) is just as if all the mass were concentrated at the center of mass.

The parallel axis theorem applies to a general rigid body (not necessarily a lamina).

Proof:

180
The moment of inertia through p:

NB: The moment of inertia about an axis which passes through the centre of mass is

lower than about any parallel axis.

Examples

1. Calculate the moment of inertia of a rod rotating about

one end using parallel axis theorem. If you look at the

chart you can see that the moment of inertia for a thin

stick about its center of mass is 1/12 ML2. The

distance from the axis of rotation to the center of mass

is L/2. Substituting these into the parallel axis

181
equation, you get:

182
3.0 ROTATIONAL AND TRANSLATIONAL MOTION

Translational Motion - Motion of the center of mass of an object from one position to

another.

Rotational Motion - Motion of an object about an axis: e.g. a basketball spinning on

your finger, an ice skater spinning on his skates, the rotation of a bicycle wheel. Uniform

circular motion is a special case of rotational motion.

• We will limit our discussion to rigid bodies, i.e. objects that don't deform and also to

rotational motion about a fixed axis, i.e. the axis is not moving.

Define a coordinate system to describe the rotational motion:

Every particle on the body moves in a circle whose center is on the axis of rotation.

• Each point rotates through the same angles over a fixed time period.

We will define a set of quantities to describe rotational motion similar to position,

displacement, velocity, and acceleration used to describe translational motion.

Angular Position (θ):

This is the angular location of the reference line which rotates with the object relative to

a fixed axis. Its units is radians (not degree)

183
• If a body makes two complete revolutions, the angular position is 4𝜋. (Don't "reset" the

angular position to less than 2 𝜋).

• Define the counterclockwise direction as the direction of increasing q and the

clockwise direction as the direction of decreasing θ.

• The distance that a point on the object moves is the arc length defined by q and the

distance from the axis of rotation:

s=rθ (13)

Angular Displacement:

The change in the angular position from one time to another:

∆ 𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1 (14)

• ∆ 𝜃 can be positive or negative.

• Every point on the rigid body has the same angular displacement even though they may

have traveled a different distance.

Angular Velocity (ω):

The rate of change in the angular position.

Average Angular Velocity:

𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ∆𝜃
< 𝜔 >= = (15)
𝑡2 −𝑡1 ∆𝑡

Instantaneous Angular Velocity:

∆𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜔 = lim =
∆ 𝑡→0 ∆ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
184
• All particles on the object have the same angular velocity even though they may have

different linear velocities v.

• ω can be positive or negative depending on whether the body rotates with increasing q

(counterclockwise) or decreasing q (clock -wise).

• Unit: rad/s (preferred) or rev/s.

Angular Acceleration (a):

The rate of change of angular velocity.

Average Angular Acceleration:

𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ∆𝜔
< 𝑎 >= = (16)
𝑡2 −𝑡1 ∆𝑡

Instantaneous Angular Acceleration:

∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝑎 = lim =
∆ 𝑡→0 ∆ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• All points on the object have the same angular acceleration even though they may have

different linear accelerations.

• Unit: rad/s2 (preferred) or rev/s2.

Constant Angular Acceleration:

185
The equations of motion for rotational motion look exactly like the equations of motion

for translational motion with the replacements of the translational variables by angular

variables:

Translational Rotational

x = x0 + v0t + 1/2at2 θ = θ 0 + ω 0t + 1/2at2

v = v0 + at ω = ω 0 + at

v2 = v02 + 2a(x - x0) ω 2 = ω 02 + 2a(θ - θ 0)

Example:

A flywheel completes 40 revolutions as it slows from an angular speed of 1.5 rad/s to a

complete stop.

(a) What is the angular acceleration?

(b) What is the time required for it to come to rest?

(c) How much time is required for it to complete the first 20 revolutions?

Solution

186
Example:

A wheel turns through 90 revolutions in 15 s, its angular speed at the end of the period

being

10 rev/s. (a) What was its angular speed at the beginning of the 15 s interval, assuming

constant acceleration? (b) How much time has elapsed between the time when the wheel

was at rest and the beginning of the 15 s interval?

(a) 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡

We are interested in ω =0, but 𝛼 is also unknown. There are a total of two unknowns (ω0

and 𝛼). Therefore, another equation with two unknowns is needed (set θ0 = 0).
1
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡
2

𝛼𝑡 = 𝜔 − 𝜔𝑜
187
 1
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + (𝜔 − 𝜔𝑜 )𝑡
2

1 1
= 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜔𝑡
2 2

2𝜃
𝜔𝑜 = −𝜔
𝑡

2 × 90 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝜔𝑜 = − 10 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠
15

= 2 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠

(b) Since we want to know how long it takes to go from rest to 2 rev/s, we need to know

the angular acceleration:

Are Angular Quantities Vectors?

We describe translational motion using vector quantities: position, displacement,

velocity, and acceleration. We can also describe rotational motion using angular velocity

and acceleration vectors. However, angular displacement does not behave like a vector;

adding two vectors in different orders produces different vectors:

188
Angular Velocity Vector:

A vector with magnitude given by the angular speed and direction given by the axis of

rotation according to the right hand rule:

Angular Acceleration Vector:

The angular acceleration can also be represented by a vector:

𝑑𝜔
𝑟𝛼 = (17)
𝑑𝑡

For a rotation along a fixed axis, if α and ω are parallel, then the object will spin faster

and if 𝛼 and ω are anti-parallel, then the object will spin slower.

Relationship Between Linear and Angular Variables:

Distance:

A point on the object swept out an arch when the object rotates with respect to a fixed

axis.

189
The distance that the point has moved is given by the length of the arc which is related to

the angle of rotation as given in equation (13)

• Different points move different distances. A point further from the center moves a

larger distance.

Speed:

Differentiate Eq. (13):

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 (18)

Acceleration:

Differentiate Eq. (18):

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
=𝑟 = 𝑟𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼 (19)

• This is the acceleration that changes the speed of the object, but not its direction. This

acceleration is therefore along the path of the object, i.e. tangent to the path-tangential

acceleration

• There is also an acceleration for the change in direction. This is the centripetal

acceleration

we derived for uniform circular motion:

190
• This is along the radial direction toward the center and is known as the radial

acceleration.

Example:

An astronaut is being tested in a centrifuge. The centrifuge has a radius of 10 m and, in

starting, rotates according to θ = 0.30t2, where t is given in seconds and q in radians.

When t = 5.0s, what are the astronaut's

(a) angular velocity,

(b) linear speed, and

(c) tangential and radial accelerations?

Solution

191
• "rad" disappeared because it is a unitless quantity: θ = s / r. We keep "rad" as a

reminder.

Rotational Kinetic Energy:

For an object in a translational motion, there is a kinetic energy associated with the

motion:
1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2 (20)
2
192
For an object in rotational motion, there must be kinetic energy associated with each

point on the object:

1
𝑇 = ∑ 2 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 2

Since 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟, T can be expressed as

1
𝑇 = ∑ 2 𝑚𝑖 (𝜔𝑟𝑖 )2

1
= ∑(𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 )𝜔2
2

1
= 𝐼𝜔2
2

Example

A 25 kg girl riding on the outer edge of a large merry-go-round with a 10 m diameter has

a (rotational) kinetic energy of 20 J. Find the girl’s moment of inertia relative to the axis

of rotation and find the number of revolutions the merry-go-round makes per minute.

Solution:

The girl’s moment of inertia, calculated as if she were a point mass, is given as

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 = 25(5)2 = 625𝑘𝑔𝑚2

To proceed we first calculate the angular velocity of the girl (and merry go-round) using

the expression for the rotational kinetic energy,

2𝑇
𝜔=√
𝐼

193
We find that ω= 0.25 rad/s so that in 60 s the girl has gone around an angle θ=ωt of 15
15𝑟𝑎𝑑
rad, corresponding to = 2.7 𝑟𝑒𝑣
2𝜋

Review of Newton’s Laws of Motion

Form the basis for classical mechanics

• First law: If there is no net force on an object, then its velocity is constant. The object

is either at rest (if its velocity is equal to zero), or it moves with constant speed in a

single direction.

• Second law: The rate of change of linear momentum P of an object is directly

proportional to the applied force F and the object moves in the direction in which force F

is applied. If r is the radius vector of a particle with respect to some origin, then the

velocity, v is

𝑑𝑟
𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡

The linear momentum P is P = mv and Newton’s second law can be expressed as:
𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚𝑣) (21)

• Third law: ‘To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.’

Suppose we have two particles i and j and suppose i exerts a force Fij on j. Then we can

translate Newton’s third law to read Fij = Fji i.e the force j exerts of i is equal and

opposite. When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body, the second body

simultaneously exerts a force F2 = −F1 on the first body. This means that F1 and F2 are

equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

194
Work, Energy, Forces, Momentum and torque

• torque, is the rotational analog of the moment of a force.

To open a door, where and in what direction you apply the force is important:

✓ the applied force should be as far away from the hinge as possible door knob is

located far away from the hinge

✓ the applied force should be perpendicular to the door torque is a quantity that

takes the direction, magnitude, and location of the force into account in rotating

an object.

The torque can be calculated using two methods:

• Use the tangential component of the force:

➢ the radial component has no contribution in the rotational motion.

• Use the line of action:

𝑟˔ is called the moment arm (level arm): it is the perpendicular distance between the axis

of rotation and the line of action, a line that runs through the force vector.

• The further away from the axis of rotation a force is applied, the larger the torque. In

vector form, the torque can be expressed as

195
 𝜏 = 𝑟×𝐹 (22)

• A force that tends to make an object rotate counter clockwise is defined as a positive

torque, and a force that tends to make an object rotate clockwise is defined as a negative

torque.
𝑑
If the force acting on a particle is zero then from Newton’s second law, (𝑚𝑣) = 0
𝑑𝑡

 mv = const = P (linear momentum)

We define the angular momentum L of a particle about any point as

𝐿 = 𝑟× 𝑝 (23)

The torque can also be expressed in terms of L as:

𝑑
𝜏 = 𝑟× 𝐹=𝑟× (𝑚𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑣)

𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝜏 = 𝐿̇

Then we get a version of Newton's second law that holds for angular momentum: 𝜏 = 𝐿̇

The angular momentum L about a point can also be described neatly in terms of moment

of inertia. We have

𝐿 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑟𝑖̇
𝑖

= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 × (𝜔 × 𝑟𝑖 )
𝑖

= ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 (𝑟𝑖2 𝜔 − (𝜔. 𝑟𝑖 )𝑟𝑖 ) = 𝐼𝜔

196
So if the total torque is zero the angular momentum is constant/conserved.

Note that, unlike linear momentum p, both L and 𝜏 depend on where we take the origin:

we measure angular momentum with respect to a particular point.

Energy

Let's now recall the definitions of energy. We firstly define the kinetic energy T as
1
𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑟̇ . 𝑟̇

Suppose from now on that the mass is constant. We can compute the change of kinetic

energy with time as:

dT
= ṗ . ṙ = F. ṙ .
dt

If the particle travels from position A at time tA to position B at time tB then the work

done by an external force upon a particle in going is

B
W AB =  F .dr
A

but v = r so

tB t
dv m B d m
W AB =  m .vdt =  v 2 dt = (v A2 − v B2 )
tA
dt 2 t A dt 2
= T (t A ) − T (t B )

So we see that the work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy.

From now on we will mostly focus on a very special type of force known as a

conservative force. Such a force depends only on position r rather than velocity ṙ and is
197
such that the work done is independent of the path taken. In particular, for a closed path,

the work done vanishes.

∮ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = 0 ↔ ∇ × 𝐹 = 0 (24)

It is a deep property of at space R3 that this property implies we may write the force as

𝐹 = −∇𝑉(𝑟) for some potential V(r).

Definition: An external force is said to be central if it is always directed towards or

away from a fixed point, called ‘the centre of force’. A force whose line of action is

always directed toward a fixed point. A central force is a conservative field, that is, it

can always be expressed as the negative gradient of a potential and as a consequence of

this, it is irrotational, implying that its curl is zero (obeys equation 24). The gravitational

force, the interatomic force, the electrostatic force between charges and the spring force

in elevator are examples of central forces.

If a particle moves under the action of a central force field;

(a) The angular momentum of the particle is conserved

(b) The path (or orbit) of the particle must be a plane curve i.e. the particle moves in a

plane curve

When we have a conservative force, we necessarily have a conservation law for energy.
𝐵

𝑇(t B ) − 𝑇(t A ) = − ∫ ∆𝑉. 𝑑𝑟 = −V (t B ) + V (t A )

𝐴

or, rearranging things,

T(tB) + V (tB) = T(tA) + V (tA) = E (25)

198
So E = T + V is also a constant of motion. It is the energy. When the energy is

considered to be a function of position r and momentum p it is referred to as the

Hamiltonian H which we shall consider later.

Definition: If the force field is such that the work done is the same for any path then we

have a conservative system. This is true if and only if ∮ 𝐹 · 𝑑𝑠 = 0

Which implies there exists a function V (r) such that 𝐹 = −∇𝑉 .

𝐵
∫𝐴 𝐹. 𝑑𝑠 = −𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐴

which implies WAB = VA − VB = TB − TA hence TA + VA = TB + VB i.e energy is

conserved.

Systems of Particles

Suppose we have a system of N particles. We distinguish between the external applied

force and the internal forces between particles. Newton’s first two laws become

𝑑
𝑝 = ∑ 𝐹𝑗𝑖 + 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑖
𝑗

(note Fii = 0)

Applying NIII in the weak form means that the ∑ 𝐹𝑗𝑖 term cancels.

Define the centre of mass by

∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑅= =
∑𝑖 𝑚 𝑖 𝑀

Then

199
 𝑑 𝑑
∑ 𝑝𝑖 = (∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝑖

𝑑2
= 𝑑𝑡 2 (∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 )

𝑑2𝑅
=𝑀
𝑑𝑡 2

= ∑ Fiext
i

→ 𝑃 = 𝑀𝑅̇

So the momentum of the system is the same as the momentum of its centre of mass

Conservation Laws

a. Energy

The work done W by net force on a particle by displacing it from an initial potential V 1

to a final potential V2 equals the change in the particle’s kinetic energy from T1 to T2

W = V1 – V2

W = T2 – T1

Equating the two equations,

V1 – V2 = T2 – T1

i.e. V1 + T1 = V2 + T2 = constant

T + V = K.E + P.E = E (total energy)

This result is known as the work - energy theorem.

200
 b. Linear momentum

From equation (22), if F = 0 then p is constant throughout the motion i.e in the absence

of a net external force on a system, its linear momentum remains constant. This is a

statement of the principle of conservation of linear momentum.

c. Angular momentum

From equation (23), if 𝜏 = 0 then L is constant throughout the motion i.e When the net

external torque acting on a system is zero, the total angular momentum of the system is

constant (conserved).. This is a statement of the principle of conservation of angular

momentum.

Notice that 𝜏 = 0 does not require F = 0, but only 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 0. This means that F must be

parallel to r. This is the definition of a central force. An example is given by the

gravitational force between the earth and the sun: the earth's angular momentum about

the sun is constant. As written above in terms of forces and torques, these conservation

laws appear trivial.

201
ORBITAL MECHANICS

The use of satellites as platforms for remote sounding is based on some very

fundamental physics.

Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation

Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation (first stated by Newton): any two masses m1 and

m2 exert an attractive gravitational force on each other. The force of attraction is:

(i) proportional to their masses

(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Thus treating the masses as points, the force can be expressed as:

m1 m 2
F = G (26)
r2

Where G = Universal constant of gravitation = 6.67  10–11 N m2 / kg2

Newton showed that the force of gravity must act according to this rule in order to

produce the observed motions of the planets around the sun, of the moon around the

earth, and of projectiles near the earth.

Example

Determine the force of attraction between two people with masses m1  m2  70 kg who

are at a distance r = 1 m apart.

solution

202
 m1 m2 ( 6.67  10−11)( 70) 2
F = G = = 3.3  10−7 N
r2 12

Computation of gravitational acceleration, g

A spherical body exerts a gravitational force on surrounding bodies that is the same as if

all the sphere's mass were concentrated at its center. The acceleration due to gravity g

can be computed by considering a body of mass m moving round the earth as shown.

Earth mass m, Fgrav = m a = m g

dropped near
RE
MEm
surface G = mg
R E2

mass ME
(since r = RE is distance from m to center of

Earth)

G ME
m's cancel !  g =
R E2

since the values of G, ME, and RE, are known, then g can be found to be g = 9.8 m/s2.

This explains why all objects near the Earth's surface fall with the same acceleration

GMm
(because the m's cancel in Fgrav = = m a .)
R2

Example

203
Planet X has the same mass as earth (MX = ME) but has ½ the radius (RX = 0.5 RE).

What is gx , the acceleration of gravity on planet X?

Solution

Planet X is denser than earth, so expect gx larger than g.

G MX G ME 1 G ME
gx = = = = 4g .
(R 2 ) (1/ 2 ) R E 2
2 2
R X2 E
g of earth

Alternatively, set up a ratio as:

 G M X 
 2  2
gx  RX  MX  R E 
= =   = 1  22 = 4 , gX = 4 gE
gE  G M E  ME  R X 
 2 
 RE 

At height h above the surface of the earth, g is less, since we are further the earth's

center.

r = RE + h 
h

earth

G ME G ME
g = =
r2 ( R E + h)2

The Earth's radius is RE = 6380 km.

204
Gravitational Potential Energy

Mm
In general, Fgrav = G  constant (it depends on r). The gravitational potential
r2

energy for the general case is given by:

GMm
PE grav = U( r) = − , [ U( r = ) = 0 ] (27)
r
This is the gravitational potential for two masses, M and m, separated by a distance r.

By convention, the zero of gravitational potential energy is set at r = ∞.

The gravitational potential energy can be derived by considering a mass M at the origin

and a mass m at position x1, as shown below.

M Fgrav m
∞
0 x
x1 dx

The force F(x) on mass m is in the negative direction, so, indicating direction with a

GMm
sign, we have F( x) = − . Here, the work done by gravity as the mass m moves
x2

from x = x1 to x = ∞ is negative, since force and displacement are in opposite directions:

  
GMm GMm GMm
Wgrav =  F( x) dx = −  2
dx = + =−
x1 x1
x x x1 x1

GMm
From the definition of PE, PE = U = U( x=) − U( x1) = − Wgrav = + .
0
x1

205
 GMm
Calling the initial position r (instead of x1), we have U( r) = − . r is the radial
r

distance from the origin and is always positive . Plotting U(r) vs. r, we see a

“gravitational potential well”.

Recall that negative potential energy simply means less energy than the zero of energy.

Kepler's Laws for Orbits

So far, we have assumed that satellites travel in circular orbits, but this is not necessarily

true in practice. Newton’s Laws can be used to derive the exact form of a satellite’s

orbit. However, a simpler approach is to look at Kepler’s Laws, which summarize the

results of the full derivation.

Kepler’s first law (KI) : A planet's orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.

206
Kepler’s second law (KII) : A line drawn from planet P to sun S sweeps out equal areas

in equal intervals of time.

Kepler’s third law (KIII): States that the square of the period of a planet is

proportional to the cube of the major axis of its elliptical orbit

For planets around the sun, the period T and the mean distance r from the sun are related

T2
by: = constant (28)
r3

TA 2 TB 2
That is for any two planets A and B, = . This means that planets further from
rA 3 rB3

the sun (larger r) have longer orbital periods (longer T).

Kepler’s Laws were empirical rules based on observations of the motions of planets.

Derivation of KIII (for special case of circular orbits).

Consider a small mass m in circular orbit about a large mass M, with orbital radius r and

period T. We aim to show that T2 / r3 = const.

207
 Start with NII: Fnet = m a

The only force acting is gravity, and for circular motion a = v2 / r 

 2 r 
2

Mm v2 M
G = m
  G = v2 =   [recall the v = dist / time = 2πr / T ]
r 2 r r  T 

M 4 2 r 2 T2 42
 G =  = = constant, independent of m
r T2 r 3
GM

An extra result of this calculation is a formula for the speed v of a satellite in circular

orbit is given by:

GM
v = (29)
r

Kepler’s laws explain how a satellite stays in orbit.

Law (1): A satellite would tend to go off in a straight line if no force were applied to it.

Law (2): An attractive force makes the satellite deviate from a straight line and orbit

Earth.

Velocity and period of a satellite

Gravity provides the inward pull that keeps the satellite in orbit. Assuming a circular

orbit, the gravitational force on the satellite must equal the centripetal force.

208
where

v = tangential velocity

r = orbit radius = RE + h (i.e. not the altitude of the orbit)

RE = radius of Earth

h = altitude of orbit = height above Earth’s surface

m = mass of satellite

mE = mass of Earth

so v depends only on the altitude of the orbit (not on the satellite’s mass).

The period of the satellite’s orbit is

Again, this is only dependent on the altitude, increasing as the orbit’s altitude increases.

The acceleration of the satellite is determined using

209
 4. Gravitation and Space Science

We have briefly discussed the kinematics of a freely falling body

under the gravity of the Earth in earlier units. The fundamental forces
of nature are gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear forces. The
gravitational force is the weakest among them. But this force plays an
important role in the birth of a star, controlling the orbits of planets and
evolution of the whole universe.
Before the seventeenth century, scientists believed that objects fell
on the Earth due to their inherent property of matter. Galileo made a
systematic study of freely falling bodies.

4.1 Newton’s law of gravitation

The motion of the planets, the moon and the Sun was the interesting
subject among the students of Trinity college at Cambridge in England.
Isaac Newton was also one among these
students. In 1665, the college was closed for an
indefinite period due to plague. Newton, who
was then 23 years old, went home to
Lincolnshire. He continued to think about the
motion of planets and the moon. One day
Newton sat under an apple tree and had tea
with his friends. He saw an apple falling to
ground. This incident made him to think about
falling bodies. He concluded that the same force
Fig. 4.1 Acceleration of gravitation which attracts the apple to the
of moon
Earth might also be responsible for attracting
the moon and keeping it in its orbit. The centripetal acceleration of the
moon in its orbit and the downward acceleration of a body falling on the
Earth might have the same origin. Newton calculated the centripetal
acceleration by assuming moon’s orbit (Fig. 4.1) to be circular.

Acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface, g = 9.8 m s–2

v2
Centripetal acceleration on the moon, ac =
r

210
where r is the radius of the orbit of the moon (3.84 × 108 m) and v is
the speed of the moon.
Time period of revolution of the moon around the Earth,
T = 27.3 days.
2π r
The speed of the moon in its orbit, v =
T

2π ×3.84×108
v = = 1.02 × 103 m s−1
27.3× 24× 60× 60
2 3 2
v (1.02 ×10 )
∴ Centripetal acceleration, ac = = 8
r 3.84 ×10
ac = 2.7 × 10−3 m s−2

Newton assumed that both the moon and the apple are accelerated
towards the centre of the Earth. But their motions differ, because, the
moon has a tangential velocity whereas the apple does not have.
Newton found that ac was less than g and hence concluded that
force produced due to gravitational attraction of the Earth decreases
with increase in distance from the centre of the Earth. He assumed that
this acceleration and therefore force was inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the centre of the Earth. He had found that
the value of ac was about 1/3600 of the value of g, since the radius of
the lunar orbit r is nearly 60 times the radius of the Earth R.

The value of ac was calculated as follows :

2 2
ac 1r2 ⎛R ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
= 2
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =
g 1 R ⎝r ⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠ 3600
g 9.8
∴ ac = = = 2.7 × 10−3 m s−2
3600 3600
Newton suggested that gravitational force might vary inversely as
the square of the distance between the bodies. He realised that this
force of attraction was a case of universal attraction between any two
bodies present anywhere in the universe and proposed universal
gravitational law.
The law states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts
every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product

150
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with their centres
separated by a distance r. The gravitational force between them is
F α m1m2 m2
m1
F α 1/r2
m 1m 2 r
∴F α 2
r Fig. 4.2
m 1m 2 Gravitational
F = G where G is the universal force
r2
gravitational constant.
If m1 = m2 = 1 kg and r = 1 m, then F = G.
Hence, the Gravitational constant ‘G’ is numerically equal to
the gravitational force of attraction between two bodies of mass
1 kg each separated by a distance of 1 m. The value of G is
6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 and its dimensional formula is M−1 L3 T−2.

4.1.1 Special features of the law

(i) The gravitational force between two bodies is an action and

reaction pair.

(ii) The gravitational force is very small in the case of lighter

bodies. It is appreciable in the case of massive bodies. The gravitational
force between the Sun and the Earth is of the order of 1027 N.

4.2 Acceleration due to gravity

Galileo was the first to make a systematic study of the motion of
a body under the gravity of the Earth. He dropped various objects from
the leaning tower of Pisa and made analysis of their motion under
gravity. He came to the conclusion that “in the absence of air, all bodies
will fall at the same rate”. It is the air resistance that slows down a piece
of paper or a parachute falling under gravity. If a heavy stone and a
parachute are dropped where there is no air, both will fall together at
the same rate.
Experiments showed that the velocity of a freely falling body under

151
gravity increases at a constant rate. (i.e) with a constant acceleration.
The acceleration produced in a body on account of the force of gravity
is called acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by g. At a given place,
the value of g is the same for all bodies irrespective of their masses. It
differs from place to place on the surface of the Earth. It also varies with
altitude and depth.
The value of g at sea−level and at a latitude of 45o is taken as the
standard (i.e) g = 9.8 m s−2

4.3 Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth

Consider a body of mass m on the surface of
the Earth as shown in the Fig. 4.3. Its distance
from the centre of the Earth is R (radius of the
Earth).

The gravitational force experienced by the

GMm
body is F = where M is the mass of the
R2
Earth.
Fig. 4.3 Acceleration
due to gravity From Newton’s second law of motion,
Force F = mg.
GMm
Equating the above two forces, = mg
R2
GM
∴g =
R2
This equation shows that g is independent of the mass of the body
m. But, it varies with the distance from the centre of the Earth. If the
Earth is assumed to be a sphere of radius R, the value of g on the
GM
surface of the Earth is given by g =
R2

4.3.1 Mass of the Earth

GM
From the expression g = R 2 , the mass of the Earth can be
calculated as follows :

gR 2 9.8× (6.38×106 )2
M = = = 5.98 × 1024 kg
G 6.67×10−11

152
4.4 Variation of acceleration due to gravity

(i) Variation of g with altitude

Let P be a point on the surface of the Earth and Q be a point at
an altitude h. Let the mass of the Earth be M and radius of the Earth
be R. Consider the Earth as a spherical shaped body.

The acceleration due to gravity at P on the surface is

GM
g = ... (1)
R2
Let the body be placed at Q at a height h from the surface of the
Earth. The acceleration due to gravity at Q is
GM
Q gh = (R + h)2 ... (2)

h gh R2
dividing (2) by (1) g = 2
(R + h)
P
By simplifying and expanding using

⎛ 2h⎞
R binomial theorem, gh = g ⎜ 1 -
⎝ R ⎟⎠
The value of acceleration due to gravity
Fig. 4.4 Variation of g decreases with increase in height above the
with altitude
surface of the Earth.
(ii) Variation of g with depth
Consider the Earth to be a
homogeneous sphere with uniform density P
of radius R and mass M. d
Let P be a point on the surface of the Q
Earth and Q be a point at a depth d from
the surface.
O R
The acceleration due to gravity at P on
GM
the surface is g = .
R2
If ρ be the density, then, the mass of Fig. 4.5 Variation of g
4 with depth
the Earth is M = π R3ρ
3
153
 4
∴g = GπR ρ ... (1)
3
The acceleration due to gravity at Q at a depth d from the surface
of the Earth is
2
GM d
gd =
(R − d)2

where Md is the mass of the inner sphere of the Earth of radius (R− d).
4
Md = π(R − d) 3ρ
3
4
∴ gd = G π (R – d)ρ ... (2)
3
gd R - d
dividing (2) by (1), =
g R

gd = g ⎛1− d ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ R⎠
The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase of
depth.

(iii) Variation of g with latitude (Non−sphericity of the Earth) The

Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is

an ellipsoid as shown in the Fig. 4.6. It is Rp
flattened at the poles where the latitude is 90o
and bulged at the equator where the latitude
Re
is 0o.

The radius of the Earth at equatorial

plane Re is greater than the radius along the Fig.4.6 Non−sphericity
poles Rp by about 21 km. of the Earth
GM
We know that g =
R2

1
∴g α 2
R

The value of g varies inversely as the square of radius of the

Earth. The radius at the equator is the greatest. Hence the value of g

154
is minimum at the equator. The radius at poles is the least. Hence, the
value of g is maximum at the poles. The value of g increases from the
equator to the poles.

(iv) Variation of g with latitude (Rotation of the Earth)

Let us consider the Earth as a homogeneous sphere of mass M
and radius R. The Earth rotates about an axis passing through its north
and south poles. The Earth rotates from
N west to east in 24 hours. Its angular
P −5 −1
B F velocity is 7.3 × 10 rad s .
c
θ Consider a body of mass m on
the surface of the Earth at P at a
θ latitude θ. Let ω be the angular velocity.
W E The force (weight) F = mg acts along
O D A
PO. It could be resolved into two
rectangular components (i) mg cos θ along
PB and (ii) mg sin θ along PA (Fig. 4.7).
From the ∆OPB, it is found that
S BP = R cos θ. The particle describes a
Fig. 4.7 Rotation of circle with B as centre and radius
the Earth BP = R cos θ.
The body at P experiences a centrifugal force (outward force) FC
due to the rotation of the Earth.
(i.e) FC = mRω2 cos θ .
The net force along PC = mg cos θ − mRω2 cos θ
∴ The body is acted upon by two forces along PA and PC.
The resultant of these two forces is
F= √(mg sinθ)2+(mg cosθ−mRω2 cosθ)2

2Rω 2 cos 2 θ R 2 ω 4 cos 2 θ

F = mg 1- +
g g2

2 4 2
R 2ω 4 R ω cos θ
since is very small, the term can be neglected.
g2 g2

2R ω 2 cos 2 θ
The force, F = mg 1- ... (1)
g

155
 If g ′ is the acceleration of the body at P due to this force F,
we have, F = mg ′ ... (2)
by equating (2) and (1)

2R ω2 cos2 θ
mg ′ = mg 1−
g

⎛ Rω2 cos2 θ ⎞
g ′ = g ⎜ 1− g ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Case (i) At the poles, θ = 90o ; cos θ = 0

∴ g′ = g
Case (ii) At the equator, θ = 0 ; cos θ = 1
⎛ Rω2 ⎞
∴ g ′ = g ⎜ 1− g ⎟⎠
⎝

So, the value of acceleration due to gravity is maximum at the

poles.

4.5 Gravitational field

Two masses separated by a distance exert gravitational forces on
one another. This is called action at–a–distance. They interact even
though they are not in contact. This interaction can also be explained
with the field concept. A particle or a body placed at a point modifies a
space around it which is called gravitational field. When another particle
is brought in this field, it experiences gravitational force of attraction.
The gravitational field is defined as the space around a mass in which it
can exert gravitational force on other mass.

4.5.1 Gravitational field intensity

Q
Gravitational field intensity or P
strength at a point is defined as the force M
experienced by a unit mass placed at r m
that point. It is denoted by E. It is a
Fig. 4.8 Gravitational field
vector quantity. Its unit is N kg–1.
Consider a body of mass M placed
at a point Q and another body of mass m placed at P at a distance r
from Q.

156
 The mass M develops a field E at P and this field exerts a force
F = mE.
The gravitational force of attraction between the masses m and
GM m
M is F =
r2
F
The gravitational field intensity at P is E =
m
GM
∴ E =
r2
Gravitational field intensity is the measure of gravitational field.

4.5.2 Gravitational potential difference

Gravitational potential difference between two points is defined as
the amount of work done in moving unit mass
from one point to another point against the
gravitational force of attraction.
A B
Consider two points A and B separated
by a distance dr in the gravitational field. dr
Fig. 4.9 Gravitational
The work done in moving unit mass from potential difference
A to B is dv = WA → B
Gravitational potential difference dv = − E dr
Here negative sign indicates that work is done against the
gravitational field.

4.5.3 Gravitational potential

Gravitational potential at a point is defined as the amount of work
done in moving unit mass from the point to infinity against the gravitational
field. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is N m kg−1.

4.5.4 Expression for gravitational potential at a point

Consider a body of mass M at the
point C. Let P be a point at a distance r
M
from C. To calculate the gravitational C P A B
potential at P consider two points A and
r dx
B. The point A, where the unit mass is
placed is at a distance x from C. x
Fig. 4.10 Gravitational potential

157
 GM
The gravitational field at A is E =
x2
The work done in moving the unit mass from A to B through a
small distance dx is dw = dv = −E.dx
Negative sign indicates that work is done against the gravitational
field.
GM
dv = − dx
x2
The work done in moving the unit mass from the point P to
∞
GM
infinity is ∫ dv= −∫ x2
dx
r
GM
v = –
r
The gravitational potential is negative, since the work is done
against the field. (i.e) the gravitational force is always attractive.

4.5.5 Gravitational potential energy

Consider a body of mass m placed at P at a distance r from the
centre of the Earth. Let the mass of the Earth be M.
When the mass m is at A at a
P A B distance x from Q, the gravitational
Q
r dx force of attraction on it due to mass M is
Earth
x
GM m
Fig. 4.11 Gravitational given by F =
potential energy x2
The work done in moving the mass
m through a small distance dx from A to B along the line joining the
two centres of masses m and M is dw = –F.dx
Negative sign indicates that work is done against the gravitational
field.
G Mm
∴ dw = – . dx
x2
The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a distance r from
another mass M is defined as the amount of work done in moving the
mass m from a distance r to infinity.
The total work done in moving the mass m from a distance r to
158
infinity is
∞
G Mm
∫ dw = -∫ x2
dx
r
∞
1
W = – GMm ∫ 2
dx
r x
GM m
*U = –
r
Gravitational potential energy is zero at infinity and decreases as
the distance decreases. This is due to the fact that the gravitational
force exerted on the body by the Earth is attractive. Hence the
gravitational potential energy U is negative.

4.5.6 Gravitational potential energy near the surface of the Earth

Let the mass of the Earth be M and its radius be R. Consider a
point A on the surface of the Earth and another point B at a height h
above the surface of the Earth. The work done in
moving the mass m from A to B is U = UB − UA B
⎡ 1 1⎤ h
U = − GMm ⎢ - ⎥
⎣ (R + h) R ⎦ A
⎡1 1 ⎤
U = GMm ⎢ - ⎥
R⎣ (R + h) ⎦ O
R
GMmh Earth
U = R(R + h)

If the body is near the surface of the Earth, Fig. 4.12 Gravitational
h is very small when compared with R. Hence (R+h) potential energy
could be taken as R. near the surface of
the Earth
GM mh
∴ U =
R2
⎛ GM ⎞
U = mgh ⎜∵ = g⎟
2
⎝ R ⎠

4.6 Inertial mass

According to Newton’s second law of motion (F = ma), the mass of
a body can be determined by measuring the acceleration produced in it

159
by a constant force. (i.e) m = F/a. Intertial mass of a body is a measure
of the ability of a body to oppose the production of acceleration in it by
an external force.
If a constant force acts on two masses mA and mB and produces
accelerations aA and aB respectively, then, F = mAaA = mBaB
mA a
∴ = B
mB aA
The ratio of two masses is independent of the constant force. If the
same force is applied on two different bodies, the inertial mass of the
body is more in which the acceleration produced is less.
If one of the two masses is a standard kilogram, the unknown
mass can be determined by comparing their accelerations.

4.7 Gravitational mass

According to Newton’s law of gravitation, the gravitational force on
a body is proportional to its mass. We can measure the mass of a body
by measuring the gravitational force exerted on it by a massive body like
Earth. Gravitational mass is the mass of a body which determines the
magnitude of gravitational pull between the body and the Earth. This is
determined with the help of a beam balance.
If FA and FB are the gravitational forces of attraction on the two
bodies of masses mA and mB due to the Earth, then
G mA M G m BM
FA = and FB =
R2 R2
where M is mass of the Earth, R is the radius of the Earth and G is the
gravitational constant.
mA F
∴ = A
mB FB
If one of the two masses is a standard kilogram, the unknown
mass can be determined by comparing the gravitational forces.

4.8 Escape speed

If we throw a body upwards, it reaches a certain height and then
falls back. This is due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth. If we
throw the body with a greater speed, it rises to a greater height. If the

160
body is projected with a speed of 11.2 km/s, it escapes from the Earth
and never comes back. The escape speed is the minimum speed with
which a body must be projected in order that it may escape from the
gravitational pull of the planet.
Consider a body of mass m placed on the Earth’s surface. The
GM m
gravitational potential energy is EP = –
R
where M is the mass of the Earth and R is its radius.
If the body is projected up with a speed ve, the kinetic energy is
1
EK = mve 2
2
∴ the initial total energy of the body is
1 G Mm
Ei = mve 2 – ... (1)
2 R
If the body reaches a height h above the Earth’s surface, the
gravitational potential energy is

GM m
EP = –
(R + h)
Let the speed of the body at the height is v, then its kinetic energy is,
1 2
EK = mv .
2
Hence, the final total energy of the body at the height is
1 GM m
Ef = mv 2 – ... (2)
2 (R + h)
We know that the gravitational force is a conservative force and
hence the total mechanical energy must be conserved.
∴ Ei = Ef
mv e 2 GMm mv 2 GMm
(i.e) - = -
2 R 2 (R + h)
The body will escape from the Earth’s gravity at a height where
the gravitational field ceases out. (i.e) h = ∞ . At the height h = ∞ , the
speed v of the body is zero.

161
 mv e 2 GMm
Thus − =0
2 R

2GM
ve =
R
GM
From the relation g = , we get GM = gR2
R2

Thus, the escape speed is ve = 2gR

The escape speed for Earth is 11.2 km/s, for the planet Mercury
it is 4 km/s and for Jupiter it is 60 km/s. The escape speed for the
moon is about 2.5 km/s.

4.8.1 An interesting consequence of escape speed with the

atmosphere of a planet
We know that the escape speed is independent of the mass of the
body. Thus, molecules of a gas and very massive rockets will require the
same initial speed to escape from the Earth or any other planet or
moon.
The molecules of a gas move with certain average velocity, which
depends on the nature and temperature of the gas. At moderate
temperatures, the average velocity of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon–di–
oxide is in the order of 0.5 km/s to 1 km/s and for lighter gases
hydrogen and helium it is in the order of 2 to 3 km/s. It is clear that the
lighter gases whose average velocities are in the order of the escape
speed, will escape from the moon. The gravitational pull of the moon is
too weak to hold these gases. The presence of lighter gases in the
atmosphere of the Sun should not surprise us, since the gravitational
attraction of the sun is very much stronger and the escape speed is very
high about 620 km/s.

4.9 Satellites
A body moving in an orbit around a planet is called satellite. The
moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. It moves around the Earth once
in 27.3 days in an approximate circular orbit of radius 3.85 × 105 km.

162
4.9.1 Orbital velocity
Artificial satellites are made to revolve in an orbit at a height of
few hundred kilometres. At this altitude, the friction due to air is
negligible. The satellite is carried by a rocket to the desired height and
released horizontally with a high velocity, so that it remains moving in
a nearly circular orbit.
The horizontal velocity that has to be imparted to a satellite at the
determined height so that it makes a circular orbit around the planet is
called orbital velocity.
Let us assume that a satellite of mass m moves around the Earth
in a circular orbit of radius r with uniform speed vo. Let the satellite be
at a height h from the surface of the Earth. Hence, r = R+h, where R
is the radius of the Earth.
The centripetal force required to keep the satellite in circular
2 2
mv mv
orbit is F = o
= o
r R+h
The gravitational force between the Earth and the satellite is
GMm GMm
F = = h
r2 (R + h) 2
For the stable orbital motion,
mvo2 GMm r
=
R + h (R + h) 2
GM R
vo = vo Earth
R+h
Since the acceleration due to
GM
gravity on Earth’s surface is g = ,
R2
gR 2 Fig. 4.13 Orbital Velocity
vo =
R +h
If the satellite is at a height of few hundred kilometres
(say 200 km), (R+h) could be replaced by R.

∴ orbital velocity, vo = gR

If the horizontal velocity (injection velocity) is not equal to the

calculated value, then the orbit of the satellite will not be circular. If the

163
injection velocity is greater than the calculated value but not greater
than the escape speed (ve = 2 vo), the satellite will move along an elliptical
orbit. If the injection velocity exceeds the escape speed, the satellite will
not revolve around the Earth and will escape into the space. If the
injection velocity is less than the calculated value, the satellite will fall
back to the Earth.

4.9.2 Time period of a satellite

Time taken by the satellite to complete one revolution round the
Earth is called time period.
circumference of the orbit
Time period, T =
orbital velocity
2πr 2π(R + h)
T= = where r is the radius of the orbit which is equal
vo vo
to (R+h).
R +h ⎡ GM ⎤
T = 2π (R+h) ⎢∵ vo = ⎥
GM ⎣ R+h ⎦
3
(R + h)
T = 2π
GM

(R + h) 3
As GM = gR2, T = 2π
gR 2
If the satellite orbits very close to the Earth, then h << R
R
∴ T = 2π
g

4.9.3 Energy of an orbiting satellite

A satellite revolving in a circular orbit round the Earth possesses
both potential energy and kinetic energy. If h is the height of the satellite
above the Earth’s surface and R is the radius of the Earth, then the
radius of the orbit of satellite is r = R+h.
If m is the mass of the satellite, its potential energy is,
-GMm -GMm
EP = =
r (R + h)
where M is the mass of the Earth. The satellite moves with an orbital
GM
velocity of vo =
(R + h)

164
 1 GMm
Hence, its kinetic energy is, EK = mv o 2 EK =
2 2(R + h)
The total energy of the satellite is, E = EP + EK
GMm
E = − 2(R + h)

The negative value of the total energy indicates that the satellite
is bound to the Earth.

4.9.4 Geo–stationary satellites

A geo-stationary satellite is a particular type used in television and
telephone communications. A number of communication satellites which
appear to remain in fixed positions at a specified height above the equator
are called synchronous satellites or geo-stationary satellites. Some
television programmes or events occuring in other countries are often
transmitted ‘live’ with the help of these satellites.
For a satellite to appear fixed at a position above a certain place
on the Earth, its orbital period around the Earth must be exactly equal
to the rotational period of the Earth about its axis.
Consider a satellite of mass m moving in a circular orbit around the
Earth at a distance r from the centre of the Earth. For synchronisation, its
period of revolution around the Earth must be equal to the period of rotation
of the Earth (ie) 1 day = 24 hr = 86400 seconds.
The speed of the satellite in its orbit is
Circumference of orbit
v = Time period
2π r
v =
T
mv 2
The centripetal force is F =
r
4mπ 2r
∴F = 2
T
The gravitational force on the satellite due to the Earth is
GMm
F=
r2
4mπ 2 r GMm 3 =
GMT 2
For the stable orbital motion = (or) r
T2 r2 4π 2

165
 GM
We know that, g =
R2
gR 2T 2
∴ r3 =
4π 2 1/3
⎛ gR2T 2 ⎞
The orbital radius of the geo- stationary satellite is, r = ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 4π ⎠
This orbit is called parking orbit of the satellite.
Substituting T = 86400 s, R = 6400 km and g = 9.8 m/s2, the
radius of the orbit of geo-stationary satellite is calculated as 42400 km.
∴ The height of the geo-stationary satellite above the surface of
the Earth is h = r − R = 36000 km.
If a satellite is parked at this height, it appears to be stationary.
Three satellites spaced at 120o intervals each above Atlantic, Pacific and
Indian oceans provide a worldwide communication network.

4.9.5 Polar satellites

The polar satellites revolve around the Earth in a north−south
orbit passing over the poles as the Earth spins about its north − south
axis.
The polar satellites positioned nearly 500 to 800 km above the
Earth travels pole to pole in 102 minutes. The polar orbit remains fixed
in space as the Earth rotates inside the orbit. As a result, most of the
earth’s surface crosses the satellite in a polar orbit. Excellent coverage
of the Earth is possible with this polar orbit. The polar satellites are
used for mapping and surveying.

4.9.6 Uses of satellites

(i) Satellite communication
Communication satellites are used to send radio, television and
telephone signals over long distances. These satellites are fitted with
devices which can receive signals from an Earth – station and transmit
them in different directions.
(ii) Weather monitoring
Weather satellites are used to photograph clouds from space and
measure the amount of heat reradiated from the Earth. With this
information scientists can make better forecasts about weather. You

166
might have seen the aerial picture of our country taken by the satellites, which
is shown daily in the news bulletin on the television and in the news papers.
(iii) Remote sensing
Collecting of information about an object without physical contact with
the object is known as remote sensing. Data collected by the remote
sensing satellities can be used in agriculture, forestry, drought assessment,
estimation of crop yields, detection of potential fishing zones, mapping and
surveying.
(iv) Navigation satellites
These satellites help navigators to guide their ships or planes in all
kinds of weather.

167
CONSTRAINTS AND GENERALIZED COORDINATES IN CONFIGURATION SPACE

The configuration space of a mechanical system with constraints evolving in n-dimensional

space, with spatial coordinates x =(x1,x2, ..., xn), can sometimes be described in terms of

generalized coordinates q =(q1,q2, ..., qk)in a k-dimensional configuration space, with k = n. The

system is said to have n degrees of freedom. The degrees of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical

system is defined as the minimum number of generalized coordinates necessary to define the

configuration of the system. For a set of generalized coordinates to be minimum in number, the

coordinates must be independent of each other. That is, they must form an independent set of

coordinates.

Each generalized coordinate is said to describe motion along a degree of freedom of the

mechanical system. For example, we consider a mechanical system composed of two particles

(see Figure, with masses (m1,m2) and three-dimensional coordinate positions (x1, x2), tied

together with a massless rod (so that the distance |x1 - x2| is constant). The configuration of this

two-particle system can be described in terms of the coordinates of the center-of-mass (CM) in

the Laboratory frame (O) and the orientation of the rod in the CM frame (O’) expressed in terms

of the two angles (θ , φ ).

168
 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑚1 𝑋1 + 𝑚2 𝑋2
𝑋𝐶𝑀 = =
∑𝑖 𝑚 𝑖 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

Hence, as a result of the existence of a single constraint (l = |x1 - x2|), the generalized

coordinates for this system are (xCM; θ , φ) and we have reduced the number of coordinates

needed to describe the state of the system from six to five. Each generalized coordinate is said to

describe dynamics along a degree of freedom of the mechanical system; for example, in the case

of the two-particle system discussed above, the generalized coordinates x CM describe the

arbitrary motion of the center-of-mass while the generalized coordinates (θ , φ) describe arbitrary

rotation about the center-of-mass. The figures below show examples of one, two, and three

degree-of-freedom planar systems.

A constraint is an external restriction on the motion of a system. Constraints are found to be of

two different types refered to as holonomic and non-holonomic constraints. If the condition of a

constraint is such that it can be written in the form f(r1, ..., rn, t) = 0 then we have a holonomic

constraint. An example is the rigid body. Constraints which cannot be written this way are called

non-holonomic, eg a gas in a container. If the constraint contains time explicitly then it is said to

be rheonomous, if it does not it is called scleronomous, eg. bead on rigid wire is subject to the

latter type of constraint, but if the bead is on a moving wire then we have the former type.

169
Each constraint removes a degree of freedom. This means a holonomic constraint must allow us

to eliminate some variables. Taking this effect into account, then:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

Very often the constraint can be written as ∑𝑖 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑖 = 0 then the constraint will be

𝜕𝑓
holonomic. If an integrating function exists f(x1, ..xn) such that 𝑔𝑖 = 𝜕𝑥 then the constraint is
𝑖

holonomic only if:

𝜕𝑓𝑔𝑖 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑔 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕𝑓𝑔𝑗

= 𝜕𝑥 𝑔𝑖 + 𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑔𝑖 𝑔𝑖 + 𝜕𝑥 = (30)
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑖𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖

Other examples of non-holonomic constraints are a particle on the sphere, and all constraints

depending on higher derivatives

D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE AND LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS

Two preliminary lemmas

(i) The cancellation of the dots

If we have a function 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑞𝑖 , 𝑞̇ 𝑖 ) then

𝜕𝑥
𝑥̇ = ∑ 𝑞𝑖̇
𝑖 𝜕𝑞𝑖

𝜕𝑥̇ 𝜕𝑥
So that = 𝜕𝑞
𝜕𝑞𝑖̇ 𝑖

(ii) The interchange of the d and the 𝜕

𝑑 𝜕𝑥 𝜕 2𝑥 𝜕 𝜕𝑥̇ 𝜕𝑥̈
( )=∑ 𝑞𝑗̇ = ∑ 𝑞𝑗̇ =
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑖̇ 𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑖̇

𝑑 𝜕𝑥 𝑑 𝜕𝑥̇
So that ( ) = 𝑑𝑡 (𝜕𝑞 ) by the cancellation of the dots.
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞 𝑖 𝑖

170
D’Alembert’s Principle

Definition: A virtual displacement of a system refers to a change in the configuration of the

system as a result of an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement 𝛿𝑟𝑖 consistent with the forces and

constraints at time t. The displacement is called virtual so as to distinguish it from an actual

displacement occurring in time during which the forces and constraints can vary.

Suppose the system is in equilibrium, ie. the total force on each particle is zero, Fi = 0.

Then clearly

𝐹𝑖 . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 0 so as not to affect constraints and forces. If we decompose F as 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑓𝑖 ,

then ∑𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 + ∑𝑖 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 0

We now make the assumption that constraint forces do no work (ie the second term is

zero) under the virtual displacement. Ie we assume we have a rigid body. Then

∑𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 0 (31)

This is the Principle of Virtual Work, or what some authors call D’Alemberts Principle, i.e. The

condition for the equilibrium of a system is that the virtual work of the applied forces is zero.

Consider a system described by n generalised coordinates. Let us assume all constraints are

holonomic. We remark that {qi} may be less in number than the total number 3N of degrees of

freedom of the system (constraints).

Now the work can be done in an infinitesimal displacement will be proportional to the elements

dqi,

𝑑𝑊 = ∑𝑟 𝑄𝑟 . 𝑑𝑞𝑟 (32)

Qr is then defined as the generalised force.

171
Consider now a system of N particles, let Fi be the force on the ith particle, let Pi be its

momentum. From Newton 2nd law

𝐹𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖̇ = 0

Hence ∑𝑖(𝐹𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖̇ ) . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 =0

where 𝛿𝑟𝑖 is a virtual displacement. But 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑓𝑖

hence ∑𝑖(𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑓𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖̇ ) . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 0

We make the assumption that forces of constraint do no work, i.e ∑𝑖 𝑓𝑖 . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 0 and we obtain

∑𝑖(𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖̇ ) . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 0 (33)

Which is the D’Alemberts Principle - this is the dynamic principle of virtual work.

Lagrange’s Equations

Continuing from above:

∑ 𝑃𝑖̇ . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖̈ . 𝛿𝑟𝑖

𝑖 𝑖

𝜕𝑟𝑖
= ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖̈ . ( . 𝛿𝑞𝑗 )
𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑖𝑗

𝑑 𝜕𝑟𝑖 𝑑 𝜕𝑟𝑖
= ∑ (∑ ( 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖̇ − 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖̇ ( ))) 𝛿𝑞𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑗 𝑖

𝑑 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑟
But as we have seen , 𝑑𝑡 (𝜕𝑞𝑖 ) = 𝜕𝑞𝑖 , and = 𝜕𝑞𝑖
𝑗 𝑗 𝑑𝑞𝑗̇ 𝑗

So

𝜕𝑟𝑖 𝑑 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑖

∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖̈ = ∑ [ (𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ) − 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ]
𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑖 𝑖

172
 𝑑 𝜕 1 𝜕 1
=∑ ( (∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 )) − (∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 ) 𝛿𝑞𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 2 𝜕𝑞𝑗 2
𝑗 𝑖 𝑖

Now let us make use of the fact that we have holonomic constraints - we can define our

coordinates {qi} such that they form a complete set ri = ri(q1, ...qn, t)

𝑑𝑟𝑖 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑞𝑘 𝜕𝑟𝑖

So 𝑣𝑖 = = ∑𝑘 𝜕𝑞 𝑖 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑟
Hence 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = ∑𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝛿𝑞𝑗 since 𝛿𝑟𝑖 is independent of time. So we now have
𝑗

𝜕𝑟𝑖
∑ 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝛿𝑟𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝛿𝑞
𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑗
𝑖

We now define the Generalised Forces corresponding to our generalised coordinates as

𝜕𝑟𝑖
𝑄𝑗 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝜕𝑞𝑗

1
Using 𝑇 = 2 ∑𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 − 𝐾. 𝐸 we have

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝑇
∑ [{ ( )− } − 𝑄𝑗 ] 𝛿𝑞𝑗 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 𝑑𝑞𝑗
𝑖𝑗

which is just D’Alemberts principle again!

Since this s true for any virtual displacement and the 𝑞𝑗 s are independent (holonomic)

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝑇
( )− = 𝑄𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 𝑑𝑞𝑗

Assume we are dealing with a conservative system i.e 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 = −∇i V then

𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑉
𝑄𝑗 = ∑𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝜕𝑞𝑖 = − ∑𝑖 ∇i V. 𝜕𝑞𝑖 i.e 𝑄𝑗 = − 𝜕𝑞 thus substituting for Qj, we have
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕
( )− (𝑇 − 𝑉) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 𝜕𝑞𝑗

173
 𝜕𝑇
But =0 so define Lagrangian, L by 𝐿 =𝑇−𝑉 then
𝜕𝑞𝑗̇

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
( )− =0 (34)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 𝜕𝑞𝑗

Definition: The Lagrangian function L, for a system is defined to be the difference between the

kinetic and potential energies expressed as a fuction of positions and velocities.

1
𝐿(𝑟, 𝑟̇ ) = 𝑇 − 𝑉 = ∑𝑖 2 𝑚𝑖 𝑟̇𝑖2 − 𝑉(𝑟1 , … 𝑟𝑁 ) (35)

In terms of Lagrangian, the classical equations of motions are given by the so called Lagrange's

(Euler-Lagrange) equations given by eqn. (35).The E-L equation is completely equivalent to

Newton,s second law. In order to see this, note that

𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑗 𝑞𝑗̇
𝜕𝑞𝑗̇

𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
= − 𝜕𝑟 = 𝐹𝑗
𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑗

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
Therefore ( )− = 𝑚𝑗 𝑞𝑗̈ − 𝐹𝑗 = 0 , which is Newton’s 2nd law.
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗̇ 𝜕𝑞𝑗

Langrangian formulation can be used to obtain the equations of motions of a system in any set of

coordinates

Example I: Pendulum

Consider the pendulum composed of an object of mass m and a massless string of constant length

l in a constant gravitational field with acceleration g.

174
Although the motion of the pendulum is two-dimensional, a single generalized coordinate is

needed to describe the configuration of the pendulum: the angle θ measured from the negative y-

axis. Here, the position of the object is given as

x(θ) = lsin θ and y(θ) = −l cos θ, with associated velocity components

x˙ (θ, θ˙) = l θ˙ cos θ and y˙(θ, θ˙) = lθ˙ sin θ.

Hence, the kinetic energy of the pendulum is

𝑚 2 𝑚
𝐾 = (𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ 2 ) = 𝑙 2 𝜃̇ 2
2 2

and choosing the zero potential energy point when θ = 0 (see Figure above), the gravitational

potential energy is

𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝑙 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃).

The Lagrangian L = K − U is, therefore, written as

𝑚 2 2
𝐿(𝜃, 𝜃̇) = 𝑙 𝜃̇ − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 (1 − cos 𝜃)
2

and the Euler-Lagrange equation for θ is

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ → ( ) = 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̈
𝜕𝜃̇ 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇

𝜕𝐿
= −𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝜃
𝑔
Or 𝜃̈ + 𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 0

175
Example II: Bead on a Rotating Hoop

Let us also consider a bead of mass m sliding freely on a hoop of radius R rotating with angular

velocity Ω in a constant gravitational field with acceleration g. Here, since the bead of the

rotating hoop moves on the surface of a sphere of radius R, we use the generalized coordinates

given by the two angles θ (measured from the negative z-axis) and ϕ (measured from the positive

x-axis), where ϕ˙ = Ω. The position of the bead is given as

x(θ, t) = R sin θ cos(ϕ0 +Ωt),

y(θ, t) = R sin θ sin(ϕ0 +Ωt),

z(θ, t) = − R cos θ,

where ϕ(t) = ϕ0 +Ωt, and its associated velocity components are

𝑥̇ (𝜃, 𝜃̇, 𝑡) = 𝑅 (𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 ̇ cos 𝜑 − 𝛺 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑)

𝑦̇ (𝜃, 𝜃̇, 𝑡) = 𝑅 (𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 ̇ sin 𝜑 − 𝛺 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑),

𝑧̇ (𝜃, 𝜃̇ , 𝑡) = 𝑅 𝜃̇ sin 𝜃

so that the kinetic energy of the bead is

𝑚 𝑚𝑅 2
𝐾(𝜃, 𝜃̇) = |𝑣|2 = (𝜃̇ 2 + 𝛺 2 sin2 𝜃)
2 2

The figure below shows the generalized coordinates for the bead-on-a-rotating-hoop problem

176
The gravitational potential energy is

𝑈(𝜃) = 𝑚𝑔𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃),where we chose the zero potential energy

point at θ = 0 (see Figure).

The Lagrangian L = K − U is, therefore, written as

𝑚𝑅 2 2
𝐿(𝜃, 𝜃˙) = (𝜃̇ + 𝛺 2 sin2 𝜃) − 𝑚𝑔𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
2

and the Euler-Lagrange equation for θ is

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑅 2 𝜃̇ → ( ) = 𝑚𝑅 2 𝜃̈
𝜕𝜃̇ 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇

𝜕𝐿
= −𝑚𝑔𝑅 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑅 2 𝛺 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝜃
𝑔
Or 𝜃̈ + sin 𝜃 (𝑅 − 𝛺 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = 0

Note that the support force provided by the hoop (necessary in the Newtonian method) is now

replaced by the constraint R = constant in the Lagrangian method. Furthermore, although the

motion intrinsically takes place on the surface of a sphere of radius R, the azimuthal motion is

completely determined by the equation ϕ(t) = ϕ0+Ωt and, thus, the motion of the bead takes place

in one dimension.

Example III: Rotating pendulum

177
178
in the Lagrangian play no role in determining the dynamics of the system. In fact, as can easily

be shown, a Lagrangian L is always defined up to an exact time derivative,

i.e., the Lagrangians L and 𝐿′ = 𝐿 − 𝑑𝑓 /𝑑𝑡, where f(q, t) is an arbitrary function, lead to the

same Euler-Lagrange equations. In the present case,

f(t) = [(m/2) a2ω2] t + (mga/ω) cosωt and thus this term can be omitted from the Lagrangian

without changing the equations of motion.

HAMILTONIAN FORMALISM

The Hamiltonian of a system is defined to be the sum of kinetic and potential energies expressed

as function of positions and their conjugate momenta.

Momentum of a particle, pi, is defined is defined in terms of its velocity 𝑟𝑖̇ by

179
Pi=mi𝑟𝑖̇

The definition conjugate momentum, valid for any set of coordinates, is given in terms of the

Lagrangian:

𝜕𝐿
𝑝𝑖 = 𝜕𝑟̇ (36)
𝑖

In terms of Cartesian momenta, the kinetic energy is given by

𝑝2
𝐾 = ∑𝑖 2𝑚𝑖 (37)
𝑖

Hamiltonian, 𝐻 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 (38)

𝑝𝑖2
𝐻(𝑝, 𝑟) = ∑ + 𝑈(𝑟1 , … , 𝑟𝑁 )
2𝑚𝑖
𝑖

Where p=p1,…,pN

In terms of the Hamiltonian, the equations of motion of a system are given by the Hamilton’s

equations:

𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
𝑟𝑖̇ = 𝜕𝑝 , 𝑝𝑖̇ = 𝜕𝑟 (39)
𝑖 𝑖

Hamilton’s equations are also equivalent to Newton’s equation and like Lagrangian formulation,

they can be used to determine the equations of motion of a system in any set of coordinates.

180