Q.

1 Discuss the general properties of an operational amplifier (op-

amp).
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a widely used electronic device with
several key properties that make it versatile for many applications in
analog circuits. Here's an overview of its general properties:

1. High Input Impedance: Op-amps typically have very high input

impedance, ideally infinite, which means they draw negligible
current from the input source.

2. Low Output Impedance: They possess low output impedance,

ideally zero, allowing the op-amp to drive loads efficiently without
significant signal loss.

3. High Gain: Op-amps have a very high open-loop gain, ideally infinite.
This makes them highly sensitive to differences between their
inverting (-) and non-inverting (+) inputs.

4. Differential Inputs: Op-amps amplify the difference between two

input signals while rejecting common-mode signals.

5. Wide Bandwidth: In an ideal op-amp, the gain is constant over a

wide range of frequencies. However, practical op-amps exhibit a
frequency-dependent gain.

6. Virtual Short: When configured with negative feedback, the voltage

difference between the inverting and non-inverting inputs is
effectively zero. This is known as the "virtual short" condition.

7. Offset Voltage: In a real op-amp, there is a small voltage present at

the output even when the input difference is zero, known as the
offset voltage. High-quality op-amps minimize this.

8. Slew Rate: The rate at which the output voltage can change in
response to a change in input voltage is known as the slew rate. It
determines the op-amp's ability to handle rapidly changing signals.
 9. Noise Characteristics: Op-amps introduce some noise to the signal
due to internal electronic components. Low-noise op-amps are
designed for applications where signal integrity is critical.

10. Power Supply Requirements: Op-amps require a power

supply to operate, often represented as ±V. Some modern op-amps
can function with a single power supply.

Q.2Explain the important information that must be spcified in ordeing

an IC.
Discuss in detail about integrated circuit with reference to IC types
manufacturer, designations, developments and ordering information.

Integrated Circuit Types:

Analog (Linear) ICs:

These ICs process continuously variable signals and are used in

applications like amplifiers, sensors, and oscillators.

Digital ICs:

Digital ICs handle discrete signals or binary data and are used in logic gates,
flip-flops, and other digital circuits.

Mixed-Signal ICs:

These ICs combine both analog and digital functionalities, enabling

applications that require processing of both continuous and discrete
signals.

Other IC Types:

Beyond these primary categories, there are specialized ICs like memory ICs
(RAM, ROM), microprocessors, and field-programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs).

IC Manufacturers:

Major IC manufacturers include Texas Instruments, Intel, Analog Devices,

Maxim Integrated, Microchip, Fairchild Semiconductor, ON Semiconductor,
and Infineon.
IC Designations:

Manufacturer's Part Number: This is the unique identifier assigned by

the manufacturer to a specific IC.

Packaging Type: The physical enclosure of the IC, such as DIP, SOIC, PLCC,
or QFP.

Functional Designations: These indicate the specific functionality of the

IC, such as "operational amplifier," "logic gate," or "microcontroller".

IC Developments:

Miniaturization:

IC technology has enabled significant miniaturization of electronic devices.

Increased Density and Performance:

Advances in IC design and fabrication have led to higher component

density and improved performance.

Emerging Technologies:

EDA Tools:

Ordering Information:

When ordering ICs, it's essential to provide the manufacturer's part

number, packaging type, desired quantity, and any specific requirements.
It's also beneficial to check for any special handling instructions, such as
ESD (electrostatic discharge) protection.

Q.3 Draw the block diagram of an typical op-amp and then briefly
explain the function of each block.
Block diag of OP-AMP
The op-amp block diagram typically consists of the following
interconnected sections:
1. Input Stage (Differential Amplifier):
o Function: Amplifies the voltage difference between the
inverting (-) and non-inverting (+) inputs while rejecting
common-mode signals. It sets the foundation for high input
impedance.
2. Intermediate Stage (Voltage Amplifier):
o Function: Provides additional gain to the signal. It is usually
implemented as another differential amplifier and works to
further amplify the differential input.
3. Level Shifting Stage:
o Function: Adjusts the signal's DC level to zero or another
desired value. This step ensures that the output signal is
suitable for the next stage.
4. Output Stage:
o Function: Ensures low output impedance and the ability to
drive external loads effectively. It also provides current gain if
required.
5. Power Supply Section:
o Function: Provides the necessary operating voltages to the
various internal stages of the op-amp.
Q.4 Draw the schmematic symbol for an op-amp showing its pin
numbers and their detail.
Pin Diagram
The op amp 741 pin diagram and the functionality of each pin are explained
clearly in the below section.
 IC 741 Pin Diagram
Pin Details of a Standard Op-Amp (e.g., LM741)
1. Non-Inverting Input (V+, Pin 3):
o Function: The input signal applied to this pin appears at the
output with the same phase (no inversion).

o Usage: Used in non-inverting amplifier configurations.

o Impedance: High input impedance (typically in the range of

megaohms).

2. Inverting Input (V-, Pin 2):

o Function: The input signal applied to this pin appears at the
output with the opposite phase (inverted).

o Usage: Used in inverting amplifier configurations.

o Impedance: High input impedance (similar to the non-inverting

input).

3. Output (Vout, Pin 6):

o Function: The amplified output signal is available at this pin.

o Impedance: Low output impedance (typically a few ohms),

allowing it to drive loads effectively.

o Voltage Range: The output voltage swings between the power

supply voltages (e.g., ±13V for a ±15V supply).
 4. Positive Power Supply (V+, Pin 7):
o Function: Connects to the positive supply voltage (e.g., +15V).

o Usage: Provides the necessary power for the op-amp to

operate.

5. Negative Power Supply (V-, Pin 4):

o Function: Connects to the negative supply voltage (e.g., -15V).

o Usage: Provides the necessary power for the op-amp to

operate.

6. Offset Null (Pins 1 and 5):

o Function: These pins are used to nullify any offset voltage at
the output.

o Usage: A potentiometer is often connected between these pins

to adjust the offset voltage to zero.

5.Inverting & Non-Inverting Linear Circuits?

Inverting Operational Amplifier

In the inverting operational amplifier circuit, the signal is applied at the

inverting input and the non-inverting input is connected to the ground.

So that voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to the voltage at non-

inverting terminal.

Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier

When the signal is applied at the non-inverting input, the resulting circuit is
known as Non-Inverting Op-Amp.
Difference between Inverting and Non-Inverting Op-Amps

Inverting Op-Amp Non-Inverting Op-Amp

The type of feedback used is

The type of feedback used is voltage shunt.
voltage series.

The input and output voltages of this amplifier The input and output voltages
are 180⁰ out of phase. are in phase.

6.What is monolithic ICs?

A monolithic integrated circuit (IC) is a complete circuit or group of circuits
manufactured in a single piece of silicon.

Difference between Monolithic ICs and Hybrid ICs (integrated circuits)

Monolithic ICs Hybrid ICs

Hybrid integrated circuits are

Monolithic integrated circuits fabricated by inter-
which are fabricated entirely connecting a number of
on a single chips. individual chips.
 A monolithic integrated circuit A Hybrid circuit often
has the full circuit constructed ceramic substrate carrying
on a single piece of silicon one or more silicon chips.

Small in size as compared to Large in size as compared to

hybrid ICs monolithic ICs

Monolithic ICs are expensive. Hybrid ICs are less expensive.

Speed is high as compared to Speed is low as compared to

hybrid ICs. monolithic ICs.

Monolithic ICs provide smaller Hybrid ICs provide greater

flexibility in circuit design. flexibility in circuit design.

7.ICs Based on the Number of Transistors

Integrated Circuit Technology Number of transistors
Small Scale Integration (SSI) 1-100
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) 100 -1000
Large Scale Integration (LSI) 1000 -10,000
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) 10,000 -1 million.
8. Feedback Factor (2 Marks)

The feedback factor (β) is the fraction of output returned to the input:

β=Vf/Vout

β=VoutVf

For a non-inverting amplifier:

Β= RinRin +Rfβ=Rin+RfRin
9. What is CMRR?
In op-amps, CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio) quantifies the ability to
reject signals that are common to both input terminals, ensuring that only
the differential signal is amplified.

Que :- Derivation of Closed-Loop Gain, Open-Loop Gain, Feedback

Gain, and Loop Gain for an Op-Amp?

Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier:

Given Below is the Block Diagram of the Voltage Series Feedback
Amplifier

Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier

 The input voltage and the feedback are applied in series in a voltage
series feedback amplifier. This kind of feedback is used to increase
voltage gain, reduce distortion, and improve consistency.
 Feeds back some of the output voltage in series to improve precision.
This controls gain, reduces distortion, and enhances the signal's
precision overall.

Advantages of Feedback Amplifier

1. Feedback improves general stability by reducing sensitivity to shifts
in component parameters.
2. Negative feedback boosts the amplifier's bandwidth through
extending its frequency response.
 3. By reducing distortion caused by harmonics, negative feedback.
4. By maintaining an increasingly linear relationship between input
and output, negative feedback improves linearity.

Disadvantages of Feedback Amplifier

1. Feedback makes the circuit more complicated and difficult to fix and
design.
2. Feedback has the potential to amplify noise in system due to which
SNR reduces.
3. The cost of production is high due to complexity of circuit.
4. Feedback amplifiers may have a small phase margin, which
increases stability problems.
5. Excessive feedback may lead to a reduction in overall gain.

1. Voltage-Series Feedback Amplifier (Series-Shunt Feedback)

 Feedback Connection:
o The feedback network is connected in series with the input
(voltage comparison) and in parallel (shunt) with the output
(voltage sampling).

o Also called Series-Shunt Feedback.

 Input & Output Impedance:

o Increases input impedance (since feedback is series at input).

o Decreases output impedance (since feedback is shunt at

output).

 Gain Stability:
o Stabilizes voltage gain (AvAv).

 Effect on Bandwidth:
o Increases bandwidth due to negative feedback.

 Example Circuits:
o Common-emitter/common-source amplifier with voltage
feedback.

o Non-inverting op-amp configuration.

 Transfer Gain:
o Feedback factor (ββ) is dimensionless (voltage ratio).
o Closed-loop gain: Avf=Av1+AvβAvf=1+AvβAv.