Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

SPC Unit 1

1. Define quality and explain its importance in process improvement.

Quality is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics of a product or
service fulfils requirements.

The essence of quality revolves around meeting customer expectations through these four
key activities:

1) Understanding Customer Needs – Identifying and analysing customer expectations,

preferences, and requirements to ensure that the product or service aligns with their needs.

2) Designing for Quality – Incorporating quality principles into the design and development
phase to prevent defects and ensure consistency in performance.

3) Process Optimization and Continuous Improvement – Implementing efficient processes,

monitoring key performance indicators, and using methodologies like Six Sigma, Lean, or
TQM (Total Quality Management) to enhance quality.

4) Quality Assurance and Control – Establishing standards, conducting inspections, audits,

and feedback loops to ensure compliance with quality benchmarks and drive corrective
actions when necessary.

2. What is Lean? Explain its core principles.

Lean is a systematic approach to improving efficiency and reducing waste in processes
while maximizing value for the customer. Originally developed in manufacturing (notably by
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

Toyota), Lean principles have since been adopted across various industries, including
healthcare, software development, and service sectors.

Core Principles of Lean (The Five Lean Principles): -

1) Identify Value
o Define what is valuable from the customer's perspective.
o Focus on delivering products or services that meet customer needs while
eliminating anything that does not add value.

2) Map the Value Stream

o Analyse the entire process flow from start to finish.
o Identify and eliminate non-value-adding activities (waste), such as waiting time,
excess inventory, defects, and unnecessary motion.

3) Create Flow
o Ensure a smooth, uninterrupted workflow by reducing bottlenecks and delays.
o Implement strategies like continuous improvement and cross-functional
collaboration to enhance efficiency.

4) Establish Pull
o Produce only what is needed when it is needed, rather than pushing excess
production.
o Use a Just-in-Time (JIT) approach to minimize inventory and overproduction.

5) Pursue Perfection
o Continuously improve by identifying opportunities for optimization.
o Foster a culture of ongoing learning, problem-solving, and innovation to achieve
operational excellence.

3. What are the 5S principles in Lean? Briefly describe each.

1) SORT (SEIRI): Eliminate unnecessary items from workplace, leaving only the
essential items needed for current operations.

2) SET IN ORDER (SEITON): Organize and arrange necessary items in a systematic

manner for easy access and efficiency, creating a well-organized workspace.

3) SHINE (SEISO): Clean and maintain workspace regularly to ensure safety and
visually appealing environment.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

4) STANDARDISE (SEIKETSU): Establish and maintain standardized work practices,

procedures, and visual controls to sustain the environments achieved through the
first 3S.

5) SUSTAIN (SHITSUKE): Ensure ongoing adherence to the 5S Principles through

continuous training, monitoring, and improvement efforts, fostering a culture of
sustained organizational excellence.

An Example, in a supermarket, the 5S principles ensure efficiency and organization. Sort

(Seiri) involves removing expired, damaged, or slow-moving products to maintain
freshness. Set in Order (Seiton) arranges items systematically with clear labels and
signage for easy access. Shine (Seiso) ensures regular cleaning of shelves, floors, and
equipment to uphold hygiene and safety. Standardize (Seiketsu) establishes consistent
procedures for restocking, inventory checks, and store maintenance. Sustain
(Shitsuke) fosters continuous adherence through employee training, audits, and
monitoring, creating a disciplined and customer-friendly shopping environment.

4. List and explain the 7 wastes in Lean with examples.

The 7 Wastes (Muda) in Lean are categorized under the TIMWOOD structure, representing
inefficiencies that hinder productivity and value creation.

1) T – Transportation: Unnecessary movement of materials or products between locations

leads to delays and increased costs.
o Example: In a supermarket, frequently shifting stock between storage and
shelves due to poor planning wastes time and effort.

2) I – Inventory: Excess stock beyond immediate needs ties up capital and space while
increasing the risk of damage or obsolescence.
o Example: Overstocking perishable goods like dairy products results in spoilage
and financial losses.

3) M – Motion: Unnecessary movement of employees due to poor workstation layout or

inefficient workflows reduces productivity.
o Example: A cashier repeatedly walking to retrieve bags from a distant storage
area slows down the checkout process.

4) W – Waiting: Idle time caused by delays, bottlenecks, or slow processes leads to wasted
resources and inefficiency.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

o Example: Customers waiting in long checkout lines due to an insufficient

number of active counters.

5) O – Overproduction: Producing more than needed results in excess inventory, storage

costs, and potential waste.
o Example: A bakery in a supermarket making too many loaves of bread that go
unsold and expire.

6) O – Overprocessing: Performing more work than necessary, often due to unclear

requirements or inefficient methods.
o Example: Printing unnecessary promotional receipts for every purchase,
increasing paper waste.

7) D – Defects: Errors and quality issues requiring rework or causing waste of materials and
labour.
o Example: Mislabelling a product leads to recalls, returns, and dissatisfied
customers.

By eliminating these 7 Wastes, Lean principles enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and
improve customer satisfaction.

5. Difference between:
Lean Methodology Six Sigma Methodology

Primary Focus Eliminates waste (non- Reduces process variation and

value-adding activities). defects.

Objective Improves process flow Achieves near-perfect quality (3.4

and efficiency. defects per million opportunities).

Key 5S, Value Stream DMAIC, Statistical Process

Tools/Concepts Mapping, Kaizen, Kanban. Control (SPC), Root Cause
Analysis.

Approach Focuses on speed and Focuses on accuracy and

efficiency. consistency.

Data Less data-intensive; relies Highly data-driven; uses

Dependency on visual tools. statistical analysis extensively.

Implementation Addresses process Targets specific problems with

Scope inefficiencies holistically. measurable outcomes.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

6. Define Six Sigma and explain its significance in quality management.

Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology focused on improving process quality by identifying
and eliminating defects, reducing variability, and enhancing efficiency. It follows a
structured approach, typically DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) for
process improvement and DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify) for new
process development.

At Six Sigma (6σ) level, a process operates with 3.4 defects per million opportunities
(DPMO), achieving 99.99966% accuracy, ensuring near-perfect quality and minimal errors. It
is widely used in manufacturing, healthcare, IT, and business operations to optimize
performance and maximize customer satisfaction.

Sigma level is a key metric used to measure the capability of a process.

It indicates how well a process meets customer requirements and can be used to compare
different processes against each other.
Sigma level measures the number of standard deviations from the mean that a process falls
within its specification limits.
They are used to determine how many defects are present in a given number of items or
actions, with higher sigma levels indicating a lower rate of defects.

7. What is Lean Six Sigma? How does it combine Lean and Six Sigma methodologies?
Lean Six Sigma is a hybrid methodology that combines the principles of Lean and Six Sigma
to improve process efficiency, reduce waste, and enhance quality.

• Lean focuses on eliminating waste (TIMWOOD) and streamlining processes to maximize

value with minimal resources.
• Six Sigma aims at reducing process variation and improving quality by using statistical
tools to minimize defects (3.4 defects per million opportunities at 6σ level).
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

By integrating both approaches, Lean Six Sigma ensures faster, defect-free processes,
improving customer satisfaction and operational performance across industries like
manufacturing, healthcare, IT, and finance. The methodology typically follows DMAIC
(Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) for process improvement and DMADV (Define,
Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify) for new process development.

8. Explain how to calculate DPU (Defects Per Unit) with an example.

Defects per unit (DPU) is the number of defects in a sample divided by the number of units
sampled.

Example of calculating DPU:

Your printing business prints custom stationary orders. Each order is considered a unit. Fifty
orders are randomly selected and inspected and the following defects are found.

o Two orders are incomplete.

o One order is both damaged and incorrect (2 defects)
o Three orders have typos.

Six of the orders have problems and there are a total of 7 defects out of the 50 orders
sampled.
Therefore, DPU = 7/50 = 0.14.

On average, this is your quality level and each unit of product on average contains this
number of defects.

9. Define DPMO (Defects Per Million Opportunities) and explain its calculation.
Defects per million opportunities (DPMO) is the number of defects in a sample divided by
the total number of defect opportunities multiplied by 1 million.

DPMO standardizes the number of defects at the opportunity level and is useful because
you can compare processes with different complexities.

Example of calculating DPMO:

Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

Each custom stationary order could have four defects - incorrect, typo, damaged, or
incomplete. Therefore, each order has four opportunities. Fifty orders are randomly selected
and inspected and the following defects are found.
o Two orders are incomplete.
o One order is both damaged and incorrect (2 defects).
o Three orders have typos.

There are a total of 7 defects out of the 200 opportunities.

Therefore, DPO = 0.035 and DPMO = 0.035 * 1000000 = 35,000.

If your process remains at this defect rate over the time it takes to produce 1,000,000
orders, it will generate 35,000 defects.

10. What is process yield, and how is it measured?

Process yield is a key performance metric used in Lean Six Sigma to evaluate process
efficiency by measuring the proportion of defect-free units at different stages. It is classified
into First Time Yield (FTY), First Pass Yield (FPY), and Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY).

(P.T.O.)
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

Key Takeaways:
• FTY includes reworked units, while FPY measures only defect-free first-time outputs.
• RTY considers the entire process, making it more accurate for evaluating end-to-end
efficiency.
• Higher RTY means lower defects, less rework, and a more efficient process.

Thus, measuring process yield helps in identifying inefficiencies, improving quality, and
optimizing operational performance.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

11. What is Cost of Quality?

The Cost of Quality (COQ) refers to the total cost incurred to ensure that a product or
service meets quality standards. It includes the costs associated with preventing defects,
appraising quality, and addressing defects when they occur. COQ is a critical metric in
quality management as it helps organizations identify areas for improvement and reduce
unnecessary expenses.

COQ is typically divided into four categories:

1. Prevention Costs
- Costs incurred to prevent defects from occurring in the first place.
- Examples: Training, process improvement, quality planning, and preventive maintenance.

2. Appraisal Costs
- Costs associated with measuring and monitoring activities to ensure quality.
- Examples: Inspection, testing, audits, and calibration of equipment.

3. Internal Failure Costs

- Costs resulting from defects identified before the product or service reaches the
customer.
- Examples: Rework, scrap, downtime due to defects, and retesting.

4. External Failure Costs

- Costs arising from defects found after the product or service has been delivered to the
customer.
- Examples: Warranty claims, returns, recalls, loss of reputation, and legal liabilities.

A Scenario:
A company manufactures 1,000 units of a product:
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

- Prevention costs: $5,000 (training employees).

- Appraisal costs: $3,000 (inspection and testing).
- Internal failure costs: $2,000 (rework and scrap).
- External failure costs: $10,000 (warranty claims).

Total COQ = Prevention + Appraisal + Internal Failure + External Failure = $20,000

By analysing COQ, organizations can focus on reducing failure costs by investing in

prevention and appraisal activities, ultimately improving efficiency and profitability.

12. What is DMAIC? Briefly describe each phase in the DMAIC cycle.
DMAIC is a structured problem-solving methodology used in Six Sigma to improve
processes by reducing defects and variations. It consists of five phases: Define, Measure,
Analyse, Improve, and Control.

Phases of DMAIC: -

1) Define
o Objective: Identify the problem, project goals, customer requirements, and
business objectives.
o Key Activities:
▪ Define project scope and objectives.
▪ Identify customer needs (Voice of the Customer – VOC).
▪ Develop a high-level process map (SIPOC – Suppliers, Inputs, Process,
Outputs, Customers).
o Example: A company wants to reduce order delivery time for online purchases.

2) Measure
o Objective: Quantify the current performance and collect data to identify
baseline metrics.
o Key Activities:
▪ Identify key performance indicators (KPIs).
▪ Collect data on defects, cycle time, or errors.
▪ Calculate process capability (e.g., sigma level, defect rates).
o Example: Measure the average delivery time and number of late deliveries in a
month.

3) Analyse
o Objective: Identify the root causes of defects or inefficiencies.
o Key Activities:
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

▪ Use tools like Fishbone Diagram, 5 Whys, Pareto Chart to find root
causes.
▪ Perform statistical analysis to determine process bottlenecks.
▪ Validate cause-and-effect relationships.
o Example: Analysis shows warehouse delays and incorrect address entries as
major causes of late deliveries.

4) Improve
o Objective: Develop and implement solutions to eliminate root causes and
improve performance.
o Key Activities:
▪ Brainstorm and test improvement ideas (pilot solutions).
▪ Optimize process flows and eliminate inefficiencies.
▪ Implement automation or standardization for consistency.
o Example: Introduce an automated address verification system and optimize
warehouse sorting.

5) Control
o Objective: Sustain improvements by monitoring process performance and
preventing regression.
o Key Activities:
▪ Develop control charts and dashboards.
▪ Implement standard operating procedures (SOPs).
▪ Train employees and ensure process adherence.
o Example: Set up monthly audits to ensure delivery times remain within the
target.

13. What is VOC (Voice-of-Customer)? Explain various techniques to capture it.

Voice of Customer (VOC) refers to the collection of customer feedback, preferences, and
expectations regarding a product or service. It helps businesses understand customer
needs, enhance satisfaction, and improve overall experience. VOC can be gathered through
direct and indirect techniques.

Direct VOC Techniques (Explicit Customer Feedback)

Direct methods involve actively seeking feedback from customers through structured
interactions.
• Surveys & Questionnaires: Structured forms collecting quantitative and qualitative
feedback on specific aspects.
• Interviews: One-on-one discussions with customers to gain in-depth insights.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

• Focus Groups: Small group discussions to explore opinions on products, features, or

services.
• Customer Feedback Forms: Forms available online or in-store to capture customer
opinions.
• Social Media Polls: Engaging customers through polls and interactive feedback
sessions.
These methods provide real-time and explicit feedback, allowing businesses to identify pain
points and areas for improvement.

Indirect VOC Techniques (Implied Customer Feedback)

Indirect methods analyse customer behaviour and sentiments without direct questioning.
• Online Reviews & Ratings: Studying customer reviews on platforms like Google,
Amazon, or Yelp.
• Customer Support Interactions: Analysing service calls, emails, and chat transcripts
for recurring issues.
• Social Media Listening: Monitoring social media mentions and discussions to gauge
customer sentiment.
• Web Analytics: Tracking website activity (e.g., bounce rates, time spent) to
understand user preferences.
• Competitor Benchmarking: Evaluating competitor reviews to identify industry-wide
trends.
These techniques help businesses gain unfiltered and organic insights into customer
satisfaction and areas for innovation.

14. Elaborate on VOB (Voice of Business) and VOP (Voice of Process).

Voice of Business (VOB)

VOB represents the expectations, goals, and priorities of the business, focusing on
profitability, growth, and sustainability. It ensures that the organization’s strategic
objectives, financial health, and market positioning are met.

Key Aspects:
- Revenue growth, cost reduction, and profit margins.
- Compliance with regulations and industry standards.
- Customer retention, competitive advantage, and brand reputation.
- Employee productivity, innovation, and operational efficiency.

Example: A company sets a target to reduce operational costs by 15% and increase
customer retention by 10% within a year.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

Voice of Process (VOP)

VOP reflects how well a business process is functioning based on efficiency, consistency,
and performance metrics. It identifies bottlenecks, errors, and areas for process
improvement.

Key Aspects:
- Process cycle time, defect rates, and rework.
- Adherence to quality standards and efficiency benchmarks.
- Capacity utilization and waste reduction (Lean principles).
- Automation and process optimization to improve performance.

Example: A manufacturing unit monitors its defect rate in production and finds that 2% of
products fail quality checks, leading to increased rework costs.

VOB vs. VOP

While VOB focuses on business success, VOP ensures that processes support business
goals. Balancing both is crucial for achieving operational excellence and profitability.

15. How does Kano Analysis explore and measure customer needs?

Kano Analysis is a technique used to prioritize and understand customer preferences in

product or service features. It was developed by Professor Noriaki Kano in the 1980s.

The analysis categorizes features into five types based on how they impact customer
satisfaction. Here are the key categories:

1] Basic Needs (Must-Have):

Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

These are essential features that customers expect to be present. When they are present,
customers don't necessarily become more satisfied, but if they are missing, dissatisfaction
increases.

2] Performance Needs (More is Better): These features directly correlate with customer
satisfaction. The more you have of these; the more satisfied customers will be. Their
absence doesn't necessarily cause dissatisfaction, but their presence adds to satisfaction.

3] Excitement Needs (Delighters):

These features are unexpected and can significantly increase customer satisfaction when
present. However, their absence doesn't lead to dissatisfaction since customers didn't
expect them in the first place.

4] Indifferent Needs:
These features don't particularly impact customer satisfaction, whether they are present
or absent. Customers are neutral about them.

5] Reverse Needs (Undesired):

These features can cause dissatisfaction when present but increase satisfaction when
absent. Meeting these needs may not necessarily make customers happier, but failing to do
so can make them unhappy

16. What is CTQ (Critical to Quality), and why is it important?

Critical to Quality (CTQ) represents the key attributes or characteristics that significantly
impact the quality of a product or service. These attributes are directly linked to customer
needs and expectations. CTQs help businesses translate customer requirements into
measurable performance standards, ensuring that products or services meet quality
expectations.

Importance of CTQ:
• Aligns Business Goals with Customer Needs: Ensures that quality efforts focus on
aspects important to customers.
• Improves Customer Satisfaction: Helps deliver consistent quality, reducing defects and
dissatisfaction.
• Enhances Process Efficiency: Identifies key focus areas, reducing waste and optimizing
performance.
• Facilitates Measurement and Control: Converts subjective customer expectations into
objective, measurable metrics.

Example with a CTQ Tree:

Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

A CTQ Tree breaks down customer needs into drivers and then into specific requirements
that must be met to ensure quality.

Example: Fast-Food Restaurant – CTQ Tree for Customer Satisfaction

CTQ Tree Representation: -

Customer Need: Fast and High-Quality Service
├── Speed of Service (Driver 1)
│ ├── Order ready within 5 minutes (Requirement 1)
│ ├── Efficient queue management system (Requirement 2)
├── Food Quality (Driver 2)
│ ├── Food served at 60°C or above (Requirement 3)
│ ├── Fresh ingredients used (Requirement 4)
├── Customer Service (Driver 3)
├── Staff response time ≤ 1 minute (Requirement 5)
├── Courteous and polite interaction (Requirement 6)

17. "What is a problem and goal statement in context of DMAIC. Describe things to keep in
mind while defining a problem statement.
Additionally highlight the issues with the following problem statement:
"Patient satisfaction is low, and we need to improve it."

In the DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) methodology, a problem

statement defines the issue with measurable data, while a goal statement sets the expected
improvement target.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

Problem Statement
• Defines the current issue, including who, what, where, when, and impact of the
problem.
• Must be data-driven and objective to support root cause analysis.

Goal Statement
• Specifies SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound)
objectives to address the problem.
• Clearly defines the expected outcome after improvement.

Things to Keep in Mind While Defining a Problem Statement

✅ S – Specific: Clearly define the issue and its impact.
✅ M – Measurable: Quantify the problem using relevant data.
✅ A – Achievable: Ensure the issue is within scope for improvement.
✅ R – Relevant: The problem should align with business objectives.
✅ T – Time-bound: Define a timeframe for analysis and resolution.

Issues with the Given Problem Statement

Problem Statement: “Patient satisfaction is low, and we need to improve it.”
❌ Not Specific: No details on how low satisfaction is or what aspect is causing it.
❌ Not Measurable: No data or metrics to define "low" satisfaction.
❌ Not Achievable: Lacks scope, making it unclear where improvements should be made.
❌ Not Relevant: No mention of the business impact (e.g., revenue loss, complaints).
❌ Not Time-bound: No timeline for improvement is mentioned.

Improved Problem Statement (SMART Approach)

"Patient satisfaction scores have dropped from 85% to 70% over the last six months,
primarily due to increased waiting times (from an average of 15 minutes to 45 minutes). This
has led to a 20% rise in patient complaints and a 10% decrease in returning patients."

Improved Goal Statement (SMART Approach)

"Increase patient satisfaction scores to 85% within three months by reducing average
waiting times to under 20 minutes through optimized appointment scheduling and
additional staff during peak hours."
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

18. What is a project charter? List its key components.

A Project Charter is a formal document that outlines the objectives, scope, stakeholders,
and key details of a project. It serves as an official authorization for the project, providing a
clear direction and defining roles and responsibilities.

In DMAIC, the project charter is developed during the Define phase to establish the
foundation for problem-solving efforts.

Key Components of a Project Charter:

1] Project Title & Description – A brief overview of the project, including the problem being
addressed.

2] Business Case – Justification for the project, explaining its impact on the organization.

3] Problem Statement – A clear and measurable description of the issue that needs
resolution.

4] Goal Statement – Defines the desired improvement using S.M.A.R.T. (Specific,

Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) objectives.

5] Scope – Specifies the boundaries of the project (what is included and excluded).

6] Team Members & Roles – Identifies key stakeholders, including project leaders and team
members.

7] Milestones & Timeline – Defines key deliverables and the expected timeline for project
completion.

8] Constraints & Assumptions – Lists limitations, risks, and underlying assumptions that
may affect the project.

9] Metrics & Success Criteria – Defines how project success will be measured (e.g., defect
reduction, process efficiency).

10] Approval & Sign-Off – Includes authorization from senior management or project
sponsors.

Main
components
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

19. Explain SIPOC (Suppliers, Inputs, Process, Outputs, Customers) with an example.

Category Meaning Example (Online Food Delivery Process)

Suppliers Entities providing raw Restaurant, Delivery Partner, Payment Gateway
materials or services
Inputs Resources required to Order Details, Payment, Food Ingredients
execute the process
Process Steps taken to convert inputs Order Placed → Food Prepared → Packed →
into outputs Picked up by Delivery Partner → Delivered
Outputs Final product/service Delivered Food, Payment Confirmation
delivered to customers
Customers End-users who receive the Customer who placed the order
outputs

This SIPOC model helps in understanding the process flow, identifying key stakeholders, and
improving efficiency.

20. What is brainstorming, and how does it help in identifying solutions?

Brainstorming is a creative problem-solving technique used to generate multiple ideas and
solutions in a free-thinking environment. It encourages participants to think openly and
without criticism, fostering innovation and collaboration.

How It Helps in Identifying Solutions:

1) Encourages Diverse Perspectives – Involves participants from different backgrounds to
provide varied insights and approaches.

2) Generates Multiple Ideas Quickly – Promotes rapid idea generation without immediate
evaluation, allowing a broad range of solutions.

3) Enhances Team Collaboration – Encourages teamwork, communication, and synergy in

solving problems.

4) Overcomes Mental Blocks – Helps break rigid thought patterns and encourages out-of-
the-box thinking.

5) Identifies Root Causes and Solutions – Can be structured using tools like mind maps,
affinity diagrams, or the 5 Whys technique to analyze problems deeply.

By fostering creativity and open discussion, brainstorming is a valuable method for

identifying innovative and effective solutions in process improvement and decision-making.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

21. Describe negative brainstorming.

Definition:
Negative brainstorming is a problem-solving technique where participants generate ideas
on how to ‘worsen’ or ‘fail’ a process rather than improve it. Once these negative ideas are
identified, they are reversed to find effective solutions. This method helps in identifying
hidden risks, inefficiencies, and overlooked improvement opportunities.

How It Works:
1. Define the Problem: Clearly state the challenge or goal.
2. Generate Negative Ideas: Think of ways to make the situation worse.
3. Reverse the Ideas: Convert the negative ideas into positive solutions.
4. Evaluate and Implement: Select feasible ideas for process improvement.

Example:

Problem: Reducing long wait times in a hospital.

Negative Ideas:
- Make patients fill excessive paperwork.
- Have only one doctor for all cases.
- Delay test results indefinitely.
- Lose patient records frequently.

Reversed Solutions:
- Digitize patient records for quick access.
- Increase staff and optimize scheduling.
- Implement automated test result tracking.
- Use an electronic medical record (EMR) system.

By flipping the negative ideas, organizations can uncover practical and innovative solutions
for efficiency improvements.

22. What is process mapping? Explain any type of a process map with an example.
Process mapping is a visual representation of a workflow, or a sequence of steps involved in
a process. It helps in understanding, analysing, and improving a process by identifying
inefficiencies, bottlenecks, and redundancies.

A flowchart is one of the most common types of process maps, depicting steps in a process
using symbols such as circles (start/end), rectangles (process steps), diamonds (decision
points), and arrows (flow direction).
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

23. What is a cause-and-effect diagram? Illustrate with an example.

A Cause-and-Effect Diagram, also known as an Ishikawa Diagram or Fishbone Diagram, is a
visual tool used to identify, analyse, and categorize potential causes of a specific problem. It
helps teams systematically explore factors contributing to an issue, facilitating root cause
analysis.

Structure:
The diagram resembles a fishbone, where:
• The head represents the main problem or effect.
• The bones represent major categories of causes.
• The sub-branches list potential causes within each category.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

Common Categories in a Fishbone Diagram:

1) Man (People) – Lack of training, human error, fatigue
2) Machine (Equipment) – Malfunction, outdated technology
3) Method (Process) – Inefficient procedures, lack of SOPs
4) Material – Defective raw materials, supply chain issues
5) Measurement – Inaccurate data, improper calibration
6) Environment – Temperature, workspace conditions

24. What is a Pareto chart, and how does it follow the 80/20 rule?

A Pareto Chart is a bar graph that represents the frequency or impact of different causes of a
problem, arranged in descending order.
It is based on the Pareto Principle (80/20 Rule), which states that 80% of the effects come
from 20% of the causes.

Structure of a Pareto Chart:

• The x-axis represents the different causes of a problem.

• The y-axis represents the frequency or impact of each cause.
• A cumulative percentage line shows the overall contribution of the causes.

Example (Vital Few vs. Trivial Many):

Problem: Customer complaints in an online shopping platform

• Vital Few Causes (Top 20%):

o Late deliveries (40%)
o Defective products (30%)

• Trivial Many Causes (Remaining 80%):

o Poor customer service (10%)
o Difficult return process (10%)
o Website navigation issues (5%)
o Payment failures (5%)

By identifying and focusing on the vital few causes (late deliveries and defective products in
this case), businesses can prioritize improvements that will have the most significant
impact on reducing complaints.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

25. Define a run chart and explain its purpose in process monitoring.

A Run Chart is a simple line graph that plots data points over time to analyse trends,
patterns, or variations in a process. It helps identify whether a process is stable or
experiencing irregular fluctuations.

Purpose in Process Monitoring:

1. Detects Trends & Patterns – Shows increasing, decreasing, or cyclical patterns over
time.
2. Identifies Shifts & Variations – Highlights sudden changes or consistent deviations in
performance.
3. Distinguishes Common vs. Special Causes – Helps differentiate between normal
variations and actual process issues.
4. Evaluates Process Stability – Indicates if a process is running consistently or needs
improvement.
5. Supports Continuous Improvement – Helps teams in Lean Six Sigma and quality
management monitor and enhance process performance.

Example:

26. What is a tier chart, and how does it differ from other visual tools?
A Tier Chart is a structured visual tool used in performance management and continuous
improvement frameworks. It organizes and escalates information across different levels
(tiers) of an organization to ensure effective communication, problem-solving, and decision-
making.

Structure of a Tier Chart:

Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

• Tier 1 (Operational Level): Daily frontline meetings for immediate issue resolution
(e.g., team huddles).
• Tier 2 (Department Level): Departmental performance reviews, tracking key metrics.
• Tier 3 (Managerial Level): Management reviews for cross-functional alignment.
• Tier 4 (Executive Level): Strategic decision-making based on aggregated data from
lower tiers.

Example:
A manufacturing plant uses a Tier Chart for daily production reviews.
• Tier 1: Operators discuss machine breakdowns.
• Tier 2: Supervisors analyse recurring downtime trends.
• Tier 3: Managers decide on preventive maintenance strategies.
• Tier 4: Executives allocate budgets for machine upgrades.

27. How can box-whisker charts be used to analyze variability?

A Box-Whisker Chart (or Box Plot) is a statistical visualization tool used to analyse the
distribution, spread, and variability of a dataset.

It provides a summary of five key statistical measures:

1) Minimum – The lowest observed value (excluding outliers).
2) First Quartile (Q1) – The 25th percentile (lower quartile).
3) Median (Q2) – The 50th percentile (middle value).
4) Third Quartile (Q3) – The 75th percentile (upper quartile).
5) Maximum – The highest observed value (excluding outliers).

Additionally, whiskers extend from the box to show variability outside the upper and lower
quartiles, and outliers (extreme values) are marked separately.

Example:
A company tracks monthly delivery times (in days) for two courier services:
• Service A: Box plot shows a narrow range (consistent performance).
• Service B: Wider IQR and outliers (higher variability in delivery times).

From the chart, the company can choose the more reliable service (Service A) or investigate
and improve the issues causing variability in Service B.

Thus, Box-Whisker Charts are essential for identifying variability, detecting inconsistencies,
and making data-driven decisions in quality control and process improvement.
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

28. Define multivariate charts and explain their importance in data analysis.
Multivariate charts are graphical tools used to visualize and analyse data that involves more
than one variable.

• Within Units (Positional): This refers to variations within a single batch or unit of
production. The example shows cookies within the same batch having slight
differences (presumably in size, shape, or color). This could be due to
inconsistencies in ingredient distribution, oven temperature variation within a batch,
or placement on the baking sheet.

• Between Units (Cyclical): This refers to variations between different batches or units
of production. The example shows a more noticeable difference in the cookies from
Batch 1 versus Batch 2. This could be caused by variations in raw materials, changes
in equipment settings between batches, or even environmental fluctuations
affecting the dough.

• Temporal (Shift-to-Shift): This refers to variations occurring over time, such as across
different days or shifts. The example suggests a gradual change in the cookies over
the two days. This could be attributed to factors like machine wear, changes in
operator technique across shifts, or even seasonal variations in ingredients.

(P.T.O.)
Credits: Rutuja Babar Ma’am and Sunil Shirvaiker Sir

29. What is FMEA? List the key steps involved in performing FMEA.
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a systematic risk assessment tool used to
identify potential failure modes in a process, product, or system, analyse their effects, and
prioritize them for preventive action. It helps in improving reliability, safety, and quality by
proactively addressing possible failures before they occur.

Key Steps in Performing FMEA

Step Step Name Description
No.
1 Identify the Process or Define the scope of the analysis, including
System components, processes, or systems to be
assessed.

2 List Potential Failure Identify different ways in which a system or

Modes process can fail (e.g., equipment breakdown,
human errors, defects).

3 Determine Failure Analyze the impact of each failure mode on

Effects operations, safety, and customer experience.

4 Assign Severity (S), Rate the severity (impact), occurrence

Occurrence (O), and (likelihood), and detection (how easily it can be
Detection (D) Ratings identified) on a predefined scale (typically 1-
10).

5 Calculate Risk Priority Compute RPN = Severity (S) × Occurrence (O) ×

Number (RPN) Detection (D) to rank failure modes based on
risk level.

6 Prioritize and Focus on high-RPN failure modes and

Implement Corrective implement actions to reduce risk, such as
Actions redesigning processes, improving detection, or
preventive maintenance.

7 Monitor and Review Continuously track and update FMEA based on

changes in process, feedback, or new failures.

Example:
In an automobile braking system, an FMEA might identify a failure mode such as "brake fluid
leakage."
• Effect: Reduced braking efficiency → risk of accidents.
• Causes: Faulty seals, wear and tear, improper maintenance.
• Actions: Use high-quality seals, implement routine inspections, and enhance
maintenance training.