Head to www.savemyexams.

com for more awesome resources

Edexcel A Level Geography Your notes

Risk of Tectonic Hazards

Contents
Global Distribution of Tectonic Hazards
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Physical Processes &Tectonic Hazards

Page 1 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Global Distribution of Tectonic Hazards

Your notes
Global Distribution of Tectonic Hazards
Earthquake distribution
The majority of earthquakes (about 95%) occur close to or at a plate boundary
Many occur around the 'Ring of Fire' surrounding the Pacific Ocean
The most powerful earthquakes are usually associated with convergent or conservative plate
boundaries
Intra-plate earthquakes are those which do not happen at plate boundaries - these are often linked to
hot spots or old fault lines

Global earthquake distribution

Volcano distribution
Like earthquakes, most active volcanoes occur at or near to plate boundaries

Page 2 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Many (about 75%) occur around the 'Ring of Fire' surrounding the Pacific Ocean
Volcanoes occur at convergent and divergent plate boundaries Your notes
They can also be found at hot spots in the middle of plates like Hawaii in the central Pacific

Global distribution of active volcanoes

Tsunami distribution
Over 70% of tsunamis occur around the Pacific Ocean
15% Mediterranean Sea, 9% Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, and 6% Indian Ocean
They are caused by tectonic activity
Most occur due to activity at convergent boundaries

Page 3 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Global tsunami distribution 1900-2020

Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries are the locations where the tectonic plates meet
Due to the movement of the plates, these are areas where a range of processes take place
There are three main types of plate boundary:
Divergent - plates moving apart
Convergent - plates moving together

Page 4 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Transform - plates moving past each other or in the same direction at different speeds
There are three categories of convergent boundaries:
Your notes
Oceanic - continental
Oceanic - oceanic
Continental - continental (also known as a collision boundary)

Types of plate boundary

Intra-plate Earthquakes & Volcanoes

Some earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur away from the plate boundaries
These are intra-plate earthquakes and hot spots

Intra-plate earthquakes
Page 5 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

These can occur anywhere

The cause is not fully understood but is thought to be: Your notes
Tectonic stresses causing ancient fault lines to reactivate
The plates are moving over a spherical surface and this causes zones of weakness
The New Madrid earthquake in 1812 and the 2011 Virginia earthquake are examples of intra-plate
earthquakes

Hotspot volcanoes
These occur over stationary magma plumes (columns of rising magma) in the asthenosphere
The tectonic plate moves over the plume leading to the formation of a chain of volcanic islands (Hawaii)
The oldest island is the one furthest away from the plume

Hot spot

Page 6 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Your notes
Key Elements of Tectonic Theory
Earth’s structure
The Earth has three main layers:
The crust
The mantle
The core

Crust
There are two types of crust:
Continental - a thicker (45-50km), less dense layer (mostly granite)
Oceanic - a thinner (6-10km), denser layer (mostly basalt)
The crust consists of seven major and several minor tectonic plates
The Mohorovičić discontinuity - is the boundary between the crust and the mantle is also known as
Moho

Mantle
The mantle is between the crust and core and is the widest layer
The upper mantle has two layers:
The rigid layer above the asthenosphere, which together with the crust, makes up the
lithosphere
The asthenosphere is a semi-molten, plastic type layer, which moves under high pressure
The lower mantle is hotter and denser than the upper mantle
The intense pressure, at depth, keeps the lower mantle solid

Core
The core is made up of two parts:
Inner Core - solid centre, mostly composed of iron
Outer core - semi-molten, mostly liquid iron and nickel
Page 7 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Page 8 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Earth's structure

The tectonic plates move slowly over the asthenosphere

Development of plate tectonic theory

The development of plate tectonic theory

Scientists agree that the plates move, but there is still debate over the mechanisms that cause the
movement

Convection
In the past, the theory of convection currents was used on its own to explain tectonic plate movement
The heat from radioactive decay in the core moves upwards into the mantle
It creates convection currents, which push up into the spreading mid-ocean ridges, forcing them
further apart called the ridge push

Page 9 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Convection currents in the mantle

Other processes are now recognised as being important in plate movement

Seafloor spreading
Palaeomagnetism provides evidence that the sea floor has gradually moved apart at a mid-ocean
ridge
Lava cools and solidifies with the minerals lining up with the magnetic field
The direction of the minerals on either side is a mirror image

Page 10 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Seafloor spreading and palaeomagnetism

Seafloor spreading and palaeomagnetism

Subduction and slab pull

Convection currents in the mantle drag the overlying lithosphere towards each other
A subduction zone is formed when two plates meet
The heavier, denser plate subducts under the lighter, less dense plate
As oceanic crust cools, it becomes denser and thicker, and gravity forces the lithosphere down into
the subduction zone
As it sinks, it drags or pulls the plate with it
This is known as slab pull

Worked Example

Page 11 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

What is the process of slab pull?

[1 Mark] Your notes
A. At constructive plate boundaries, convection currents cause plates to pull apart.
This generates both seismic and volcanic activity

B. At conservative plate margins, plates are pulled alongside each other. This generates seismic
activity after a period of pressure build-up

C. At destructive margins gravity forces the lithosphere to descend into the mantle. The
collision with the other plate causes both shallow and deep seismic activity

D. At constructive plate margins, plates are pulled apart leading to the formation of rift valleys.
These valleys continue to widen and generate significant seismic activity

Answer:
C - At destructive margins gravity forces the lithosphere to descend into the mantle. The
collision with the other plate causes both shallow and deep seismic activity (1)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

There are problems with these plate movement ideas.
There is no simple alternating pattern of new plate ridges and subduction zones, where plate is
made and then destroyed around the globe.
For instance:
Iceland is a hotspot on a divergent plate boundary:
One half of the island is on the North American plate and the other half is part of the Eurasian
plate.

Tectonic Theory Processes and Plate Margins

Each plate boundary has different processes
There are four plate boundary types
Convergent (destructive)
Divergent (constructive)
Collision

Page 12 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Transform (conservative)
Convergent (destructive) boundary Your notes
At a convergent (destructive) plate boundary, the plates are moving towards each other
Oceanic plate and continental plates meet:
The denser, heavier oceanic plate subducts under the lighter, less dense continental plate
This forms deep ocean trenches in the subduction zone
Deep sea trenches are long, narrow depressions in the ocean floor with depths of over 6km
and up to 11km
Trenches are found adjacent to land areas and associated with island arcs
The boundary between the Nazca plate and the South American plate is an example
Both violent volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur at this type of plate boundary
The narrow area where earthquakes tend to occur in the subduction is known as the Benioff
Zone
Oceanic and continental convergent plate boundaries are also responsible for fold mountains
Fold mountains form the highest of the world’s mountain ranges
They are long, relatively narrow belts of mountains
The main fold range is made up of a series of smaller ranges

Page 13 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Destructive plate boundary

When two oceanic plates meet:

The heavier of the two oceanic plates subduct, forming deep ocean trenches and island arcs
Island arcs are a series of volcanic islands, formed in an arc shape, e.g. the Caribbean
Submarine volcanic eruptions, lead to crust building up and rising above sea level

Constructive
At the constructive boundary, the plates are moving apart
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a constructive plate boundary
Both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur at this type of plate boundary

Page 14 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Constructive plate boundary

Collision
When two continental plate boundaries meet, both may fold and deform; e.g. the Himalayas are
formed by the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates
At a collision boundary two plates of similar density move towards each other
As neither plate can sink into the denser rocks below, they are crushed, crumpled and forced upwards,
usually folding in the process
This creates collision fold mountains such as the Himalayas, which are still being formed upwards, at a
rate of 1cm/annum
As there is no subduction, there is no volcanic activity
Earthquakes are the main hazard at this type of plate boundary

Page 15 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Collision boundary

Transform or conservative
Plates move slowly past each other – they do not have to be in different directions but at a different
rate of travel in the same direction
Transform margins are offset at angles, creating zigzag patterns to accommodate movement
They become stuck and pressure builds, the plates eventually 'snap' past each other
These can be called ‘strike-slip’ faults as they strike/stick and then slip/release past each other
The friction causes earthquakes but not volcanoes
Land is neither made or destroyed
Because no subduction occurs, there is no melting of the crust and so no volcanic activity

Page 16 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Process Impact on Magnitude

The processes which occur at the plate boundaries impact on the magnitude of the eruption or
earthquake
The properties of the magma have a crucial role on the magnitude and frequency of eruptions
AWAITING IMAGE

Properties of magma
At divergent boundaries:
Earthquakes tend to be mild and shallow
Eruptions tend to be small and effusive
The eruptions are usually of basalt lava:
Low gas content
Low viscosity
Higher temperature
At convergent boundaries:

Page 17 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Friction and pressure build up in the Benioff zone (the area within the subduction zone where most
friction and pressure build up occurs) causes strong earthquakes
Your notes
Volcanic eruptions tend to be explosive as the magma is forcing its way to the surface
These eruptions are often rhyolite lava:
High gas content
High viscosity
Lower temperature
At transform boundaries:
Plates can stick causing a significant build up of pressure and powerful earthquakes
Comparison of Magma Types

Rock type BASALT ANDESITE RHYOLITE

Characteristics Black to dark grey Medium to dark grey Light colour

% on surface 80% 10% 10%

Silica content 45-55% 55-65% 65-75%

Temp 1000-1200°C 800-1000°C 600-900°C

Viscosity Low Medium High

Gas escape Easy Medium Difficult

Eruptive nature Gentle Medium Explosive

Page 18 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Physical Processes &Tectonic Hazards

Your notes
Earthquake Waves & Hazards
The movement felt during an earthquake is the result of seismic waves
These are the released energy radiating through the Earth
There are three types of seismic waves:
Characteristics of Seismic Waves

Wave type Characteristics

Primary - P waves Body wave

Fastest
Reach the surface first
Travel through liquids and solids
Cause backwards and forwards shaking
Least damaging

Secondary - S waves Body wave

Slower than P waves
Only travel through solids
Cause a sideways motion
More damaging

Love - L waves Surface wave

Slowest
Cause a side to side motion
Larger and energy is focussed on the surface
Most damaging

Page 19 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Seismic waves

Primary and secondary hazards

Every earthquake is unique but they have common hazards which are either
Primary (a direct result of the earthquake)

Page 20 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Secondary (a result of the primary hazards)

Primary and Secondary Earthquake Hazards
Your notes
Primary hazards Secondary hazards

Ground shaking Landslides and avalanches - the movement of the Earth may
trigger the collapse of material down steep slopes
Crustal fracturing (when the
movement causes the Earth's crust Liquefaction - when the shaking causes particles in the ground
to crack) to move further apart causing them to act like a liquid rather than
a solid
Flooding - caused by tsunami

Volcanic Hazards
Primary and secondary hazards
Although they are all unique, volcanic eruptions have common hazards
Primary (a direct result of the eruption)
Secondary (a result of the primary hazards)
Primary and Secondary Volcano Hazards

Primary hazards Secondary hazards

Pyroclastic flow - a mix of dense, hot, rock, ash and Lahars - a mixture of rocks, mud and water which
gases flow down the volcano. They are fast-flowing and
destroy everything in their path
Lava flow - most move slowly enough that they are
not a risk to human life but can reach over 1000oC Jökulhlaups - floods caused by a sudden release
of water and rocks when glacial ice is melted by
Ash falls - can travel many km, causing injuries, the eruption
damage, deaths and disruption to transport
Gas eruptions - gases trapped in the magma are
released during an eruption, they may form gas
clouds which are hazardous to health

Causes of Tsunami
When an earthquake occurs beneath the sea bed this can lead to a tsunami

Page 21 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

As the sea bed jolts water is displaced and forced upwards creating a wave
As the wave approaches the land they slow and the wavelength becomes compressed Your notes
This leads to an increase in wave height: they frequently reach 5-10 meters, but can reach 30
meters
As the wave reaches the shore a vacuum is created and the water recedes rapidly out to sea
leaving the sea bed exposed

Tsunami formation as a result of an earthquake

Other causes of tsunami include:

Landslides which may be due to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions displacing the water
Underwater volcanic eruptions
Rarely they can be caused by a meteor strike
Tsunami usually occur close to plate boundaries and are most common in the area surrounding the
Pacific Ocean - 'Ring of Fire'

Page 22 of 22
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers